Individuals and Society P/S MCAT

Higher Mental Functions:

"independent" learning and thinking Ex: solving a puzzle as a kid. You have a hard time as a kid, but a parent gives tips and strategies to sole the puzzle and the second time you can internalize these ideas and do it on your own. Higher mental functions cultivated by tutor from who we model our behavior.

The Just World Hypothesis

"you got what you deserve" Predictable result as a consequence for our actions. Noble actions performed/good deeds by an individual are rewarded, while evil acts/deeds are always punished. VERY INCORRECT

Andrew Meltzoff

(1977) published study that questioned theory that understanding between self and others happens soon after birth. In his experiment he suggested that babies are born with a built-in capacity to imitate others. EXPERIMENT: a baby 12-21 days old, baby copies sticking tongue out. Baby imitating experimenter. Was it true imitation or something else? Picture you opening mouth, baby should also open mouth. Had to ensure it wasn't a reflex or conditioning either. When baby had pacified in mouth, and experimental stuck out tongue, baby imitated them after the pacifier was taken out. Condition: experiments facial expression had to be blank during this experiment. Suggests we are born with built-in capacity to imitate others. Built in social mechanism which is critical for our species to learn through others. Evidence suggests we have mirror neurons, when one fires another fires when we observe same action performed by other person (found in areas of brain that are motor (parietal lobe), premotor cortex (frontal lobe), and somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe). Can be helpful in understanding imitation further.

Stereotype threat

(negative consequence of stereotyping) - self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype Ex: blue and red students, both perform equally. Next time, implement negative stereotype about blue students, blue students perform worse. What stereotype threat is - exposure to a negative stereotype surrounding a task can actually cause decrease in the performance of an individual performing task. Stereotype threatens performance.

Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation

- done to try to understand why some babies have stranger anxiety and some don't. This research focused on mother-child interactions primarily (not child-caregiver ones) Experiment 1: mother and hild in room with a stranger (stranger was part of experiment) Child allowed to exaccoplore. Neither stranger nor mother interact with child. Purpose: would they explore the space? 2. Then mother leaves the room (without calling too much attention to herself) and quietly leaves. Baby left alone with stranger. Purpose: what is child's response when mother leaves (does child keep playing or does child start crying) 3. Then mother returns. Mother + stranger + baby in the room. Purpose: what is child's response when mother returns (are they happy, sad about her return, or ignore her) Researchers found children could be split into 2 groups - those with secure attachment and those with insecure attachment. 60% were secure attachment 40% were classified as having insecure attachment WORD DOCUMENT Others were avoidant - were not upset when they left the room and were indifferent to her when she returned.

3 step process for social identity theory:

1. All humans "categorize" ourselves and others without really realizing it, part of human nature. Categorize in order to understand objects/identify them. Ex: categorize to groups (which we belong to and those different) 2. "Identification", when we adopt identity of the group, we see/categorize us as belonging - behaving and acting like a student if we identify as students (the role starts to feel like a norm) Emotional significance to identification - our self-esteem starts to become bound with this group identification and sense of belonging 3. "social comparison" - how we compare ourselves with other groups (or two different groups) We do this to maintain our self-esteem. Critical to understanding prejudice. Leads to competing.

Prejudice is made up of 3 components:

1. Cognition (Stereotype) - fundamental underlying thought, overgeneralized belief (cognition) 2. Affect - prejudice carries an emotional component 3. Discrimination (tendency for prejudice to lead to BEHAVIOR) - capacity to carry out a behavior and act on prejudice (ABC Model) At the core of prejudice is often fear of frustration.

Kinds of Social Support

1. Emotional support - affection, love, trust, caring. The type that involves listening and emphasizing. Can include physical support (hugs/pats on back). Provided by those closest to you (family/close friends) 2. Esteem support - expressions of confidence/encouragement. Things people say to let you know they believe in you. Can come from family + friends but also therapists, teachers, coaches. 3. Informational support - sharing information with us or giving us advice. can come from family/friends or even articles online. 4. Tangible/instrumental support - financial support, material goods, or services. taking some of your responsibilities so you can deal with other problems. Can come from a bank, people who bring you dinner when you're sick, or lend you money between jobs. 5. Companionship support - the type that gives someone sense of social belonging. Companionship while you engage in an activity.

