Information Processing Chapter 7

metacognition

knowing about knowing or cognition about cognition. children's info processing is characterized by learning to use what they have learned previously to adapt responses to a new situation. Knowing when & where to use various strategies for problem solving such as planning, evaluation & self-regulation. ex. what children know about the best ways to remember what they have read. - Deciding how long to focus on a task. - monitoring progress toward completion. - modifying strategies as work progresses. Example of metacognitive training improving ability to solving math problems (220) see also metamemory - a form of metacognition

short term memory

limited capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for up to 30 seconds , assuming there is no rehearsal of the information. Using rehearsal, individuals ca keep the information in short term memory longer.

critical thinking

Thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence. critical thinkers do the following: (see chart pg 213) questions for critical thinking: analyze, infer, connect synthesize, criticize, create, evaluate, think and rethink. (NOT the superficial recite, define, describe, state and list) present controversial topics

schemas

Mental frameworks that organize concepts and information.

thinking (210)

Transforming and manipulating information in memory. Individuals think in order to reason, reflect, evaluate ideas, solve problems and make decisions. Thinking/Infancy Thinking/childhood Thinking/adolescence

attention

the focusing of mental resources. Children allocate attention in different ways labeled: selective divided sustained executive

self-modification

(197) Siegler children's info processing is characterized by learning to use what they have learned previously to adapt responses to a new situation. this ability draws on metacognition.

attention in infancy

(198) newborns can detect & fixate on a contour older infants scan patterns 4 mo has selective attention to an object year 1 dominated by "Orienting/investigative process" (198) where /what @ 3mo sustained attention of 5-10 sec enables infants to learn & remember characteristics. Length of sustained attention increases through 2d year. Habituation/ dishabituation - when an object grows familiar infants are less interested /more easily distracted (199) If parent continues same form of stimulation infant stops responding. smart parent stops or changes behavior when infant looses interest. Joint attention (emerges @ 7-8 mo- by end of 1yr these skills are frequently observed) Individuals focusing on the same object or event: requires a.the ability to track another's behavior b. one person directing another's attention (parent points) and c. reciprocal interaction.(199) Rechele Brooks/Andrew Meltzoff study infants began gaze following @ 10-11 mo direct adults to objects that catch their attention by 1 yr (199)

attention in childhood

(200) ability to pay attention improves significantly in preschool years toddler=little focused time on an object preschool = 30min @ tv young children see advances in executive attention and sustained attention. Important because as children better understand their environment they are better able to give it focused attention. External stimuli (how flashy the thing is) determine the targets of preschooler's attention. Exercises to improve children attention can be done: (200-201) SHIFT TO COGNITIVE CONTROL control over attention changes mid-late childhood: Older children can focus on most important stimuli, act less impulsively and reflect more.(Linked to changes in brain, activation of prefrontal cortex) ex. flashy clown gives instructions for problem - preschoolers pay attention to clown but by 6-7 children pay more attention to solving problem. ability to control attention at this level is linked to school readiness. fewer attention problems at 4 1/2 linked to better social skills/peer relations in 1st and 3rd grades.

memory (culture)

(205)Culture sensitizes member to certain objects, events & strategies which in turn influence memory. cultural specificity cultures vary in strategies children use to remember likely due to schooling which teaches how to cluster items in meaningful ways. Schooling also includes specialized info processing tasks like memorization and logical reasoning. see cultural specificity hypothesis

imagery

(208) a memory strategy that involves creating mental images. works better for older children than younger when learning verbal info( but ok for younger to learn pictures.)

Elaboration

(208) a memory strategy that involves more extensive processing of info to make it more meaningful. ex. thinking of examples, making personal associations (self-reference), use changes developmentally with adolescents more likely than children to use it spontaneously.

