Indigenous/Primal Religions

This term revolves around family or clan identification with animals.

totem

The Lakota religious beliefs hinge on the Sacred ____________________, believed to have come to Earth and provided them with the four winds, or directions, to which the Lakota pray. Every prayer is associated with a compass direction, a corresponding color, and a positive or negative connotation. For example, North, or red, is associated with cold, harsh, but cleansing, winds. South, or yellow, represents the origin of the sun, and is the direction to which Lakota pray for wisdom and understanding.

White Buffalo Calf Woman

In African religions, the most commonly recognized spiritual forces are __________. Thus, respect and concern for the dead is usually much more important than their fear of the gods.

Ancestors (Only in China and Japan can one find such apparent regard for ancestors. In Africa, ancestors are powerful spirits with the ability to either hurt or help the living)

Ancient Egypts: In the 1300s BCE, the pharaoh Amenhotep IV introduced worship of a single god, _____. According to Amenhotep, who changed his name to Ikhnaton to honor the god, this god was the god of light and truth and had created the world. Ikhnaton became the high priest of the new religion, and worship of this god became the state religion. After Ikhnaton's death, the worship of this god ended and Egyptians once again worshiped a variety of deities, including local and regional ones.

Aton

The ____________ ____________ religion is based on the belief that in the time before living memory, called the dreamtime, the spirit ancestors traveled throughout the land giving it shape and creating all living creatures.

Australian aboriginal

The Dogon tradition is divided into three important cults: 1. _____, the cult of the dead 2. _____, or Earth god 3. _____, sacred places and shrines used to honor ancestors and make sacrifices.

Awa, Lebe, Binu

The main gods of the Canaanites were _____ and _____, or Asherah when spoken of in the singular. Baalot represented the male gods, or lords, while Baalim represented the female goddesses, or ladies. Both were said to control Earth and the weather.

Baalot, Baalim

Because the term "primitive" holds connotations of backwardness and simplicity, most scholars now use the term __________, rather than primitive, when describing prehistoric or pretechnological religions.

Basic (Basic religions refers to the beliefs of prehistoric people and people of less developed areas of the world today)

Another culture that incorporates animism, ritual, and a belief in a supreme, otherworldly being is the _________, or Venda. Located more centrally in Africa, their supreme being is Raluvhimba, a god who created the world and lives in the heavens.

Bavenda

Another early civilization, one that developed south of Mesopotamia and north of ancient Egypt, was that of the __________. Like the civilizations of Mesopotamia, they were an agrarian people, and but their religion reflected the importance of fertility and life cycles much more than the religious traditions of Mesopotamia.

Canaanites

Probably one of the most famous of the Native American cultures is that of the __________. Located in the American southeast, in the area of Virginia, Tennessee, Georgia, and North and South Carolina, they incorporate many elements of nature in their creation stories, traditions, and symbolism. Similar to the Lakota, the four directions of the compass hold special significance for them.

Cherokee

The most famous artifacts associated with prehistoric religions are the cave paintings of __________ times, found throughout France and Spain. They were made, it is believed, before hunts in hopes of predicting success.

Cro-Magnon (In addition to cave paintings, other artifacts indicative of Cro-Magnon religion include the famous carved figurines depicting a human female form)

Built sometime around 1400BC, the Oracle of _________ was the most important shrine in ancient Greece.

Delphi

Divination is a method of predicting the future and communicating with spirits through magical means. In African religions, this practice is performed by a variety of means, including casting __________ or reading the pattern of a pattern of ______.

Dice, nuts (Divination, in some African communities, is primarily for investigating the causes of trouble. In others, it is used mostly for prediction)

The religious traditions of the _______ people who now live in parts of Mali, in West Africa, are an example of the complexities of an oral tradition that dates back, some believe, as far as Ancient Egypt.

Dogon

The Australian Aboriginal religion is based on the belief that in the time before living memory, called the __________, the spirit ancestors traveled throughout the land giving it shape and creating all living creatures.

Dreamtime. (This is known as the Dreamtime or Dreaming. They believed that after they died, their spirits would return to be with their ancestors)

According the the Mesopotamian religion, after Timat and Apsu united and created all the other gods, Apsu was annoyed with the new, younger gods because they were loud and unruly, and so he made plans to kill them. Tiamat heard of these plans and convinced her son ____, God of Wisdom, to kill Apsu. This god killed Apsu and created Earth from his body. Angry over Apsu's death, Tiamat conjured the forces of chaos to kill her children, but the great storm god _______ defeated her and created the sky from her body. He is also said to have created humans as gods' helpers.

