Information Literacy Chapter 4 (From the Book).

Critical Analysis

Applying rational and logical thought while deconstructing information to assess its value. Lack of critical analysis increases the risk of using inaccurate and inappropriate information, making poor decisions based on poor information, and losing time. Critical analysis applies to print materials and resources, multimedia resources, and information on the Internet.

High-Quality Information

Arranged in a logical and consistent manner. The information is broken down into logical sections or parts and is well laid out. Headings describe the content accurately. Visual aids, such as graphs, photos, charts, and tables, provide additional information and do not distract readers from the material. Visual aids are able to stand alone; you can understand the information from the graphic without requiring explanation from the text.

The three most critical criteria to examine are

Author, owner or sponsor, and web address.

Literature Review

Comes after the introduction and provides a brief overview of the relevant studies or articles that support or provide background information on the current study. The purpose of the literature review is to provide a solid foundation for the topic, using published information. One of the goals of scientific research is to add to the scientific body of knowledge in the field. Demonstrating the relationship of the current study to existing research clarifies that correlation and summarizes the scientific body of knowledge that relates specifically to the topic of the current study. The author must objectively review highlights, relevant findings, issues, controversies, successes, or failures of previous research.

Accuracy

Covers a wide scope including: accurate facts accurate reference to other resources no typographical errors no grammatical or punctuation errors logical assumptions logical flow of information logical conclusions based on information accurate visual aids, such as charts, graphs, and diagrams appropriate coverage of material.

Several clues will help you determine an author's authority, which will give you an idea about the credibility of the information:

Expertise: Look for signs that the author is an expert in the topic area and brings knowledge to the material. Expertise can come from academic degrees, work experience, previous publications, and extensive research. Consider conducting an Internet search using the author's name to find any organizations with which the author is associated, other publications he or she has written, news stories about the author, or other references. For some fields, biographical references provide information about many experts in a variety of fields. For example: Contemporary Authors, by Thomson-Gale Publishers, provides biographical and bibliographical information on fiction and nonfiction authors. Marquis Who's Who publishes biographical references in many different professional fields and geographical areas. Academic background and credentials. Look for evidence that the author has a credible academic background and qualifications for writing on the topic. Self-proclaimed experts or those who are merely impassioned about a topic may not be qualified to write about it. In research, a credible author might have a Ph.D. (or at least a Master's degree) in a related field, signifying that he or she conducts research or teaches in the area. In medically related areas, the author might be an M.D. or other medical professional with a qualified background pertaining to the topic. Work-related or other experience. In the business world, clues to credibility might be evident in work experience rather than academic credentials. Many credible web sites have "Biography" sections listing the author's work-related experience. You also could conduct an Internet search to see if the author's name is associated with a company or professional organization. In most search engines, putting the name in quotes facilitates the search. For example, try a search for "Bob Smith" in www.google.com. The company or organization's web site can provide additional information about the author. If the author is a professor at a university, for example, you might find out past and current research topics, courses taught, and committees on which the author serves. Licensure or certification. In some areas, an author might have a license or certification in a specific area, such as an MCSE (Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer), which indicates that he or she has passed an examination in Microsoft operating systems. If you find a credential and want to see if it is valid, conduct a search using the credential's name or letters to find the sponsoring organization and the explanation of the specific credential. Most organizations state exactly what the certified individual must know to gain and maintain certification and also may provide a list of currently certified individuals in a directory. For some professions, such as those in healthcare or financial fields, professionals are often licensed or otherwise regulated by the state. Maintaining a state credential frequently requires meeting continuing education or other professional certification requirements. Searching a database of state credentialed professionals in a specific field can provide information regarding an individual's credibility. Affiliation. Look for the author's affiliations, such as with academic institutions, professional organizations, government agencies, and other professional groups. Authors who are affiliated with recognized organizations tend to be more credible. In many fields of study, professionals are expected to maintain membership in professional organizations. Also, check the affiliation itself. For example, Texas International University and the American Heart Disease Association sound credible, but they are not real, even though the names are similar to authentic and highly credible organizations. Research the organization if you are not familiar with it and its purpose. Other publications. In some cases it is useful to find out what other publications to which the author has contributed or produced. A simple search using the author's full name in quotes on www.google.com may turn up additional publications. Books typically have an "About the Author" page or information on the book jacket that provides a list of the author's previous publications. Too, reputable authors often are cited by other scholars. Contact information. In many publications, information about the author is available so you can contact the author either directly or through the publisher of the resource. Look for telephone numbers, mailing addresses, and e-mail addresses.