Mandler, Jean

(211) early categorization in infants is perceptual categorization rather than conceptual - based on similar perceptual features - size color and movement, parts like legs. @ 7-9 mo infants show conceptual categorization ability. "The human infant shows a remarkable degree learning power and complexity in what is being learned and in the way it is represented."211

scientific thinking

(214)Children's thinking is like scientists in that their reasoning is aimed at identifying causal relations. unlike scientists- children try hard to reconcile contradictory info with existing beliefs. more influenced by happenstance than pattern, ability lacking to design conclusive experiments. scientific thinking such as careful observation, graphing, self-regulatory thinking, how to apply knowledge to problem solving is not taught in schools. children hold beliefs incompatible with science. VIDEO: "Magic Years" at 3 months babies are beginning to learn about how the physical world should work (what is possible? )and are surprised when it doesn't work the way they expect. At age 5-6 children are still working to fill in gaps in their understanding of physical world. By age 7 children have a firm grasp on the possible.

Deloache, Judy

(216)Research focused on developing cognitive abilities. scale model of a room with hidden toy is a way to test analogical problem-solving skills. Children as young as 36 mo have the symbolic representation needed to use the model to find the toy while 30 mo olds rarely could. the 30 mo olds seemed to struggle when they saw the model as an object in itself.

false beliefs

(221) between ages 3 -5 Mind can represent objects correctly or incorrectly. 3 year olds typically fail false belief tasks. By age 5 children understand that people can believe things that aren't true. considered a pivotal milestone in understanding mind. juice box w/ ropes vs. juice

Theory of Mind/Autism

(223) Difficulty especially in understanding others emotions and beliefs but perfrm better on reasoning on physical causality. This may not only relate to theory of mind deficit but also to deficits in focusing attention, eye gaze, face recognition, memory, language impairment, or general intellectual impairment. weakness in executive function. autistic people process info in a detailed obsessive way.

Memory (infants)

2 1/2 mo infants can remember kicking to move mobile perceptual-motor info (researchers say this only implicit memory like riding a bike?) 3 mo - shows limited memory (204) after 6 mo - babies show explicit memory 1 -2 explicit memory improves dramatically how long infants can remember see chart 206 biological changes that develop memory between 6-12 hippocampus and frontal lobes of cerebral cortex develop to make explicit memory possible.

cultural specificity hypothesis

205 The way a child's background influences how he retells a story. The effect of cultural background on memory is called cultural specificity hypothesis. States that culture determines what is important in a childs life and so what they remember.

schooling (effects on memory

205 schooling which teaches how to cluster items in meaningful ways. Schooling also includes specialized info processing tasks like memorization and logical reasoning. no evidence schooling increases memory capacity but it does influence strategies for remembering.

memory (childhood)

207 increases considerably after infancy. knowledge is increasing which likely helps memory too young children rely more on verbatim memory older children use gist/fuzzy trace. This likely produces more enduring memory. Increases also may be due to memory span(207) and use of memory strategies.(207) VIDEO: "Thanks for the Memories" infants remember things from early on but not consciously. everyone's memory is characterized by a unique construction/reconstruction process little research done at adolescent level. memory span and working memory seem to increase. (209) by 11-12 children achieve a better understanding of their true memory ability.

memory span

207 memory span task - assesses short-term memory capacity. 7 yr olds outperform 3 yr olds in memory span. speed of processing may play a role. rehearsal of information is helpful - older children reherse more than younger and are more effective in using strategies.

