INR Exam 1
3 domains of rapid technological change
- Violence - Environment - Information
World Division/Dimensions in World Politics
- Worldwide - International (between nations) - Regional - Subnational (individuals, companies, communities, etc.)
The Power of NGOs
- rely on soft power, meaning credible information, expertise, and moral authority that attracts the attention and admiration of governments and the public. - have advantages over individuals, states, and intergovernmental organizations. They are usually politically independent, participate at all levels, and can make policy with less risk to national sensitivities. - can increase their power through networking with other NGOs. The International Campaign to Ban Landmines demonstrates the power of the network.
The Limits of NGOs
- very limited economic resources since they do not collect taxes. There is a continuous need to raise money, and some NGOs increasingly rely on governments. If NGOs choose to accept state assistance, then their neutrality and legitimacy is potentially compromised. -Success is hard to measure; there is no single agenda, and NGOs are often working at cross-purposes.
Interdependence
-A relationship between countries in which they rely on one another for resources, goods, or services - refers to a relationship between 2 parties in which each is affected by decisions that are taken by the other - implies mutual influence, even a rough equality between the parties in question, usually arising from a sense of mutual vulnerability - trend towards cooperation and integration in world affairs
Functions and Roles of NGOs
-Act as advocates for specific policies and offer alternative channels of political participation, as Amnesty International has done. -Mobilize mass publics, as Greenpeace did in saving the whales. - They distribute critical assistance in disaster relief and to refugees, as Oxfam has done. -Monitor human rights norms and environmental regulations and provide warnings of violations, as Human Rights Watch has done. - Primary actors in mobilizing individuals to act. - At the national level, NGOs have occasionally taken the place of states, either performing services that are inept or when a corrupt government is not stepping in for a failed state. - NGOs seldom work alone. The communications revolution has served to link NGOs with each other, formally and informally. - NGOs may also be formed for malevolent purposes, the Mafia, international drug cartels, and even Al Qaeda.
Tech in Environment
-Increased populations (due to industrial revolution) - Loading the atmosphere with greenhouse gases & triggering climate change - "Sixth Great Extinction Event" - Anthropocene ---Weather pattern change ---Rising sea levels ---Ocean acidification --- Global warming ---Oceans become acidic & anoxic, aquatic food chains will collapse, oxygen will decrease ---Permafrost is melting, releasing carbon - Environmental issues may cause social conflict/collapse - 85% carbon emissions occurred since WWII - 80% of the world's energy comes from fossil fuels -tipping points -"state death" in island countries - Temperatures may rise to levels incompatible with human activity
Recent trends and developments that have questioned the Billiard Ball Model
1. substantial growth in cross border, or transnational flows and transactions (movements of people, money, goods, information, and ideas) 2. Relations among states have come to be characterized by growing interdependence and interconnectedness - led to "Cobweb Model" of World Politics
Global vs. international
"International" has a smaller scope encompassing only two or more countries while "global" has a much larger scope which includes the whole world. Although they are sometimes used in lieu of each other, "global" means "all-encompassing and worldwide" while "international" means "foreign or multinational."
UNESCO
(United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization): a specialized agency of the United Nations. Its declared purpose is to contribute to promoting international collaboration in education, science, and culture in order to increase universal respect for justice, the rule of law, and human rights along with fundamental freedom proclaimed in the United Nations Charter
Feedback process (cyclical)/change from international politics to global politics
- Trend towards global governance - New actors on a world stage - Increased interdependence & interconnectedness
Post WWII era
- Affirmed the primacy of the nation state & legitimized local elites who could govern & did the same for representatives who defended their sovereignty in international affairs -Science & tech, emerging from WWII propelled practitioners into positions of influence and granted them access to power (home and abroad). ---Political elites refashioned identities & trajectories of their nations by turning to science and technology to fill out necessities needed to grow ---Engagement of science & tech w/ state power after WWII: ---Advanced weaponry ---High tech ---Large scientific establishments -post-World War I settlement launched a shift in norms away from empires and towards an international system composed of nation-states
Latin American anxieties about American imperial power
- American conquest and seizure of half of Mexico's territory in the U.S.-Mexico War of 1846-1848 - frequent interventionism that defined U.S. policy in the Caribbean from the late nineteenth century onwards - potential reassertions of European power in an era of high colonialism made struggles over modernity and nation anxious throughout Latin America long after independence - In Mexico, the relationship between techno-science, modernity, and the status of the nation has remained a perpetual conundrum
Why States are Less Relevant in the Modern Era
- Borderless issues (environmental issues) - NGOs - Corporations/ multinational corporations - Economic interdependence - Internet & increased spread of information - Flow of people - immigration/emigration ---Ex: Cuban immigrants (as well as others) can have a significant impact on politics - Decolonization
Global Issues
- Child labour - War - Vastly differential access to resources - People having to live in conditions of poverty and violence - Famine - Disease
International Organization: Collective Goods
- Collective goods are available to all members of the group regardless of individual contributions. - The use of collective goods involves activities and choices that are interdependent. Decisions by one state has effects for other states; that is, states can suffer unanticipated negative consequences as a result of actions by others. Tragedy of the commons: Use coercion: force nations and peoples to control the collective goods. Restructure the preferences of states through rewards and punishments. Alter the size of the group.