Conclusions

Finally, the conclusions section explains the major inferences that can be drawn logically from the study and outlines why the findings are important to the industry or the general population. Authors often make recommendations for future research, including other topics that can be studied formally to help answer the research question or expand on the findings. A conclusion must be supported directly by results of the study versus the author's opinion.

Narrowly Focused Treatment

Gives details on a small portion of a larger topic. This is why you have to thoroughly understand your need for the information, and then decide how in-depth the information has to be. For scholarly journals, review articles give an overview of the major findings of a topic. Each article referenced in the overview article follows with details on a narrow subtopic. In many research projects, broadly scoped sources are sufficient for describing the context or background of a topic. Then, more narrowly focused sources are used to detail the main topic of the project.

Accessability

Many features make a multimedia object accessible to individuals who have various disabilities. An example of a design feature of a web page is an ALT tag for links and images to assist sight-impaired viewers.

Information

Presented from a specific point of view. In a neutral point of view, only the facts are presented, without bias.

Scope

Refers to how broad or narrow the topic is. An overview topic typically is broad in scope, with few details.

Bias

The facts are presented with prejudice. An information source should be critiqued to see if it has any prejudice or bias in the way it is presented. For example, if a health food store publishes a newsletter highlighting the benefits of taking the vitamins sold in the store but fails to discuss any research suggesting that taking the vitamins has no benefits or negative consequences, the newsletter has a biased point of view. Opinion pieces, commentaries, and book reviews are all written with a specific point of view. Most news agencies are said to have one point of view or another (e.g., conservative or liberal). You will have to study the content to determine the point of view. Content should be evaluated based on whether the author conveys personal emotions or prejudices, makes unjustified claims or excessive claims of certainty, or distorts facts to support a point of view.

Verifiable

The information is based on facts that can be authenticated by another credible source or several credible sources. The best information cites the original or primary resource. The resources have to be available for checking to verify that they exist and actually support the statements and facts in the content. On a web page, check the links to see if they go to where they say they will go and if the linked source is also credible. For print references, consider checking the listed references to ensure that they support what has been stated. Also, compare the facts or statements made in one source with what is generally accepted.

Facts

Things that can be proven to have happened or to exist. Opinions are statements or judgments or beliefs, which may or may not be true. Facts should be backed up by a credible source and should be verifiable. You could go to a primary source to find the same information. Keep in mind, though, that opinions can be written to look as if they are facts.

Tips for creating biased content

excessive claims of certainty appeal to emotion personal attacks too good to be true something for sale associated cost or fee unsupported claims of fact ignoring or omitting contradictory facts or views appeals to popular opinion before-and-after testimonials suggestive or negative innuendos magnification or minimization of problems presentation of information out of context sarcastic or angry tone advertisements

The three basic types of journals and magazines are:

scholarly journals, (2) trade publications, and (3) popular magazines. Each of these types has a different purpose and target audience. Collectively, they hold a wealth of useful information, but it is important to recognize the differences between and among them to critically evaluate the appropriateness of their content.

Evaluating Information

Based in large part on common sense. Still, to understand evaluation criteria, it helps to understand how information is published and communicated.

Abstract

A brief synopsis of the article. In business proposals and other documents, the abstract is commonly called the executive summary. An abstract typically is limited to a specified length (e.g., 500 words) and must include the basic components or facts of the article. It provides the context and reasons for doing the study or writing the article. A good abstract explains briefly how the study was accomplished, identifies the major results, and states the conclusion. It also may state briefly why the study is important. Reading the abstract of a scholarly journal article before delving into the entire article can save a significant amount of time by revealing whether the information is appropriate for your purpose. If you determine that the article is appropriate, you then can read the article in its entirety for more details.

Methods

After the context and need for the study have been discussed in the introduction and the highlights from relevant previous studies have been summarized, the author explains in detail how the current study was conducted. Sound research methods contribute to the validity and reliability of the study. In addition, if another researcher wants to re-create the study, he or she could follow the methods described in the article. The description of the methods also allows the article's reviewers to determine if the study was conducted in a logical manner and if sound research standards and procedures were followed. If a tool, such as a questionnaire, was used, it should be included as an exhibit at the end of the article. If it is not included, readers should be able to contact the authors to gain access to the tool that was used.