memory (teaching) strategies

207/208 - using effective strategies is key aspect of improving memory rehearsal = better for short term than long best for long term - organization when memory is encoded. ex. months of year in order. older children mid-late childhood use effectivlypreschotolers do not. elaboration - thinking of examples and personal associations (adolescents are less likely to use spontaneously than elementary child who can be taught to use elaboration on a specific task but will not necessarily remember to apply strategy in future. effective even for young elementary imagery - creating mental images (better for older children) understanding rather than rote memorizing For teachers - repeat with variation and link

executive function

211 An umbrella-like concept that consists of a number of higher-level cognitive processes linked to the development of the brain's prefrontal cortex. Executive function involves managing one's thoughts to engage in goal directed behavior and to exercise self-control. early childhood thinking - involves stimulus driven toddler transforming into child capable of flexible, goal-directed problem solving that characterizes executive function. advances in EF in preschool are linked to school readiness. often a better predictor of school readiness than IQ. (212) elements of executive function most important to 4 - 11 yr olds for school success. (212) a. self-control/inhibition - must be able to concentrate & persist in learning, inhibit tendencies to repeat wrong responses, & resist impulse to do something now they would regret later. b. working memory- required to process all the info c. flexibility - need to have flexible thinking & consider different strategies related to good parenting skills (212) VIDEO - "CHANGING MINDS" research on executive reasoning. - 3 yr olds can't switch from rule 1 to rule 2. - can't see from someone else perspective. - everyone knows what they know. - don't understand someone can think something other than what they know. Most important intellectual development in second decade of life: Executive function assumes a role of monitoring & managing cognitive resources in adolescence. See also EXECUTIVE attention - a subclass

Metacognition in childhood

5-6 yr olds know familiar is easier to remember than unfamiliar shorter lists easier than long recognition easier than recall forgetting easier over time things they don't know: related items are easier than unrelated gist of a story easier than verbatim (by 5th) preschoolers have inflated perception of their own memory and do not understand memory cues (by 7-8 yrs) ability to evaluate performance on memory tasks improves through age 11.

Thinking / Adolescence

According to Kuhn, in later years of childhood/adolescence individuals approach cognitive levels that may or may not be achieved compared to the nearly universal levels of childhood attainment. Adolescents produce their own development. Most important change is development of executive function in areas of monitoring & managing cognitive resources, critical thinking and decision making. CRITICAL THINKING: the following changes all improve critical thinking skills - increases in speed, automaticity & capacity of info processing which frees cognitive resources for other purposes. - greater breadth of content knowledge. - increased ability to construct new combos of knowledge. - more strategies for obtaining & applying knowledge. Development of critical thinking at this stage requires a solid basis of of fundamental reading/math skills. only 43% of adolescents in 1 study showed critical thinking - the rest showed self-serving bias DECISION MAKING: adolescence requires more decision making older adolescents are best at decision making(but far from perfect) followed by younger adolescents (who are more likely than children to generate different options, see from many perspectives, anticipate consequences and evaluate credibility of sources.) better decisions are made when calm rather than when emotionally aroused. adolescent tendency to be emotionally intense which may overwhelm decision-making capacity. influences for risky decision making include : drugs alcohol, peers, stressful situations(219) role playing and involvement in parent decision making can help improve ability to make good decisions under stress.

mindfulness

Being alert mental present, and cognitively flexible while going through life's everyday activities and tasks. An important aspect of critical thinking characteristics: open to finding the best solution create new ideas operate from more than one perspective improves cognitive & socioemotional skills including: executive function, focused attention, emotion regulation and empathy. techniques include: yoga, meditation, tai chi (213)

concepts

Cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people or ideas. (210)required to make generalizations at age 4 children acquire concept of perspective that allows them to see a single thing (red rabbit) can be described in many ways.

Thinking/Infancy

Focuses on concept formation(groupings required to make generalizations) and categorization. habituation experiments have shown that @ 3-4 mo can group similar looking objects - animals, early categorization in infants is perceptual categorization rather than conceptual - based on similar perceptual features - size color and movement, parts like legs. @ 7-9 mo infants show conceptual categorization ability. first categories are broad - ex. animal, indoor thing gradually become more specific in yr 1-2 furniture becomes chair, land animal becomes dog. in this time period infants also categorize objects by shape.

selective attention

Focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant, while ignoring others that are irrelevant. ex. focusing on one voice in a crowded restaurant, thinking about contracting toes on one foot. 4 mo has selective attention to an object(198)