Biology causes of aggression

1. Genes: evidence; identical twins, if one is more aggressive the other is as well. Not the case with fraternal twins 2. Brain structure impact on aggressive behavior: no one brain spot controls for aggression but there are circuits in brain that can inhibit/facilitate aggression. The "amygdala" (part of limbic system which is composed of structures from telencephalon, diencephalon, and mesencephalon) facilitates our fear response, and when stimulated triggers aggressive behavior. The frontal lobe is responsible for planning, decision making, and importantly impulse control, and correlation studies have shown criminals have decreased frontal lobe activation. 3. Testosterone:

4 sources to determine if person has strong/weak sense of self-efficacy

1. Mastery of experience - strengthens self-efficacy 2. Social modeling - seeing people similar to ourselves complete the same task increases self-efficacy 3. Social persuasion - when someone says somthing positive to you, helps overcome self-doubt 4. Psychological responses - learning how to minimize stress and control/elevate mood in difficult/challenging situations can improve self-efficacy a person with low self-esteem can have high self-efficacy, and vice versa. Ex: think perfectionist

Social Behaviorism stages

1. Preparatory stage - interaction through imitation, ex. play with pots and pans when parents are cooking. As they grow older, focus more on communication with others instead of simple imitation, and get practice using symbols (gestures/words). "Can't take perspective of others" 2. Play stage - more aware of social relationships, reflected in children's tendency to pretend play as others, like firefighters, doctors, etc. Mentally assuming perspective of others and acting based on their perceived point of view. Focused on role taking: mentally taking perspective of another person and acting on that perceived viewpoint. Children consider attitudes, belief, and behaviors of individuals closest to them. 3. Game stage - start to understand attitudes/beliefs/behavior of "generalized other" (society as a whole). With this comes whole new understanding of society. Children start to realize that people perform in ways not only on what they personally believe but what also in the ways society more broadly expects of them and they understand that people can take on multiple roles (people can be more than just moms, doctors, or teachers - they can be multiple things @ once). Also realize others have opinions about them and those perceptions others have are based on how they act and what they say. They begin to be influenced by these perceptions and are concerned by reactions of others to what they do. But NOT EVERYONE HOWEVER. This final stage led to development of the "I" and "me" Me = what ew learn through interactions with others. How individual believes the generalized other perceives us, the social self, and learned through interactions with others. I = the response of the individual to the "me" Our "ACTUAL SELF" is the balance between the I and the me. Me = society's view, the part of self that is formed in interaction with others and social environment, and I = individual identity stepping in and our personal responses to what society thinks.

Development to Higher Mental Functions (Cognition) from Elementary Mental Functions (Social interactions):

1. requires cooperative and collaborative dialogue from a MKO (more knowledgeable other) - a person with a better understanding than the learner. The interaction with the learner + MKO -> learning + Higher M.F. (independence) 2. Zone of proximal development - part where most sensitive instruction/guidance should be given. Ex. between ability of not being able to do something and being able to do something. ZPD is the link between the zone of can't do and can do. Allows learner to use their skills they already have and expand learning to things they can't do (yet) Puzzle Ex: not being able to sole puzzle to being able to solve puzzle. The guidance in this zone which allowed for the transition from a set of skills you already had to a more expanded skills through learning. 3. Language - the main means by which adults transmit info to children, and a powerful tool of intellectual adaptation. Ex. private/internal speech, when people speak out loud to themselves - happens most in children. Way for children to plan activities/strategies, and aids their development. Language is an accelerator to thinking and understanding. Those children who engage in lots of private speech are more socially competent. Language develops from social interactions for communication purposes. Language leads to thought (inner speech) - think for ourselves/independence of executing skills.

Erving Goffman

1940 studied nature of people's interactions He noticed people planned their conduct, people want to guide and control how they're seen, and act differently alone than in public. They put the best presentation of themselves that they can. Says people do all these things through process of dramaturgy.