Tech in Information
- Explosion in ability to process & transmit info - Due to computers, etc. nearly every aspect of life has become transparent and privacy is difficult to protect - If quantum computing becomes feasible, more powerful & inexpensive computers will be available - Artificial intelligence
Change
- Gradual change: can be evolutionary, cyclical or retrogressive - accelerating, revolutionary and catastrophic: less stable
Breakthrough Technology
- Lab grown meat - Artificial Intelligence/ Virtual assistance - Smart toilets - Drug depots - Nuclear power - Smart farming - Revolutionized healthcare through tech Tech shouldn't take over, but assist
Technology & Anthropocene
- Life as we got used to it: Continue to change Earth's system Attempt to cope w/ impacts and consequences we cause - Path to sustainability: Manage human enterprise to take pressure off of the planet. Create large changes in technology and lifestyle. - Geo-engineering: Engage in large-scale manipulation of Earth System processes. Take risks with unintended side effects - World opinion is divided
The Growth of NGO Power and Influence
- NGOs organizing on behalf of peace and non-coercive methods of dispute settlement also appeared during the 1800s, as did the Red Cross, which advocated for the treatment for wounded soldiers. -NGOs are able to effectively mobilize the mass pubic and influence international relations. - A number of factors explain the resurgence of NGO activity: ---Global issues—issues states cannot solve alone and whose solutions require transnational cooperation. ---Global conferences became a key venue for international activity, each designed to address the environment, population, women, and food. ---The end of the Cold War and the expansion of democracy have provided political opening for NGOs into parts of the world before untouched by NGO activity. ---The communications revolution has enabled NGOs to communicate more efficiently.
Tech in Violence
- Nuclear war - War tools - Innovation of weaponry 160 million killed in wars using technology Technology is a propeller for growth and disruptor of humanity
Solutions to Global Issues
- Protests (ex: war, global financial systems) - Many work to reduce their carbon footprint - Donate money to charities
International Organization: Functionalism
- Simple problems, often with technical (not political) solutions are common starting points for IOs - They promote building on and expanding the habits of cooperation nurtured by groups of technical experts. Eventually, those habits will spill over into cooperation in political and military affairs.
Power
- Something that happens in all social relations - Productive & repressive. - Varied opinions about solutions can make settling on a plan difficult - Many people have their own ideas of 'right' and 'wrong'
Tech as a Key Dimension of World Issues
- Source of understanding - Enabler of new macro-phenomena -Instruments of Foreign Policy ---Providers of technical information and input to the management of an ongoing international regime or problem President tweeting, showed classified image of iranian sites -Understanding the environment -Direct subject of cooperative projects & institutions ---Planning, design, implementation, & management provide resources for global relations and diplomacy - Allow those following human rights to follow stories and conflicts ---Crisis in Yemen ---Syrian Conflicts ---Whaling
State Importance
- States fuel economic & technical competition and therefore improvements - Can have global reach - Territory (control through military) - Regulates commerce (all economic activities) - States legitimize other states by recognizing them - Diplomacy - Have resources
Decolonization
- The collapse of colonial empires. Between 1947 and 1962, practically all former colonies in Asia and Africa gained independence. - Post-colonial studies focus on decolonization and struggles for national independence amid collapsing empires and the reconfiguration of power structures that produced the U.S.-Soviet conflict of the cold war. - Latin America always fit uneasily in postcolonial discourses designed for the post-1945 era, given the independence of the region's countries dating back to the early nineteenth century.