Brainerd, Charles

Fuzzy Trace Theory (204)

Reyna, Valerie

Fuzzy Trace Theory (204) To better understand adolescent decision making: (219) proposed dual process model - adolescents don't benefit from detailed analysis of a situation - they just need to know some experiences need to be avoided at all costs.

attention in adolescence

Generally better attention in adolescents than in children, but still a wide variety of skills. ability to sustain attention becomes critical for success. Increase in executive attention supports rapid increase in effortful control required by complex academic tasks. divided attention & adolescent multitasking is influenced by the many media available. can be distracting and considerably reduce attention to task.

Pressley, Michael

Helping children learn strategies (217) for problem solving. - model the strategy - verbalize the strategy - guide the practice (over and over until they can do it) Just having them learn a new strategy is not enough. Children must repeat it until internalized and applied to new problems.

information processing approach (195)

How do children think? focuses on the way children process information about their world - how they manipulate, monitor and create strategies to deal with information. processing is limited by hw capabilities - the amount of data/capacity and how fast/speed it can process. Brain is same. SW limits the kind of data(words, music) & what can be done with it/ how it can be manipulated. Children's cognitive dev. results from ability to overcome processing limitations by increasingly executing basic operations, expanding information processing capabilities, and acquiring new knowledge & strategies. Like Piaget in that : - Some versions of info processing are constructivist - Children play an active role in their cognitive development and there are cognitive capabilities and limitations at various points in development. - Describes ways individuals do and don't understand concepts at various points in life . - Explains how more advanced understanding grows out of less advanced . -emphasizes impact existing understanding has on ability to acquire new understanding. unlike Piaget: no stages gradually increasing capacity to process info which enables acquisition of increasingly complex knowledge & skills. more precise analysis of change Focus on contributions made by ongoing cognitive activity(encoding & strategies)

Gopnik, Allison

How do you put things in the right categories? If you can do this you have a big advance in understanding the world. (211)

processing speed

How quickly children process information influences what they can do with that info. links to: higher level of oral reading fluency competence in thinking good performance on cognitive tasks Children can compensate for slow processing with effective strategies. assesed by: reaction time task speed improves as children age. Developmental change in speed preceeds increase in working memory.

metacognition in adolescence

Important changes increases in monitor/managing cognitive resources to meet demands of a learning task. = learning becomes more effective. 12-14 yrs students increasingly are able to use metacognitive skills.

Baddeley, Alan (model of working memory 203)

Like a workbench with lots of processing. 3 main components: phonological loop = assistant where info about speech is stored & reversed. visuospatial working memory = assistant imagery is stored working memory is limited capacity where info is stored only briefly. It interacts with long term memorizing info from long term for processing and sending info to long term for storage.

Joint attention

In Infant development/attention - Individuals focusing on the same object or event: requires the ability to track another's behavior, one person directing another's attention, and reciprocal interaction.(199) (emerges @ 7-8 mo - by end of 1yr these skills are frequently observed) Rechele Brooks/Andrew Meltzoff study infants began gaze following @ 10-11 mo direct adults to objects that catch their attention by 1 yr (199) infants/caregivers engaging in joint attention infants say 1st word earlier & develop larger vocal. (200) see more research: predicts early language development, linked to long-term memory & prefrontal cortex wass activated when engaged in joint attention. associated with developing self-regulation/delayed gratification skills in later childhood.

schema theory (memory construction) 203

People mold memories to fit info already in their minds. this is guided by schemas.