Covariation model

3 cues of Kelley's model: consistency (time), distinctiveness (situation), consensus (ppl). with high consistency, there are internal factors Ex: take flaky friend, friend forever cancels on us. Consistent behavior over time. High level of consistent behavior over time, we are more likely related to them as a person as opposed to the world working against them in this situation When CONSISTENCY is high = attribution to internal factors. DISTINCTIVENESS of a situation = attribution to external factors third factor in covariation model - "group lateness" - if you arrive late at meeting but if you are with 20 other people who are also late, high degree of CONSENSUS. When a lot of people demonstrate same behavior, we are more likely to attribute behavior to situational cause. CONSENSUS of people = attribution of external factors

Role exit

Also called social role exit. When an individual stops engaging in a role previously central to their identity and the process of establishing a new identity. Ex: When an individual retires from a long career and must transition from the role of worker with deadlines and responsibilities to a leisurely life or when an individual becomes a parent and has to change their lifestyle.

Parenting styles

Authoritarian parenting: very strict, break will of child punishment Authoritative: also strict, consistent and loving but more pragmatic and issue-oriented and listen to children's arguments. Balance responsibility with rights of child. Discipline. Permissive parenting/indulgent parenting: non-directive and lenient. Few behavioral expectations for child.

Types of personality more subject to prejudice:

Authoritarian personality - who are very prejudice: They're obedient to superiors, but don't have much sympathy for those they deem inferior to themselves - they are oppressive, rigid thinkers, inflexible with their viewpoints - people probably had a harsh bringing/lots of discipline growing up. use prejudice to protect their ego and avoid confronting aspects of themselves because they're always focused on others.

Bias

Cognitive bias is the tendency to think in certain ways. Cognitive biases often cause deviations from standard of rationality or good judgment.

Kohlber's Three Levels of Moral Development

Each have 2 sub-parts. Three level acronym = (PCP - Pre-conventional, Conventional, Post-conventional). 1. Pre-Conventional (pre-adolescent) 1a. Obedience vs. Punishment - reasoning is based on physical consequences of actions, so obeying the rules is a means to avoid punishment Age: children 1b. Individualism and Exchange or Self-Interest - recognize not just one right view by authorities, different individuals have different viewpoints. Doing what is right for personal gain. 2. Conventional 2a. Societal norms/acceptance - good boy and good girl - authority is internalized, but not questioned, and reasoning is based on group person belongs. Individual is good in order to be seen as good by others, emphasis on conformity. "to gain acceptance and to avoid disapproval" 2b. Law and Order / law abidance - maintaining social order, child is aware of wider roles of society and obeying laws. "to follow rules" 3. Post-Conventional (moral) 3a. Social contract - individual becomes aware that even though rules and laws exist for greater good, there are times this law works against interest of particular people. Ex: Heinz situation. sometimes law must be broken to reach these principles. 3b. Universal Ethical Principle - people develop own set of moral guidelines, which may or may not fit the law, and principles apply to everyone. People who uphold and believe in these have to be prepared to act towards these even if they have to obey consequences/disapproval/imprisonment. Very few people who reach this stage. Ex: Ghandi, Nelson Mandela, MLK. "to promote social welfare" SEE DIAGRAM FOR ABRIDGED VERSION.

Psychosocial development theory

Erikson Proposed personality/identity development occurs through one's entire lifespan. Each stage depends on overcoming a conflict, and success/failure at each stage affects overall functioning of theory. 8 stages

Primacy Bias

First impressions are important-- extra emphasis on information that reinforces first impression

Concentric circles of stigma

Four circles from deep to superficial: First circle: self (individual who is stigmatized) - core circle - media, society, family interactions can be internalized by an individual and can lead to avoidance, denial of condition, suffering of mental health conditions, and no longer participating in society. Second: family (close social group) - family can be shunned by society (if member has stigmatizing condition), or family might shun individuals themselves. Ex: isolate the individual who is stigmatized against in the family and keep isolate/as secret within family. Third: wider society - interactions between self and society like education/employment/health care and stigmatizing views can affect individual to get a job (earning an income)), in healthcare, etc. A great intervention to stop societal level stigma is the use of legislation and anti-discrimination laws. Fourth: media (important external society) - outer circle, major source of stigma, because can depict conditions as being dangerous, violent, moral-failings We need to have guidelines for journalists to reduce the stigma in society.