Subsidy Publisher

Also known as a vanity press, these publishers charge authors a fee to publish their work. In contrast to a traditional publisher, which accepts the risk of publication and ensures high-quality materials by providing editorial services and marketing or distribution of the product, the role of the subsidy publisher usually is limited to actual production of a book. The editorial and marketing tasks are the author's responsibility. Products from joint venture publishers can be of excellent quality, and many well-received books have come from these publishers. As with any resource, however, you must assess the accuracy, quality, and credibility of the information.

References

Authors of articles in scholarly journals are required to state in their articles exactly where they get any information or facts. The source of a fact is indicated in the text of the article where the fact occurs and is called a citation. The complete source for the citation is provided in the reference list at the end of the article. Each journal provides its own style guide, including, among other requirements, specifically how to cite sources.

Trade Publications

Can be excellent sources of information, but they must be viewed critically for accuracy, credibility, and appropriateness. Authors of trade publications typically are specialists or practitioners in a given field. They write their articles for others in the same industry who face the same issues and have the same informational needs. Most information in trade publications is practical in nature, reporting on issues such as procedures, materials, technology, equipment, events, and policies or processes. Typically, trade publications have no formal review process other than the basic editorial review, which ensures that the article is well-written and does not contain grammatical and typographical errors. In these publications, authors use the technical language of the field because the article is written for other industry professionals. Information is presented in charts, graphs, diagrams, and photographs, as appropriate. Although the authors often mention where they acquired their information, some do not cite their resources formally, in which case it may be difficult to find the original or primary source of the information. A few examples of the many hundreds of trade publications are: Advertising Marketing and Research Reports Industrial Equipment News Concrete Products Building Design and Construction Business Solutions Computer Graphics World Veterinary Practice News Hospitality Technology

Information Literate Individuals

Critically analyze information and its sources to ensure that it is useful.

Multi-Media Resources

Graphics, video resources, audio resources, simulations, animations, clip art, photographs, vodcasts, podcasts, and software. These resources can provide valuable information in an interesting delivery format. As with print and Internet resources, however, this type of information must be evaluated critically to determine if it is appropriate, credible, and useful for your purposes. All information should be evaluated in a similar way, regardless of how it is delivered or presented. Apply the same criteria as you would for a print or an Internet resource: Evaluate the resource. Evaluate the authority. Evaluate the currency of the resource and information. Evaluate the content itself.

Plaigiarism

Highly unethical, illegal, and can lead to being reprimanded, fired, or sued. Using information that has been verified by others is acceptable and necessary to substantiate new research, but the original author or source of the information must be given proper credit.

Different kinds of information are needed for different purposes. Following are examples of the best formats for various types of information, based on information flow and timing:

History. History is an example of a topic that does not necessarily require up-to-the-minute information. For some information projects, however, understanding historical facts is necessary. For example, if you are writing a report about an event in history, understanding the context in which that event occurred might be critical to the effectiveness of your finished project. You might want to know about the geographical area, the society and its culture, the political environment, the time period, and the area's demographics. Because this information does not change from the past, a book or an encyclopedia might be an excellent source of the information. Historical sites on the Internet would provide the same type of data. Conversely, if you are seeking a contemporary perspective on a historical event, a more recent information source would be more appropriate. Technology. Technology provides an example opposite from that of history. Because changes in technology occur rapidly, the information a book contains about a given technology is likely to be outdated by the time the book is published. Take the example of a book describing a computer software program. An updated version of the software is likely to be available by the time the book is published. A better resource for this type of information would be a help manual published with the software or documentation from the web site of the company that publishes the software. Behind-the-scenes information. In some cases, an understanding of what occurred just before an event is important. This kind of information may be in the form of personal correspondence (e.g., memos, e-mails, letters, electronic mailing lists), various types of documentation (e.g., diaries, journals, logs, personal notes, lab notes of an experiment), and other media (e.g., newsletters, conference programs). This information is not always easy to find or access, but it can help to explain why an event occurred or to document the chronology of events. Immediate information. Live news information sources, such as those found on the Internet, provide immediate information. In many cases, the facts of the event (who, what, where, when, how) are provided, but the background or "why" of the event may not be known yet. This kind of information has to be critiqued carefully, as live reporting may be inaccurate when there is little time to check the facts. Current information. Current information includes information that is reported a few hours to a few days after an event. TV and radio reporting, newspaper reporting, and Internet reporting all provide this type of information. There may have been time to research the background of the event and to check the facts. The content may also include analysis, statistics, interviews, historical context, and other relevant information. Older information (weeks). Magazines provide information several days to weeks after an event. Because these information sources take longer to publish the content, they allow sufficient time to check facts, research the background and historical context, find supporting data, conduct interviews, and enhance the information. Often these information sources report for a specific purpose, so the content must be critiqued for bias or a specific slant. The information is less current than live or next-day reports, and although there is time to check facts, accuracy is not guaranteed. Older information (months to years). Information that is several months, or even years, old is published in scholarly journals, conference papers, research reports, and books. These information sources require time to conduct detailed studies or analyses of data or events, review by peers or editors, and physical publication of the resources. Journals and conference papers that are found online adhere to the same process, so the time requirement is similar. An advantage is that these resources can provide more detailed, thorough, and accurate information. Older information (years). Information that is several years old typically is published in book form. Researching and writing a book may take months to years, followed by additional time for review, editing, and production. This type of resource can provide accurate and detailed information with supporting background, analysis, and commentary. Typically, books provide much more information than the information forms previously described. They can support one perspective or provide numerous viewpoints. Currency of the information is sacrificed for volume and depth. Reference resources. Publications such as encyclopedias, handbooks, and statistical compilations all provide factual and typically unbiased information. These information sources sacrifice currency for detail and accuracy. They require time to check the facts and ensure accuracy, compile the information, and publish the resource. Sometimes these kinds of resources can be found on the Internet, but, like online journals, they require time for gathering and organizing the information, and additional time to input the data into a database.

Functionality

How well do multimedia work within the environment in which they are being viewed? For many multimedia choices, technical aspects determine how or if the information can be viewed. If viewing multimedia from a CD-ROM or DVD, the application should work without error on the computer. Multimedia viewed on the Internet should load relatively quickly and should state clearly if any additional plug-ins or software is needed for viewing. For Internet multimedia, viewers often are required to download a special application, such as QuickTime, Java, ActiveX, or Acrobat Reader. In most cases, these plug-ins are free and easily accessible on the Internet. A good web site has a link to the pages where the software can be downloaded.

Publishing Information

Influences the content and defines how the information can be used effectively. Thus, the publication timeline becomes one of several criteria for evaluation. When an event occurs, radio and news agencies such as CNN may be able, via satellite systems, to give live reports of the event. Newspapers and magazines, however, take much longer to report the facts of the same event. You may read the facts in a newspaper by the next day's edition, but a magazine may take weeks or even months to publish the report. The timeline for publication of information in scholarly journals and books is even longer, because of more complex review and publication processes. Large-volume resources, such as encyclopedias, directories, and handbooks, may not publish the information for many months, if not years. Even though Internet technology allows almost instantaneous publication of the information, a person must update the web site constantly. Other than news web sites, information on the Internet is outdated quickly.

Publisher

Is responsible for the actual publication or web site in which the information is located. Resources can be published by a university press, a trade press, a governmental agency, a not-for-profit organization, a specialized press, or an individual. Academic print products often are published by university presses, which tend to be scholarly and highly reputable. These publishers put their materials through a formal and rigorous screening to ensure that they meet the standards and goals of the publishing organization. The content often undergoes a peer review, which gives it high credibility. Trade presses publish trade journals and magazines, which tend to be less formal in their review of information and typically do not require a peer review of their content.

Examples of the many hundreds of scholarly journals are:

Journal of the American Medical Association (commonly called JAMA) Journal of Geology Reviews of Modern Physics Journal of Infectious Disease Journal of Computer Information Systems Journal of International Business Studies Journal of Interior Design The American Professional Constructor

Keywords

Many scholarly journals include a list of words that help to identify the main concepts in the article. These keywords show how the article has been categorized in various search engines and library indexes. In the example of the behavior change article, keywords might include: behavior change theory, nutrition behavior, eating behavior, weight loss, and obesity. These keywords can be used to search for articles on similar topics in journal indexes and search engines.