Siegler, Robert

Says the three mechanisms of encoding, automaticity, and strategy construction work together to create changes to children's cognitive skills. children's processing is characterized by self-modification older children perform better at problem solving because they use a better rule. (216)

reflective science

Study of how various types of training can improve children's cognitive and socioemotional development including activities such as yoga, meditation and tai chi

metamemory

a form of metacognition - knowing about memory. ex. Understanding if you have studied enough for a test. recognizing a multiple choice test (recognition) is easier than an essay test (recall) (221)

working memory

a mental workbench where individuals manipulate and assemble information when making decisions, solving problems, and comprehending written and spoken language. (see Alan Baddeley model) 203 linked to many aspects of child dev. better WM = advanced reading, math & problem solving WM & attention control predict growth in literacy & #'s WM @ 9/10 predicts foreign language skill @ 11 WM intervention improves reading performance WM in K predicts math achievement in 1 developmental changes in working memory chart 210

long term memory

a relatively permanent and unlimited type of memory.

verbatim memory trace

a type of memory encoding that captures precise detail (204)preferred by preschoolers in research. More likely to be forgotten than fuzzy traces.

fuzzy or gist memory trace

a type of memory encoding that captures the central idea of information (204) preferred by elementary age children in research. Less likely to be forgotten than verbatim traces.

sustained attention

ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time. Sustained attention is also called focused attention and vigilance.(198 @ 3mo sustained attention of 5-10 sec

automaticity

ability to process info with little or no effort. Practice allows children to encode increasing amounts of info automatically. ex. reading words instead of letters. tasks are completed more quickly and more than one task can be handled at once. (196)

scripts

are schemas for events (205)

ROthbart, Mary

attention in children (200) why advances in executive & sustained attention are important.

Gartstein, Maria

attention in children (200)why advances in executive & sustained attention are important.

Theory of mind

awareness of one's own mental processes & mental processes of others. - Mental states such as: Perception , emotion desire views child as "a thinker who is trying to explain, predict, and understand people's thoughts, feelings, and utterances. Whether infants have a theory of mind continues to be questioned. From 18 mo to 3 yrs children begin to understand 1. DESIRES: Understanding of different desires comes 1st 18 mo - 3 yrs ex. 18 mo old recognizes food preferences. Toddlers recognize that if people want something they will try to get it/ take action . ex "I want my mommy" and that desires are related to emotions (happy if they find what they want, sad if they don't) children refer to desires before they refer to cognitive states like thinking & knowing. MILESTONE: @ 3-5 understands that mind can represent objects correctly or incorrectly. = false beliefs by age 5 in most 5-7 understand others can have false beliefs (@ thi stage child begins to understand mind itself beyond just states of desire, emotion, perception.) That peoples behavior does not always reflect thoughts/feelings. before age 7 there is only one right way to see an ambiguous pic. After 7 they see multiple ways of looking @ things. 7 - understand desires better, engage in recursive thinking. 2. PERCEPTIONS: - by 2 kids recognize others will see what is in front of their eyes vs. childs eyes. by 3 - looking leads to knowing what is in a container. 3.EMOTIONS: by 2 child can distinguish between positive & negative emotions.

strategy construction

creation of new procedures for processing info. ex. children's reading benefits when they stop and think about what they have read periodically. (197) Sieglar

perceptual categorization

based on similar perceptual features - size color and movement, parts like legs.

Rovee-Collier, Carolyn

chart pg 206 - kicking mobile in crib - showed by 2 1/2 mo baby has detailed memory. concludes infants as young as 2mo can remember experiences through 1 1/2 to 2yrs (is this just implicit?)

divided attention

concentrating on more than one activity at a time. ex. reading and listening to music.(198

explicit memory

conscious memory of facts and experience - babies do not show explicit memory until second half of year 1

Cognitive resources (information processing theory)

developmental changes (memory & problem solving) are likely to be influenced by both: capacity Speed of processing info Both biology & experience contribute to the growth of these resources. ex. native language vs. second language Biology: changes in frontal lobes and at neuron level, i.e.;blooming & pruning of neurons myelination which continues through adolescence

thinking / childhood

early childhood thinking involves stimulus-driven toddler transforming into child capable of flexible, goal-directed problem solving that characterizes executive function. executive function 211 critical thinking 213 problem solving 215 scientific thinking214 at age 4 children acquire concept of perspective that allows them to see a single thing (red rabbit) can be described in many ways.