Psychosexual theory

Freud believed early childhood was the most important age/period in which personality developed. Most of personality developed by age of 5. Early experiences plays a large role in personality development. This development influences behavior later in life. 5 stages - if completed successfully, result is a healthy personality. If issues aren't resolved at a certain state, then fixation occurs.

Psychological cause of aggression

Frustration-aggression principle, the idea that frustration creates anger which can spark aggression. Almost anything can cause frustration. Reinforcement-modeling: can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement. Parents who give into demands of child during temper tantrums lead to more temper tantrums in future. (also if parents yell/hit each other, child will pick up on behavior too)

Carl Rogers

Humanistic theory, believed self concept had 3 components:

Self worth vs self esteem

It is possible to feel "high self-esteem", to think I am good at something, yet still not feel convinced that I am lovable and worthy. Self-esteem doesn't last without self-worth.

Types of altruistic behaviors

Kin selection: people act more altruistically to close/kin than distant/ non-kin people. Same when people share last names, especially true if people have rare last names. Reciprocal altruism: people are also more cooperative if they will interact with that person again in the future. Giving with expectation of future reward. We feel more obliged to help someone else if they have helped us. Cost signaling: giving signals to others that person who's giving has resources. People have increased trust in those they know have helped others in the past. Signals that the person is open to cooperation.

Charles Cooley

Looking glass self Socialization describes the process by which people learn the attitudes, behaviors, and values expected by their culture/community. Socialization occurs through observation of/interaction with people who we are surrounded by - those close to us and everyone else. Socialization shapes our self-image and self-concept, and Charles Cooley used the term "looking glass self" to describe this process - idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others. Thought this happened in 3 steps: 1. how do I appear to others? 2. what must others think of me? (are we: shy, intelligent, funny, awkward) 3. revise how we think about ourselves (based on correct OR incorrect perceptions on others evaluations) CRITICAL ASPECT OF THIS THEORY: Cooley believed we are not actually being influenced by opinions of others, but what we IMAGINE the opinions of other people to be.

Kohlberg Moral Development Theory

Moral theory of development, different from previous 3, but based on cognitive development similar to Vygotsky. Also looked at children (common). He told stories to children and gauged their response. Most famous story was the Heinz Dilemma, his wife was dying from cancer and drug was discovered made by local chemist that could save her. Chemist charged 10x the price it took to make the drub, and more than Heinz could afford. After asking family, he only had half the money, and explained the chemist his was dying and asked if he could have the dug for cheaper/pay the chemist at a later date. Chemist refused. Heinz, desperate to save his wife, then broke into chemist's office at night and stole the drug. Asked children questions like what if Heinz didn't love his wife, if person dying was a stranger, should he have stolen it, and should police arrest chemist for murder if woman died. After analyzing these, he came up with 3 moral stages, each split into 2 for a total of 6 stages.

What causes some to have secure attachment while others have insecure attachment?

Parenting style - mothers who are sensitive to child and responsive had secure attachment, and those insensitive/unresponsive formed insecure attachments. Insensitive parenting does not mean child abuse/neglect. Difference in parenting style can be observed by a parent looking at phone while child calling for attention - do they continue to look at the phone when child is calling for attention or do they stop looking at their phone.

Techniques for when the "just world hypothesis" is threatened

Rational techniques: 1. Accept reality 2. Prevent or correct injustice - with charities, sign a petition or changes to legal system Irrational techniques: 1. Denial of the situation - refuse to accept the situation 2. Reinterpreting the events - change our interpretation of the outcome, the cause, and the character of the victim. Ex: if a victim of violence that was hurt, they were really hurt, we can reinterpret outcome (wasn't tht bad, it was a trip, it could have happened to anyone), reinterpret cause (victim was working in a bad neighborhood), or reinterpret character of victim (I always thought she was a good person but I now realize she probably isn't, she was hanging around with the wrong people, etc.)