Ea, Marduk

Native Americans will often undertake a vision quest in order to put themselves in contact with the spirit world. Such an undertaking usually involves a journey into the wilderness and several days of __________.

Fasting (In several cultures, a young Native American on a vision quest is sent away from the family and required to live alone until a vision is received)

Ritual Circumcision is often performed on boys and, in some cultures, girls as puberty rites. Increasingly, however, health concerns are lowering the frequency of this practice, particularly among __________.

Females (Ritual circumcision in males is often regarded as a sign of courage, since it is performed without the use of anesthetic. Female circumcision seems to serve no clear purpose, although it is sometimes argued that it helps control erotic desire)

According to the Mayan creation story, all humans were descended from the ________ who were created from corn. _______ was the name of the corn god. Human sacrifice was practiced

Four Fathers, Maize

Built sometime around 1400BC, the Oracle of Delphi was the most important shrine in ancient __________.

Greece. (The shrine was built over a crack in the Earth from which mind altering vapors emanated. The Oracle would inhale the vapors and prophesy)

In ancient __________, the gods granted a special communication of counsel through individuals known as oracles.

Greece. (These communications, it was believed, were made by Zeus and especially by Apollo, who was the god of prophecy, the Revealer. The most renowned of the oracles were that of Zeus at Dodona, in Epirus, and that of Apollo at Delphi, in Phocis.)

African religions are typically polytheistic, but have a central ______ God who created the world and withdrew from it. This god is above all the lesser deities, spirits, and ancestors. The spirits are life forces that inhabit nature.

High

The ______, a native American culture of the American southwest desert area, leave their spiritual leadership to the village chiefs. Chiefs lead ceremonies performed in the ______, or underground adobe buildings, built in each village.

Hopi, kivas

The Aztec people lived in central Mexico from the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries and were a warrior culture. According to Aztec legend, the god ____________, the god of the sun and war, told the Aztec they would be a great people if they did what he said. They were to go in search of land where they could plant corn and beans. When the time was right, that is, when they were strong enough to defeat any opponent, then and only then should they make war. Any captives they took should be sacrificed to the gods. When the wandering Aztec came to an island and saw an eagle sitting on a cactus with a serpent in its beak, the Aztec would know that this was where they should settle.

Huitzilopochtli

The Aztec state was a theocracy and a warrior culture, so it is not surprising that Aztec religion was focused on death and the end of the world. Aztecs believed that _______ sacrifice could forestall the destruction of the world.

Human

The _______ culture lived in the area that is now Peru, part of Chile, and included northern parts of Argentina. It was a vast expanse ruled by emperors and filled, at its height, with impressive buildings, massive temples, and riches. The Incas' polytheism included numerous gods for nearly every part of nature, including the moon, lake, sea, sun, fire, grain, and so on.

Inca

__________ religions have certain features in common, namely: animism, magic, divination, totem, ancestor veneration or worship, sacrifice, taboo, myth, ritual, and rites of passage.

Indigenous

The Most popular creation myth in the Incan relgion involves two main gods: ____ and __________. This myth tells how Viracocha rose from the water to revive the world, created people from rocks and clay, gave them language and songs, and created the sun, moon, and stars so that he could see. Inti, the sun god, is said to be the father of the first Incan king.

Inti, Viracocha

The ______, or first peoples of Artic Canada, revere the spirit gods of all things, living and nonliving. Shamans, powerful religious leaders of the Inuit, wear animal masks and instruct people about what prayers and offerings appease the gods, sometimes even assessing fines. They believe that the well-being of their people depends on the pleasure of gods such as ______, the goddess of the sea, who only provides food from the ocean if she is pleased with them. Like many cultures, the Inuit have many rules about what they can and cannot do in order to remain in the good graces of the gods

Inuit, Sedna

Ancient Egypt: ______, who was both Osiris' wife and sister, was the goddess of magic and familial love. According to the myth, Osiris' brother Set cut Osiris into pieces and scattered him across the earth. Isis brought him back to life. The cult of Isis and Osiris spread across the Middle East and into Greece and the Roman Empire.

Isis

The ________, another Native American culture, are nomadic hunters located in the western plains of the United States. They also practice polytheism and have strong ties to nature and the spirit world.