Crisis in Yemen
14 million people at risk of starvation and repeated outbreaks of deadly diseases like cholera. This crisis is linked to the armed conflict that began with the 2011-12 revolution against President Ali Abdullah Saleh.
Technology as a game changer
A changer of the operations of the international system A conferrer of advantage to different actors in the international system A confounder of previously clear conceptual distinctions in the theory of international relations
Cold War
A conflict that was between the US and the Soviet Union. The nations never directly confronted each other on the battlefield but deadly threats went on for years. - Atomic weapons - Nuclear reactors - Rockets - Satellites
International Politics
A narrower field in global politics which deals with the inter-state relations in the international system.
What is a policy?
An action or set of actions that an actor has taken, is taking and will be taking. Actions of the government.
international organizations
An alliance of two or more countries seeking cooperation with each other without giving up either's autonomy or self-determination. -Ex: United Nations (U.N) - International Monetary Fund (IMF) - World Trade Organization (WTO) - European Union (EU)
Consensus vs. coercion
Coercion is the practice of persuading someone to do something by using force or threats. Consensus is a general agreement. ---Consensus: Ottawa Treaty: The Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction, or often simply the Mine Ban Treaty, aims at eliminating anti-personnel land mines around the world.
Technology & Political Change
Cyclical: Technological changes --> Social and politcal instability/conflicts --> Changes in international politics --> Economic growth --> Reduced resources (cheap labor, raw materials, etc), economic crisis-->
Types of Policy
Domestic: regulatory, economic, social. Ex. New deal Foreign/international: security, trade, diplomacy ex. Trump's tariffs on china Their policies can intertwine
Anthropocene began with the Industrial Revolution
Factories were created Energy consumption rose Spread technology globally Population grew Medicine and health advanced
levels of analysis
Foreign policy influences Global influences State or Internal influences Individual influences Policy-making process Foreign policy decisions
difference between global politics and international relations
Global politics encompasses everything while international relations was more one-to-one connections
Environmental Consequences Leading to the Anthropocene
Global warming Biodiversity loss Sea levels rise Sea acidification Ozone depletion Aerosol loading Biosphere integrity loss Freshwater use Land system change Biochemical flows Humans and their societies have become a geophysical force
collective goods
Goods and services, such as clean air and clean water, that by their nature cannot be denied to anyone. Distinguished from an individual good is that its 'consumption' by one individual does not reduce the possibility for other individuals to 'consume' it
grand strategy policies actions
Grand Strategy: Expansion- Monroe doctrine (1824): laid the foundation for American imperialism. Global standoff- cold war (1950-1990): global standoff of US vs Former USSR Policies: Containment- Marshall plan contain the domino effect of communism by any means necessary Roosevelt corollary- added another dimension for the Monroe doctrine. America is going to enforce its power over the world. American colonialism Actions: Vietnam War- War in order to stop communist aggression in Vietnam because Vietnam was seen as an anchor in south east Asia. Dominican Republic intervention- war ships sent in to maintain economic stability.
The Roles of Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs)
IGOs contribute to habits of cooperation; through IGOs, states become socialized to regular interactions. Such regular interactions occur between states in the United Nations. Roles: - establish processes of information gathering, analysis, and surveillance. - Some IGOs, such as the World Trade Organization, develop procedures to make rules, settle disputes, and punish those who fail to follow the rules. - Other IGOs conduct operational activities that help to resolve major substantive problems - play key roles in bargaining, serving as arenas for negotiating and developing coalitions. - spearhead the creation and maintenance of international rules and principles. They establish expectations about their behavior of other states. These are known as international regimes. - For states, IGOs enlarge the possibilities for foreign policy making and add to the constraints under which states operate and especially implement foreign policy. States join IGOs to use them as instruments of foreign policy. - IGOs also constrain states. They set agendas and force governments to make decisions; encourage states to develop processes to facilitate IGO participation, and create norms of behavior with which states must align their policies if they wish to benefit from their membership. - IGOs affect individuals by providing opportunities for leadership. As individuals work with or in IGOs, they, like states, may become socialized to cooperate internationally.