Rogers' 3 components of self-concept

Self-image: what we believe we are, the view we have of ourselves Self-esteem/worth: how much value we place on ourselves Ideal-self: what we wish/aspire to be When the ideal self and real self are similar, the result is a positive self-concept. When the ideal self does no match the real self, the result is incongruity.

Two types of self-efficacy:

Strong and weak. Strong: people recover quickly from setbacks, have strong/deep interest, strong sense of commitment to activities, and enjoy challenging tasks. Acronym: RISE Weak: focus on personal failures/negative outcomes, avoid challenging tasks, quickly lose confidence in personal abilities, and believe they lack the ability to handle difficult tasks and situations Acronym: FALL

Vygotsky Sociocultural Development

Studied the role social interaction plays in development of cognition. Focused on social interactions between growing children and interactions with those around them in development of cognition-higher order learning. Passed away early (38), so much of his theory was left unfinished. Said babies have 4 elementary mental functions: Attention, sensation, perception, and memory. (AMPS) These elementary mental functions are developed into more sophisticated and mental processes - "higher mental functions". Most develop from skillful "tutor" - a model, ex. parent/teacher/someone older. Child tries to understand and internalize.

Self-esteem

The respect and regard one has for oneself

Harlow Monkey Experiments

What causes attachment (a close bond) between mother and child? Scientist used to think it was food (mom has food) Separated monkeys from mothers at young age (controversial today), then given choice between 2 substitute mothers (vaguely monkey-shaped structures) that were placed in cage with baby monkey. First option was wire mother - vaguely face like shape on top of it, and chicken wire wrapped in cylinder. And in middle was feeding tube. This mother provides food. Second mother was the cloth mother - same shape/size as mother, but instead of chicken wire had soft cloth blanket around it, so this mother can provide comfort. Baby monkeys overwhelmingly preferred cloth mother - spent a large majority of time clinging to her. If had to eat, tried to eat while staying attached to cloth mother. Shows that attachment basis to mother is due to comfort, not food! Cloth mother acts as a "secure base" - eventually monkey is comfortable enough to explore world/cage on its own, because it knows cloth mother will still be there. If monkey became anxious, it would come back to cloth mother.

Projection bias

When we assume others share the same beliefs we do

Recency bias

Your most recent actions are important--> people place emphasis on your more recent actions/performances

Imitation

a type of individuals social influence, one of most basic forms of social behavior. Begins with understanding there's difference between others and our self.

Self Concept

aka Self-identity how someone thinks about/perceives/evaluates themselves, aka self-awareness Derived from self-esteem and self-efficacy

Development of self-concept has 2 parts

an existential self and then a categorical self.

Aggression

any physical/verbal behavior intended t harm or destroy. Aggression/aggresive behavior comes from combination of 3 things: biology, psychological, socio-cultural

Universally attractive

attractive across cultural backgrounds Things like youthfulness, skin clarity/smoothness, body symmetry. For women, low waist-hip ratio and full breasts. For men, muscular chest and V-shaped torso (broad shoulders, narrow waist)

Stereotype

attributing a certain thought/cognition to a group of individuals, and "overgeneralizing" Examples: people who were glasses are smarter, people who live in cities are abrasive can involve race, gender, culture, religion, shoe size Disadvantages: it's accurate Advantages: allows us to rapidly assess large amounts of social data

Optimism bias

belief bad things happen to others, but not to us.

Self-efficacy

belief in one's abilities to succeed in a situation / to organize and execute the course of action required in a particular situation. Developed by Bandora due to his dissatisfaction with idea of self-esteem. Self-efficacy is more specific than self-esteem.

Charles Cooley

believed everyone a person interacts with in a lifetime influences their identity, Mead thought this was more restricted - only certain people can and only in certain periods of life. Mead also thought that the way others influence us changes across the lifespan.