Lakota

Another southern Native American culture is that of the indigenous _________ people who live in Chile and parts of Argentina. Their culture is a complex one that incorporates polytheism and animism.

Mapuche

Major native cultures of South America were the ________, ________, and __________; each had a distinctive religious tradition.

Mayan, Incan, Mapuche

Among Native American cultures, a number of taboos exist relating to women who are __________. It is believed that these women have been set apart by the spirit world as ones who can participate in child birth.

Menstruating (A menstruating woman is thought to have special powers. Some believed her gaze could destroy the magic of hunting weapons and that her mere presence in a forest could drive game away permanently)

Like other early religious traditions around the world, the people of what is today known as modern Iran, as well as parts of Iraq, Syria, and Turkey, also had a polytheistic view, and believed that man's goal was to live in harmony with the gods. This area, called ______________, which was bordered by the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, was the birthplace of many civilizations who all shared a belief in the same gods, though oftentimes the names of these gods changed depending on which city-state one lived in.

Mesopotamia

The Mapuche's religious beliefs involve Earth's creator, Ñenemapun, a ruler god of Mapuche called __________, and many gods represented by nature or natural elements, such as the sun, moon, volcanoes, and thunder.

Nenechen

The Mupuche's religious beliefs involve Earth's creator, _________________, a ruler god of Mapuche called Ñenechen, and many gods represented by nature or natural elements, such as the sun, moon, volcanoes, and thunder.

Nenemapun

The African Yoruban tradition practiced in southeast Nigeria and Benin offers examples of some commonalities. It includes an all-powerful god called ________ and a creation story that explains how deities from otherworldly places came to Earth and formed men from clay and rocks.

Olurun

More than 400 lesser gods, or _______, are worshiped by the Yoruban, including one of the most important, ________, the god of blacksmiths, warriors, and anyone who works with metal

Orisha, Ogun

Initially, the sun god Ra was the most important Egyptian deity, and all Pharaohs were said to be his sons. He was supplanted by the god _____ who, as god of the afterlife, judged the goodness and evilness of the dead.

Osiris

The Native American Church's use of __________ has been controversial throughout the twentieth century. The Church used the buttons of this plant for its powerful hallucinogenic effects.

Peyote (The various U.S. courts have had a running battle with the Native American Church over its use of peyote. In 1990, the US Supreme Court upheld state laws that banned the use of peyote in Native American Church rituals)

Although most African religions are __________ and worship a number of gods, there is nonetheless a belief in many religions that there is one High God who created the universe and the lesser deities.

Polytheistic (In such polytheistic religions, a common belief is that this High God withdrew to a distant place after creating the universe and that he allows the lesser spirits and gods to oversee day-to-day activity)

Initially, the sun god ___ was the most important Egyptian deity, and all Pharaohs were said to be his sons. He was supplanted by the god Osiris who, as god of the ________, judged the goodness and evilness of the dead.

Ra, afterlife

The African Bevenda Religion's supreme being is ____________, a god who created the world and lives in the heavens.

Raluvhimba

Spirits in African religions communicate with humans through dreams and signs, and Africans make offerings and sacrifices to the spirits and ancestors. While these are usually simple—such as an offering of food—animal sacrifices may also be conducted on important occasions. ____________, such as ritual circumcision at puberty, are practiced.

Rites of passage

In most Native American religions, the primary purpose of ritual is to communicate and maintain good relationships with the inhabitants of the __________.

Spirit world (A common Native American belief is that there is an unseen spirit world that shares the world with humans)

The __________ was practiced by the Native American tribes of the plains. This ceremony would take place in the summer in a specially built lodge around a ceremonial pole. Often, participants had their flesh pierced with thongs and were then hung from the center pole.

Sun Dance (Participants in the Sun Dance sought a vision and an identification with the divine)

The people of Mesopotamia believed in a creation story that, like other ancient religions, explained the existence of the cosmos and everything in it. They believed that before man existed, there was only chaotic, swirling water. It was separated into the female principle _______, or salt water, and male principle ______, or fresh water. These gods united; from this union, all other gods were formed.

Tiamat, Apsu

__________ is a practice among certain basic religions around the world. It recognizes a relationship between a certain kind of animal and a group of people. The animal becomes sacred to that group and can only be killed under specific ritual conditions.

Totemism. (The best known examples of totemism can be found among the Native American cultures of the Pacific Northwest)

Though the influence of Christianity has had a powerful effect on Native American religion, __________ practices and beliefs from both cultures now are often being practiced side-by-side.