Sponsor

May be an organization or an individual. A large and reputable organization, such as the American Heart Association, tends to be more credible than an unknown individual. Also, determine if the sponsor advocates a specific viewpoint or philosophy. This information usually can be found in the "Home" or "About Us" portion of a web site or on promotional print materials. When evaluating sponsors, look carefully at why they are presenting the information. This is important for print and Internet resources alike. Does the sponsor have a mission associated with the content? For example, the mission statement of the American Heart Association is "to build healthier lives, free of cardiovascular diseases and stroke" (American Heart Association, 2013). You would expect credible information on health, disease, and related information from this association. Because it is a not-for-profit agency, it does not have the ulterior motive of selling products or making money from sponsoring this information. In contrast, a manufacturer of a healthcare product is in the business of making money by selling that product. Therefore, information sponsored by this kind of organization should be evaluated more critically to determine the accuracy and credibility of the content.

Introduction

Most journal articles begin with an introduction explaining why the authors have conducted the study or written the article and why the information is important. For example, in our nutrition behavior article, the author may start with a brief discussion of obesity as a significant problem in the United States, partially caused by poor nutrition. Most introductions end in some kind of purpose statement or thesis statement for the article. These statements explicitly state the intent of the study or article. In formal scientific studies, the purpose statement is replaced by a hypothesis, in which the authors make a statement that they will attempt to support with the results of their specific study.

Currency

Refers to the timeliness of the information. For a print product, currency is determined by date of publication. As you will recall, different types of publications require different timelines. To review—newspapers are published a few hours after the event. Books can take months or even years to get the information into print, so the date of publication must be viewed in light of the type of information resource. Although web pages can take much less time to publish information, it is difficult sometimes to determine the currency of the information. Recall as well that an information-literate individual understands how current the information has to be for the specific purpose. For some needs, the information must be as up-to-date as possible. For other purposes, such as historical research, currency is not important. Additional clues can be found within the information itself. Look carefully at the references the author uses. A journal article that has been published recently but uses references from 10 years ago is not likely to be as current as one that uses more recent references. In the scientific community, many changes and advancements can happen in a short time. Also, look for clearly dated information. For example, if the article refers to a statistic about computer use in public schools, check the date of the original source. If that statistic is from 1980, it is not relevant today. Some information that is older may be fine depending on the type of information that it is. The important part is that you carefully evaluate the type of information you are using and make a judgment on its currency and relevance to your topic.

Discussion

The next section in the article consists of a discussion of the results. Here, the author explains the results, discusses any problems that arose during the study that might have influenced the results, presents any unexpected event or finding, and relates the results back to the original findings in the literature. In some cases, the findings are supported by the literature review. In other cases, the findings contradict previous findings. In the event of a discrepancy, the author typically provides an explanation of the contradiction to the best of his or her ability. In most cases, the author makes an educated assumption about the findings, regardless of whether the findings supported or contradicted previous research.

Popular Magazines

The least useful type of journal/magazine for credible research. The main purpose of the articles in popular magazines is entertainment, to get readers to purchase the magazine, or perhaps to sway the reader to a specific way of thinking or point of view. Authors of the articles in popular magazines are writers on staff with the magazine and rarely are specialists in the topic area. In addition, freelance writers, who typically are not specialists in any one area, sell their articles to the magazine for a fee. Freelance writers conduct research and interviews to find the information needed for a specific article. They are writers, not authorities, with a goal of entertaining or informing the general population, resulting in increased sales and profits for the publication. The language of the article typically is not as technical, because the target audience is usually the general public. As is the situation with trade journals, popular magazines have no review process other than the editorial review to ensure that the articles are well-written and free of grammatical and typographical errors. Even though some authors mention their sources of information, they rarely cite these sources formally, as is required in a scholarly journal. Often, numerous photographs are used instead of the charts and graphs presenting quantitative data. You should be cautious in using information from popular magazines. There is no guarantee that the information is accurate, unbiased, or appropriate, and it can be difficult to verify facts or find the original or primary source of information in the absence of formal resource citations. Still, popular magazines are useful in some areas of research and for some types of information. For example, an interior designer can use popular magazines to keep up with current and geographical trends in design, materials, and techniques. Popular magazines also commonly include interviews with leaders in the field, provide current news and discussion of issues, and follow market trends. A few examples of the hundreds of popular magazines are: Men's Health Smithsonian National Geographic Entrepreneur Magazine Popular Science Wired PC Magazine Sports Illustrated Scientific American The New Yorker