Diamond, Adele & Lee, Kathleen

elements of executive function most important to 4 - 11 yr olds for school success. self-control/inhibition - must be able to concentrate & persist in learning, inhibit tendencies to repeat wrong responses, & resist impulse to do something now they would regret later. working memory- required to process all the info flexibility - need to have flexible thinking & consider different strategies (212)

mechanisms of change

encoding automaticity strategy construction These three mechanisms work together to create changes to children's cognitive skills. Robert Siegler, info processing(196)

problem solving

finding a way to attain a goal. Two types: a. USING RULES: child learns to form representations of reality. Siegler concludes older children perform better at problem solving because they use a better rule. (216) -learning to solve problems is often narrow and cannot generalize to other problems. b.USING ANALOGIES: some correspondence between two dissimilar things. (study 2 1/2 yr olds could not , 3 yr olds could find object in room based on placement in model) 2 1/2 yr olds quickly forget an object is being used as a symbol. USING strategies to solve problems: Good thinkers routinely use strategies & effective planning. Children ability to select effective strategies improves from grade 3 -7 Older children have a better ability to learn and solve problems than a 3 year old because they have better cognitive control.

Leach, Penelope

memory in infants (204)

implicit memory

memory without conscious recollection; memory of skills and routine procedures performed automatically. (riding a bicycle)

schemas ( constructing memories) 203

mental frameworks that organize concepts and info. Without a schema you are more likely to misunderstand.May interpret in terms of another schema constructing false memory. They influence the way we encode, make inferences and retrieve info. 204 A child's background recorded in schema influences the way he retells a story. (cultural specificity)

infantile amnesia

most adults and even elementary age children can remember little or nothing from first three years of life. Prefrontal lobes of brain believed to play key role in storing memories of events is still immature.

Constructing memory

not like a computer - we must construct & reconstruct SCHEMA THEORY FUZZY TRACE THEORY CONTENT KNOWLEDGE AND EXPERTISE

mindless

operating from one perspective, trapped in old ideas, automatic behavior

executive attention

planning actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstance.(198)

Carlson, Stephanie

research on childhood executive function (212)

memory

retention of information over time> (202) processes in memory include encoding, storing and retrieving

focused attention & vigilance

same as sustained attention (198

trait inhibition

self control that helps to manage impulses - adolescents with a higher level of trait inhibition are less likely to engage in risky behavior. 220

dual-process mode

states that decision making is influenced by two systems, one analytical and one experiential, that compete with each other. In this model, it is the experiential system - monitoring and managing actual experiences - that benefits adolescent decision making. adolescents don't benefit from detailed analysis of a situation - they just need to know some experiences need to be avoided at all costs. (219) Reyna Adolescent must quickly get the GIST of what is happening, understand it is a dangerous context which hopefully cues personal values that protect them from making a risky decision. adolescents with a higher level of trait inhibition are less likely to engage in risky behavior.

Fuzzy Trace Theory

states that memory is best understood by considering two types of memory representations: 1. verbatim memory trace 2. fuzzy trace or gist. According to theory older children's better memory is attributed to the fuzzy traces created by extracting the gist of information. Charles Brainerd & Valerie Reyna

schema theory

states that when people reconstruct information they fit it into information that already exists in their minds.

encoding

the way information gets into memory Changes in cognitive skill depend on changes in a childs ability to increase skill at encoding relevant info and ignoring irrelevant. ex. differences in letter s at different ages (196

Habituation/ dishabituation (attention)

when an object grows familiar infants are less interested /more easily distracted (199) If parent continues same form of stimulation infant stops responding. smart parent stops or changes behavior when infant looses interest. Habituation experiments were used to find that infants as young as 3-4 mo could group objects with similar appearance. (211)