Traditional (Christianity has resulted in most of today's Native Americans considering themselves Christians. Native American Christianity, however, is as complex and variable as the cultures where it is found)

The Mayan culture lived mainly on the _______ Peninsula. Predominantly a farming people, their religion centered on deities related to the harvest and included deities associated with rain, soil, sun, moon, and corn.

Yucatan

Interestingly, the ancient Egyptian religion believed in an __________, which was similar to life on Earth and for which pharaohs would need food, clothes, drink, and furniture—to make the afterlife as comfortable as this one. They would also need their bodies, which led to the science of mummifi-cation. Initially, Egyptians believed that only pharaohs could journey across the river Styx into the afterlife. By the 1500s BCE, however, belief in the afterlife had expanded to include all Egyptians.

afterlife

The Mapuche hold agriculture and fertility festivals to honor their gods and pray for a good harvest, and their beliefs include an ________.

afterlife

The Dogon migrated from their ancestral lands to the areas of Mali and worship __________ as well as spirits they encountered on their journey. Their creation story involves an amphibian-like creature that may or may not have come from outer space.

ancestors

Though there are differing versions of the Incan creation story, all integrate nature and aspects of _________. Symbols of the links to nature are apparent in architecture that remains today.

animism

_________ is the belief that the elements of nature have spirits.

animism

The Hopi creation myth involves otherworldly beings who create and destroy worlds based on the ________ of people. The spirits are said to lead men into the world through holes in the grounds of the kivas. Solstice celebrations also feature prominently, as the Hopi try to live in harmony with nature and celebrate all that each season brings.

behavior

Though it was not typical for northern Native Americans to practice human or animal sacrifice, there is history of human sacrifice and __________ occurring in some cultures.

cannibalism

Some African traditions, especially in West Africa, have male and female priests and temples, though most do not. They often utilize special _______ or healers, similar to medicine men and women.

curers

Animism, ancestor veneration, and _______ may be aspects of African religious traditions.

divination

Similar to many religions in the African tradition, the Dogon believe in the power of _________. The Dogon look to diviners to interpret patterns they have made in the sand as well as footprints made by foxes, animals considered sacred by the Dogon. These diviners are called upon to answer everyday questions as well as life-changing ones

divination

____________ is the act predicting the future and things concerning the future.

divination

Ancient Middle Eastern traditions had several important beliefs in common. These included a belief in pleasing god in order to receive benevolent treatment, the belief that god was the source of all existence, mythical stories that explained good and evil, fertility and harvest rituals, and the belief that kings or leaders had some sort of _______ lineage.

divine

Some African religions have ________. In some religions, their powers of foretelling the future are important. In others, they are called upon to figure out why people are experiencing various problems.

diviners

The ancient Middle East, or the geographic areas that are now Iran and Egypt, as well as parts of Iraq and Syria, were home to many ________ religious traditions. Some of the aspects of these early traditions later influenced the major religious traditions of Islam, Christianity, and Judaism that also began in that region of the world and still endure today.

early

In Mesoptamia, religion played an important part of daily life. Man, it was believed, was created to serve the gods and, in turn, the gods would provide for man through protection, good harvests, and fertility. If man neglected the gods, ____ would be inflicted on him.

evil

Due to the agrarian nature of the Canaanite civilization, ___________ ceremonies, both symbolic and actual, were extremely important. To ensure that the gods would send rain and that harvests would be abundant, temples housed sacred prostitutes. These prostitutes were required to have sexual relations with chosen men who represented Baalot. By impregnating the sacred prostitutes, the community would continue to grow. In addition, the gods would be pleased and send rain and bountiful harvests to the Canaanites.

fertility

Bavenda revere their ancestors as ____ and their king as a living ancestor. Children and elderly are thought to be closest to ancestors, the former because they are so new to this world and the latter because they are so close to leaving this world.

gods

Incas believed that ________, or elements of nature that were considered sacred, should be incorporated into niches in buildings so that offerings could be made frequently.

huacas

The Yoruban god ____ represents the tradition's belief that gods can foretell the future. This god is believed to use nuts, signs, and squares of the number four to predict the future.

ifa

In Mapuchen tradition, the forces of evil take the forms of people or of animals, and funeral rites must be performed carefully in order to prevent the evil witches (______) from capturing the spirit of the deceased and turning him or her into a ghost.