Results

This section logically follows the methods section. Here, the author presents the results of the study in an objective, logical manner. Visual representations of data, such as tables, charts, graphs, diagrams, or photographs, are used frequently to illustrate the information. Establishing a direct correlation between the methods section and the results is vital to the study's credibility. The charts or tables should be labeled clearly and organized so readers can easily understand what is being communicated without reading the text of the article. Presenting information graphically whenever possible and appropriate adds to the clarity of the information.

Evaluating Authority

To look critically at the author of the information, as well as the sponsor or owner of the specific resource, such as the publisher or owner of a web site. Your goal is to determine if those who write the information are qualified to do so and whether they provide credible information. Several elements should be evaluated when considering the author and the publisher of a book or article, or the sponsor or owner of a web site.

Usability

Usability means that the multimedia are easy to use, or "user friendly." This criterion is especially notable with software, animations, simulations, audio objects, and video objects. Layout should be logical and consistent throughout the object. The navigation should be intuitive and easy to find and follow. Any instructions should be clear and complete. Links should be functional, and if they are not, there should be a mechanism for reporting nonfunctional links to a webmaster. Multimedia objects should download quickly, even at slower Internet speeds, and downloading instructions should be clear. If the tool is complicated, as with certain software, a Help tool should be available to answer common questions or provide instructions for all actions.

Questions to ask about evaluating Resources?

When did the actual event occur? How current is the information in your source? How much time is required to transfer the information into the format of this resource? What kind of information is needed? What is the purpose of the information? How current should the information be? What is the best source of information based on the publication's timeframe? Do you have to find the original or primary sources of information? What is the purpose of the publication you are using for your research? Has the publication put its articles through a formal peer review?

Questions about Evaluating Content

Who constitutes the intended audience? Is the tone and treatment of the information appropriate for the intended audience? Are the terms and concepts too technical to understand? Are the terms and concepts too simplified to be useful? Are the depth and detail sufficient for the needs of the audience? What is the purpose of the information? Do you detect ulterior motives, such as selling, persuading, damaging, and so forth? Is the information a primary source or a secondary source? What is the scope of the information?

Questions to Ask about Evaluating Authority:

Who is the author? What are the author's academic credentials related to the topic? What is the author's experience related to the topic? What kind of credential(s) does the author have (such as a license or certificate)? What is the author's affiliation? What else has the author published? Is the author well-known in the field? Is information provided so you can contact the author? Who is the publisher, and what kinds of materials are published? Who is the sponsor or owner (especially of web sites), and is that sponsor stable? What is the sponsor's philosophy? Is the sponsor suitable to address this topic? Did the author prepare this information as a part of his or her professional duties or have some other relationship with the sponsor?

Scholarly Journals

Written by authorities in a topic area or field of study and include research reports and other academic or factual information. The main purpose of a scholarly journal is to report original, current research data to individuals in the scholarly and professional arenas. Scholarly research means that scientists and researchers have conducted highly structured studies using accepted methods and have made educated, justifiable conclusions about the results. These scientists and researchers typically work for educational institutions, such as colleges and universities, or for private research organizations, such as research labs, think tanks, hospitals, and nonprofit groups. In their articles, they use the language and technical terminology associated with the specific field. They also employ a structured format and follow accepted guidelines for studying a specific topic. The research results in qualitative data, which describe the characteristics or observations of something, or quantitative data, which measure something. In many cases, the articles are sent out to reviewers who are specialists in the field. The reviewers critically analyze the information, methods, results, and conclusions that the authors have drawn. The reviewers make recommendations to the publisher that the manuscript be accepted, revised in some way, or rejected because of poor study design or invalid conclusions. The review provides expert appraisal, and although the review does not guarantee accuracy, it does provide a check on the content, adding to the information's credibility. Poor research or inaccurate content has less chance of being accepted for publication in a scholarly journal than in other, less structured types of journals or magazines. A journal that uses this review system is called a refereed or peer-reviewed journal. Journals that employ this level of rigor are typically highly credible.