Social stigma

can be fueled or associated with several other key concepts: stereotypes, prejudices, discrimination. Derived from symbolic interactionist perspective. Calls attention to how certain individuals or groups face social disapproval. Often, social disapproval is associated with a behavior, identity, or other attribute that is considered deviant by others

Altruism

care about welfare of other people and are acting to help them. Beneficial to society and also individuals.

Primary groups

closest members of the group to you. Close intimate long-term relationships. Ex: in a wedding the bridesmaids/groomsmen

Categorical self

comes once baby realizes they're separate (after existential self) - becoming aware that even though we're separate/distinct objects/beings, we also exist in the world with others, and each of these objects/entities have properties Ex: age and gender are the first categories babies learn, then skills and size. Then as we grow older, compare ourselves with others - traits, comparisons, careers (more developed categories)

Dramaturgical Approach

concepts of front stage self, back stage self, impression management, and communication are all relevant to the dramaturgical approach to social interactions. Dramaturgy uses the metaphor of theater to understand social interactions. When interacting, people are assumed to act in accordance with the expectations of their audience.

Role conflict

conflict/tension between two or more different statuses, unlike role strain. The different status compete for someone's time. Ex: someone who is a parent, friend, husband, and worker. "defined as the stress that people feel when they are confronted with incompatible role expectations across different social statuses they occupy."

George Herbert Mead

developed the idea of social behaviorism, the mind and self-emerge through the process of communicating with others (beginning of symbolic interactionism) Infants + children were not influenced by others in any way, merely imitate others, and see themselves as being the focus of their own world and don't care what others think of them. Lack ability to take perspective of another person - related to Paget's concept of egocentrism.

Perceived similarity

explains why some couples stay together because over time interests/beliefs are more aligned. Become similar as time goes on. Perceived similarity can be just perceived - they think the other person is similar to them (but actually aren't similar to their partners

Stigma

extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society

Secondary groups

formal, impersonal, temporary, and business-like relationships, based on a limited purpose/goal Usually short-term, and only see them sometimes.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

greatly influenced by Freud, but his theory was based on culture and society. Key difference between his and Freud's theory was he suggested there was plenty of room for growth throughout one's life. (not just childhood) Assumed a crisis can occur at each stage of development, between needs of individual and society. Successful of 8 stages result in acquisition of basic virtues and healthy personality. Virtues are characteristic strengths that can be used by ego to resolve future conflicts Failure in certain stages results in reduced ability to move on to further stages or unhealthy personality/sense of self. SEE DIAGRAM

Scapegoats

group of people towards whom the aggression is directed Ex: Jews during WWII

Social Identity Theory

has 2 parts: Personal identity: things unique to each person like personality traits Social identity: includes the groups you belong to in our community.

Social Influences (Branch of Social Psychology)

how imitation, roles, reference groups, and culture are all parts of social influence. Looks at individual thoughts, actions and feelings are influenced by social groups.

Similarity

how similar someone is to us is huge predictor of attraction. Close friends and couples are more likely to share common attitudes, beliefs, interests, and values. We tend to partner up with people who match our age, race, religion, and economic status/educational level. We like people are like ourselves in looks.

Attribution Theory

how we explain behaviors of others around us Internal (dispositional attribution) - about them External (situational attribution) - environment Behavior of others often have a combination of internal and external factors Theory relates to the ways in which people attempt to explain various behaviors and events.

Similarity bias

implies we will not befriend people different from us

Culture and socialization

important contributions of society to our personal development, emphasizes interaction between the people and culture in which we live.

Variable duration

in between primacy and recency - you might remember some actions a bit more if an action is unusual or elicits an unusual response in you.

Master Status

in perception, an individual's master status supersedes other identifying traits Ex: if a woman feels that her role as a mother is more important than her role as a woman, a daughter, etc. She is more likely to identify herself asa mother and to identify with other women who label themselves as such.

False consensus

is when we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not.

Xenocentrism

judging another culture as superior to one's own culture

Ethnocentric

judging someone else's culture from the position of your own culture Viewing our own cultures to be superior.