Changing Human-Environment Relationship
Impacts - Population - Energy - Institutions - Political economy - production/ consumption
European Union (EU)
International organization comprising 28 European countries and governing common economic, legal, social, and security policies.
Global actors
International organizations Nongovernmental organization State individuals
Modern Whaling
Japan has resumed catching whales for profit, in defiance of international criticism.
Bird's eye view of politics
Looking at something happening in another country, like an overview of a whole community Should we look at the world region by region, country by country, or in a bird's eye view By getting our feet dirty and talking to people about the world Vs. field research ---You have to actually talk to the people who are living there do field research and learning their perspective before making decisions
Challenges of doing world politics
Many of us have a passionate interest in global politics because we think things are wrong with the world, however the world is full of other people that do not always agree with us. How do we know the right way forward when things are contested? Often other people think quite differently from us We cannot see what assumptions we are making in our own views. Others do make assumptions, at times one we might wish to contest
Sudan Crisis
Modern conflict between Janjaweed and Black African Muslims over political power and economic equality. Those involved in aid: - African Union (AU) (International organization example: The AU established a peacekeeping mission in 2004 in the Darfur region of Sudan. The mission was unable to contain the conflict, and by 2008 it was replaced by a larger joint UN/AU union.) - Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF) (NGO example: MSF has provided medical care to tens of thousands of displaced persons. MSF is a group of volunteer doctors and nurses who have provided medical care to tens of thousands of persons displaced during the crisis.) - States: Sudan, etc. (state example: The Sudanese military, backed by the government, and nomadic Arab militias fight African rebel groups from farming communities. Other states are also involved, pursuing interests (oil) and norms (human rights). ) - US citizens (individuals example: Individual citizens of the United States have sent letters to their representatives in Congress, calling attention to the crisis and the need for intervention.)
State
Must have: - a defined territory - a permanent population - a government - the capacity to enter into relations with other states The states are the highest authorities that exist in the world today.
Foreign Policy Making Model
President is #1 in dealing with foreign policy, senate too - Process: Global conditions → actors' internal characteristics → leaders → foreign political decisions & outcomes → feedback Step 1: articulation Step 2: formulation Step 3: implementation Step 4: evaluation
Science & Technology in World Politics
Quasi-actors on the global stage with rapid & widespread ramifications - Electrical power: has helped education, medicine, and life in general (took us to space). ---Issues: power-grid terrorism - Internet: moved beyond printed information, connected people, online publishing, easier research, portable knowledge, "digital age". Social media is even used in politics (ex. Trump & Twitter). ---Issues: viruses used as weapons internationally - Printing: revolution in the spread of knowledge (books)
Collective vs. relational
Relational identity (viewing the self in terms of relationships) has become increasingly important in organizations today as a result of business demands that involve relationship building and maintenance. At the same time, collective identity (thinking of the self based on group memberships) continues to be influential in many organizations and cultures due to leadership or historical influences. --- Collective: Outer space treaty: no nuclear weapons in space --- Relational: Mexican-American War, US gained New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, California, Texas, and western Colorado.
Syrian conflicts
Syrian Civil War is an ongoing multi-sided civil war in Syria fought between the Ba'athist Syrian Arab Republic and foreign allies, and various domestic and foreign forces opposing both the Syrian government and each other in varying combinations
The African Union (AU)
The AU gives African states an increased ability to respond to the issues of economic globalization and democratization affecting the continent.
European Union
The European Union is a unified trade and monetary body of 28 member countries. It eliminates all border controls between members.
World Trade Organization (WTO)
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization that is concerned with the regulation of international trade between nations. - deals with regulation of trade in goods, services and intellectual property between participating countries - provides a framework for negotiating trade agreements and dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements - prohibits discrimination between trading partners, but provides exceptions for environmental protection, national security, and other important goals.
Anthropocene
The current epoch in which humans and their societies have become a global geophysical force.This began in the 18thc. with the rise of Western industrialization.
global politics
The discipline that studies the political and economical patterns of the world and the field that is being studied.