kaku

Divination was a large part of the religion of the Mesopotamian cultures. Priests interpreted the will of the gods through the appearances of everyday items, the behavior of birds, dreams, and even the entrails of sacrificial animals. Because the gods had already determined the future, diviners were employed to unravel the messages that described the intent of the gods. Often rulers had personal diviners, while common people had to turn to the services of a _______ diviner.

local

The Mapuche look to spiritual healers called _____, as well as herbalist healers called ______.

machu, ampive

_________ is the control of nature by manipulation.

magic

Mesopotamians developed intricate legends, stories, and hymns about their gods, some of which later evolved into the stories and hymns of _______ religions that later developed in this part of the world, such as Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Islam, and Christianity.

major

The main gods of the Canaanites were Baalot and Baalim, or Asherah when spoken of in the singular. Baalot represented the ______ gods, or lords, while Baalim represented the ______ goddesses, or ladies. Both were said to control Earth and the weather.

male, female

Bavenda incorporate many rituals involving music and dance. Their religious traditions include a coming of age ceremony for young men and women that features a python dance and courtship rituals that involve musical dances with flutes made of bamboo. As with other African religious traditions, the Venda see Raluvhimba and zwidutwane in all aspects of _______, whether it is the rumble of thunder, a flood, or a great harvest. If the gods are not happy, the result is a force of nature.

nature

Native North American religions are generally animistic and polytheistic. Followers of these religions believe that nature is alive with spirits and that people must live in harmony with nature. Some religions also have a central Supreme Being and a creation story that involves powers or gods creating the world. This Supreme Being is above the things of Earth. The spirits of ________, not the Supreme Being, answer the prayers of the people.

nature

The Cherokee believe that the world was created at the _________, and they worship the sun to ensure good fortune, health, and successful crop yields. Their connection to nature is further solidified in their belief that _____ was created by the sun and moon to care for man. Shamans in the Cherokee tradition are identified at birth and often raised separately.

new moon, fire

In ancient Greece the gods granted a special communication of counsel through individuals known as __________.

oracles

In Mesopotamia, each town or city-state had a temple that housed a unique ________, and people believed that the patron god actually resided in the temple. Temple priests were tasked with tending to the patron god, including providing clothing, food, and other human necessities on a daily basis. The temple god was even carried around (in statue form) once a year to visit the city and, on occasion, to visit the temples of other patron gods. In addition to worshiping gods at public temples, individual homes included shrines for personal worship and sacrifice.

patron god

A ___________ is a ceremony or ritual of the passage which involves a significant change of status in society. Puberty or marriage would be examples.

rite of passage

In most Native American religions, the primary purpose of ________ is to communicate and maintain good relationships with the inhabitants of the Spirit World.

ritual

Northern Native American religious traditions include ceremonies, rituals, and taboos. Dance and the use of magic are part of many of these practices. There is no special priesthood or hierarchy in northern Native American religions, though some incorporate medicine men and women, sometimes called ________. These individuals have the power to heal, but they also have the power to cause illness and death.

shamans

Incas believed that natural elements—caves, mountain peaks, and other objects—all resembled ________ and could be used as places of worship. Inca culture, however, was not without violence. Like the Aztecs, the Inca practiced human and animal sacrifice as a part of their religious tradition.

shrines

________ is certain people, places, and things considered either too holy or too "unclean" to touch.

taboo

Due to the nature of oral tradition and the need for enslaved Yorubans to hide their religious tradition from their masters, gods' names and genders as well as the details about the tradition's creation story ______ slightly from region to region.

vary

Lakota and other tribes practice __________, the rite of passage for the young entering puberty. A young man is sent away from his group to live with no food and little else until his vision appears. Often, the vision includes an animal that becomes the young man's totem. People still go on vision quests, usually when faced with a life-defining decision.

vision quest

Native Americans will often undertake a _________ ________ in order to put themselves in contact with the spirit world. Such an undertaking usually involves a journey into the wilderness and several days of fasting.

vision quest

Pyramidal stepped temple tower that is an architectural and religious structure characteristic of the major cities of Mesopotamia.

ziggurat

The mythical belief system of the Bevenda religion prominently incorporates water at its center. Venda believe that water spirits, or _____________, live at the bases of waterfalls and need to be kept happy and fed with offerings of food. These water spirits are half visible in this world and half visible in the spirit world.

zwidutwane