Self-serving bias

mechanism of preserving our self-esteem, more common in individualistic cultures. If we succeed it's due to our internal/personal qualities, but if we fail no hit on self-esteem because likely to do with things outside of our control.

Facial attraction

more important than body attraction also averageness is attractive For women, high forehead/small chin and nose/full lips/high cheekbones are attractive. For men, strong chin, jaw, cheekbones, and long lower face.

Existential self

most basic part of self-concept, the sense of being separate and distinct from others awareness that the self is constant/consistent throughout life EX: if someone says they are "tired: that isn't them ALL the time, that is NOT their self-concept because self-concept is consistent Child as young as 2-3 months realize they exist as distinct entities due to the relationship child has with the world. When someone smiles, someone smiles back. They have a relationship with objects and they are separate/distinct from that.

Geographical proximity

nearness is most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships People date, like, marry people of the same neighborhood or those that sit next to in class or work in the same office. Why is proximity so powerful for relationship formation? 1. We aren't going to fall in love with someone we don't meet.

Frustration Aggression Hypothesis

not personality based, but more emotional. ex: someone getting frustrated can lead to prejudice. When someone's frustrated, frustrations turn to aggressive impulses, and direct that towards the employer. But you may lose your job, so you keep bottling up the aggression - and rechanneled it somewhere else. Often towards minorities. Display aggression towards other people - scapegoating. Often seen in times of economic hardship.

Fundamental attribution error

occurs when a person assigns too much weight to internal causes rather than external factors when looking for causes of another person's behavior. Problematic when looking at complex patients. Ex: obese patients who can't exercise because they are struggling with poverty We under recognize the situational and social problems, and healthcare barriers they can have , blaming them for their own problems.

Socio-cultural cause of aggression

people act more aggressively in groups (ex. riots) - deindividuation - you gain an anonymous status when you are with large groups of people. Social scripts - when people are in new situations they rely on social scripts, or instructions provided by society on how to act. Ex: violent video games, violent media

Status/Social Status

person's social position in society. Each person has many statuses, Ex: one individual can be a son, student, and friend. They affect the type of interactions we have - some situations people are equal, you are inferior, or superior.

Primary group vs. In Group

primary group - core social group ingroup - in by identification (ethnicity, religion, etc)

Freud's psychosexual development

proposed psychological development in childhood developed through these stages, and concept of tension and pleasure - the build-up of tension could cause a lot of concepts *remember libido and fixation First 5 years of life are crucial. Oral stage (age 0-1): libido/sense of interaction is centered around baby's mouth (rooting/sucking reflex), infant derives pleasure via oral stimulation (tasting/sucking) If fixation here, issues with dependency or aggression. Also smoking or biting nails, suck thumb, overeating Anal stage (age 1-3): centered around anus, Ex: toilet training, leads to developing control/independence, encouraging child to feel positive outcomes and helps child feel capable and productive If fixation occurs, have problems with orderliness and messiness Phallic stage (3-6), children discover difference between males and females. Oedipus complex and Electra complex at this stage. If fixation occurs, cause homosexuality/exhibitionism Latent period - no focus of libido. A period of exploration, libido present but directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. Important in development of social and communication skills. Children concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests. Play is between same gender children. Fixation causes no issues here. Genital stage - back on libido, because individual develops strong sexual interests. No adult fixation - person is mentally healthy. Goal: establish balance between various life areas

Mere exposure effect

repeated exposure to novel people or objects increases our liking for them. More often we see something, more often we like it. Applies to everything - music, nonsense syllabus, numbers, objects, etc. There are exceptions, but in general true. Especially with attraction. Exceptions: you start hating orange juice, start to despise song you hear over and over on the radio. This is known as "burn out" but most things do not violate the mere-exposure.

Devil effect/reverse halo effect

self explanatory if you know the halo effect

Achieved status

status you earn after working for it Ex: Olympic athlete

Ascribed statuses

statuses you can't change, given from birth Ex: prince of royal family

Self-fulfilling prophecy

stereotypes can lead to behavior that affirm the original stereotypes

Ethnography

study of particular people and places. It is a more of an approach than a single research method in that it generally combines several research methods including interviews, observation, and physical trace measures. Good ethnography truly captures a sense of the place and peoples studied.