Turbo Change
The emergence & global spread of science and technology has increased the rate, magnitude, complexity, novelty, and disruptiveness of change; produces "Turbo Change". --- Propelled by militarized international competition, capitalism, and population growth --- Legitimized by technological modernism
BREXIT
The possible British Exit from the European Union an abbreviation for "British exit," referring to the U.K.'s decision in 2016 to leave the European Union (EU). The vote's result causing the British pound to fall to its lowest level against the dollar in 30 years. Britain is slated to leave the EU by 2019
Nation-building
The process by which inhabitants of a given territory come to identify with symbols and institutions of their nation-state. - took place amid the upheaval of cold war superpower rivalry, struggles for national independence, colonial and neocolonial assertions of power, and the search for a political third way
artificial intelligence (AI)
The science of designing and programming computer systems to do intelligent things and to simulate human thought processes, such as intuitive reasoning, learning, and understanding language. Artificial intelligence is on the rise w/ civil and military applications ---Will be hard to keep under control if it reaches "super intelligence"
mixed actor model
The theory that, while not ignoring the role of states and national governments, international politics is shaped by a much broader range of interests and groups.
state-centric model
The view that world politics is dominated almost exclusively by state actors. Operates in a context of anarchy, reflecting the idea that there is no higher authority than the state. States are increasingly confronted by collective dilemmas (financial crisis, climate change, terrorism, etc.).
Why do we make policies?
To protect the nation and its citizens To maintain access to key resources and markets To preserve a balance of power in the world The protection of human rights and democracy ---Applicable to certain nations, such as the US, Switzerland, and Canada. Other issues of major concerns to that actor, including certain extreme acts. For example, world war 2 and the Nazi era.
international campaign to ban landmines
a coalition of non-governmental organizations whose stated objective is a world free of anti-personnel mines and cluster munitions, where mine and cluster munitions survivors see their rights respected and can lead fulfilling lives
Oxfam
a confederation of 20 independent charitable organizations focusing on the alleviation of global poverty
Rhizome of science & technology
a continuously growing horizontal underground stem which puts out lateral shoots and adventitious roots at intervals.
tipping points
a critical threshold when a change can have drastic effects. Mostly linked to climate change and pollution. Massive changes in the planet's oceanic & atmospheric circulation patterns occur rapidly when "tipping points" are reached
international politics
a narrower field in global politics which deals with the inter-state relations in the international system.
Natural social science
a way of thinking about the influences of nature on politics. Limited ability to explain historical change.
Sovereignty within the EU
always at stake, states should not tamper too much with their financial systems
Amnesty International
an NGO that operates globally to monitor and try to rectify abuses of human rights
Greenpeace
an NGO that works for environmental conservation and the preservation of endangered species
Post-structuralism
an approach, attitude, or ethos that pursues critique in particular way. It states that "Every understanding of international politics depends upon abstraction, representation and interpretation".
Global geopolitical theory
attempted to understand how the new technologies produced by the Industrial Revolution, interacting with the large-scale features of the Earth, would shape the number and character of the units in the system, as well as whether a world empire or the plural state system would prevail
Holocene
began approximately 11,650 years before present, after the last glacial period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat.
United Nations
global international organization intergovernmental organization tasked with maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations, achieving international cooperation, and being a center for harmonizing the actions of nations. There are specialized agencies formally affiliated with the United Nations. These organizations have separate charters, budgets, memberships, and secretariats. They also focus on different issues. Examples include the World Bank and Food and Agriculture Organization. There are IGOs not affiliated with the United Nations, including the World Trade Organization and the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, as well as regional organizations like the African Union.
Nation
refers to a group of people who feel bound into a single body by shared culture, values, traditions, religion and/or language. ---Ex: Kurds: An ancient group with a distinctive language and culture, concentrated in Turkey, Iran, and Iraq.
Historical materialist
incorporates technology, along with geography, as the material "base" that decisively conditions the viability and occurrence of different social, economic, and political formations
The World Bank
international organization example international financial institution that provides loans and grants to the governments of poorer countries for the purpose of pursuing capital projects. - Nearly every state is a member - Multifaceted and adaptive - States pay to get a % of votes (buy your share/influence the bank) - Have a lot of liquidity except when lending is down - World bank takes care of world economy - States want to control politically, creating a dilemma (WB puppeteer)
Political economy and development studies
looked to cultural factors, configurations of relative power, and institutional incentives, rather than material contexts, to explain which countries and political systems develop.
New materialism
material systems and flows operating internationally, underscoring the complexity that any theory of materiality and politics must surmount
modernist developmentalism
nation-building and colonial rule both forms of governance lay claim over people in distant locales and assert direct authority over their lives
NGO
non-governmental organization is any non-profit, voluntary citizens' group which is organized on a local, national or international level. Ex: Red Cross, Greenpeace, World Wildlife Fund, International Union for Conservation of Nature, etc. operate outside of the formal political arena but that are nevertheless influential in spearheading international initiatives on social, economic, and environmental issues. - Is a private, non-commercial group or body which seeks to achieve its ends through non-violent means -" private orgs that pursue activities to relieve suffering, promote the interest of the poor, protect the environment, and provide basic social services, or undertake community development
Continuity
occurs when there is homeostasis. In the IR system, homeostasis occurs when there is a systemic ability to cope with events or behaviors which deviate from the norm. - international legal norms - past treaty agreements - ties within and among international organizations - strategic 'balances of power' (or relationships of power)
IGO
organization composed primarily of sovereign states, or of other intergovernmental organizations. IGOs are established by treaty or other agreement that acts as a charter creating the group. Ex: the United Nations, the World Bank, or the European Union, G7
Global/World Politics
political and economic claims to power at the global level - States and national governments are not irrelevant - States, although integrated, are still independent and valid - Many issues operate on the global scale (ex: finances, etc.) World politics is the politics of becoming The world is becoming it is never the same, it's the politics of learning and it is always changing. Its fuzzy, vague, obscure and confusing.
Billiard model
states are billiard balls that collide with one another. Not all balls are the same size, which is why international politics gives attention to the interests and behavior of 'great powers'. This model has come under pressure due to growing interdependence. - states (billard balls) are impermeable and self-contained units, which influence each other through external pressure - in this view, interactions between and amongst states or 'collisions' are linked, in most cases to military and security matters, reflecting the assumption that power and survival are the primary concerns of the state - has two key implications: 1. suggests a clear distinction between domestic politics and international politics 2. it implies that patterns of conflict and cooperation within the international system are largely determines by the distribution of power among states
Cobweb model
states have been forced to work together in tackling tasks such as global warming, pandemic diseases, and the spread of weapons of mass destruction. This web of relationships has created a condition of 'complex interdependence', in which state are forced to cooperate. However, interdependence varies across the world. Big network of relations that connect to each other in varying ways and have various types of interactions that are dealing with another in a complex way. Some are connected more strongly than other connections. Is susceptible to change very easily huge network all connected in different ways, connected stronger in some places than others, everyone has different goals, ideologies, powers, strength→ constantly changing States are linked together just as a cobweb is made up of intricate, joined segments States work together If the cobweb breaks the states will be weakened Intricate interdependence- stronger together Not the best way to look at international relations Because it can vary in levels in powers and compostion Its static, not dynamic, not moving, doesnt change States all intersect Very complex, all interact in different ways, all actors have different goals, interactions
Constructivism
the claim that significant aspects of international relations are historically and socially constructed, rather than inevitable consequences of human nature or other essential characteristics of world politics.
Globalization
the emergence of a complex web of interconnectedness; lives are increasingly shaped by events that occur, and decisions that are made, at great distances. 3 types: economic globalization, cultural globalization and political globalization.
"The Great Acceleration"
the most recent age of the proposed Anthropocene epoch during which the rate of impact of human activity upon the Earth's geology and ecosystems is increasing significantly; dramatically increasing after the Second World War. - Cities grew - Globalization increased - Wealth
Wendt's version of constructivism
the structures of human association are determined by shared ideas rather than material forces, and the identities and interests of actors are constructed by these shared ideas rather than given by nature
Quantum computing
uses the principles of quantum physics to represent data and perform operations on these data. Used to perform such computation, which can be implemented theoretically or physically.
Neoclassical geopolitics
views politics as occurring between two natures - Nature & technology are mingled - Primary interests of practical human social agents are deductively generated human-based features; the other is composed of nonhuman nature/features of the earth as a habitat - Bundles of related practices are conceptualized as "modes of protection" & "modes of habituation"