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

suggests some people are altruistic due to empathy. High empathy = high in altruistic behaviors. Those who score higher on empathy are more altruistic. Early developmental trajectory - helping behaviors begin early. Some newborns cry when other newborns cry (they recognize babies distress) helping behavior begins around age 2, children share toys and play act helping/altruism. Age 4 begin actually helping. Says that altruism might be a normal human behavior because it occurs at such a young age. We have a tendency to help other people without an alternative motive.

The Halo Effect

tendency of people have inherently good/bad natures, rather than looking individual characteristics Ex: the physical attractiveness stereotype - believe attractive people have more positive personality traits. *as if someone has a halo over their head. If we have an overall positive first impression, we start to analyze all their skills based on our overall first impression rather than just skills. They get an overall boost in each of their skills because of our impression. Ex: we wold perceive that the person is much better at other skills not demonstrated.

Sexual dimorphism

the degree of difference between male and female anatomical traits. (We are attracted to strong facial features of opposite gender)

Cultural imperialism

the deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture. In-group: the one we are connected with. "US" Out-group: "THEM" Those who we do not feel connected too In-Group favoritism Out-group derogation Group polarization

Stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

Cultural component of attribution theory

the fundamental attribution error occurs more in individualistic societies who place an emphasis on individual achievement (NA and Europe - cultures) In individualistic cultures (Western - Europe/America), success is over-attribute to internal and failure is over-attributed to external/situational factors. In collectivist cultures (Easter - Africa/Asia), success is attributed to external and failure to internal factors

Reference groups

the group to which people refer in evaluating themselves. People's beliefs, attitudes, behaviors. Constantly looking for external groups that align with our beliefs/attitudes/behaviors. These groups influence our social decisions - our own beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors.

Cultural relativism

the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing through the lens of one's own culture. Judge and understand another culture from within their culture. No absolute right or wrong Important to consider: can falter if someone uses it to conduct activities that violate rights of humans no matter what culture they're from. THE GREEN INFERNO EXAMPLE, STILL VERY ****ED UP NO MATTER IF ITS A CULTURAL PRACTICE.

Averageness is attractive

turns out unique traits are not most attractive. Attractiveness is related to averageness. Most respondents pick 32 face average "face morph (faces digitized and averaged)" as most attractive, and 2 face average less. Even if you average 32 different faces, still looks the same as the average of 32 other faces. Suggests there's some prototype

Hypothesis of Relative Deprivation

upsurge in prejudice/discrimination when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to. Relative depreciation is the discrepancy of what they are entitled to and what they get Extent and how quickly this happens can lead to collective unrest - an upsurge in prejudice and discrimination. Linked to frustration aggression hypothesis.

Actor-Observer Bias

we are victims of, but others are willful actors. (same thing as saying: circumstance) We attribute our personal behavior on external but others' behavior on internal factors

Roles

we have many different roles that define what we do and who we are. We adopt social norms - the accepted standards of behavior of a social group, use it to guide our behaviors. Norms provide order in society and we use them to conform to expectations of that role/expectations of others. We respond to their approval when we play our roles well, and we get disapproval when we play roles badly. Expect people to behave in way that fits that role, and have them fit the role even more when roles are stereotyped. Ex: Stanford Prison Experiment

Self stigma

when individual can internalize all the negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory experiences they've had, and may begin to feel rejected by society, avoid interacting with society. Ex: someone who has HIV/AIDS and feels the social-stigma may go into denial that they have the condition, experiences hits from self-esteem and suffer from depression (negative mental health), and display behaviors that isolate themselves from society and stop them from taking part in vocation/education/other social activities for example (further isolating them) SEE DIAGRAM FOR HELP

Role Strain

when you can't carry out all obligations of a status, tensions within one's status. Causes individual to be pulled many directions by one status. Ex: a student has to write two papers, five reading assignments, give a speech, two lab reports in one week.