INST 361 Midterm

police cooperation

'democratic policing' (a part of Uribe's initiative of democratic security? which held police accountable for policing in an ethical, non human rights violating manner)

UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

1961 international treaty to prohibit production and supply of drugs

Lost Decade

1980's -- debt crisis that affected all of Latin America as the region embraced the "Washington consensus" on neoliberal economies with "shock therapy" (radical economic reform focusing on privatization & opening economy to international trade) foreign debt exceeded state incomes and countries found themselves unable to repay eventually resulted in huge bailouts by US

plan dignidad

1997: established under Banzer's administration Goal was to reduce coca production to zero Four pillars: 1) alt development 2) prevention and rehabilitation 3) eradication 4) interdiction Created long-term US military presence in Bolivia → Bolivian military wary of increased US power and increased rivalry between Bolivia police and military forces Goal of zero coca almost reached in 2000 but coca production increased 23% by 2002

Plan Colombia

1999 by President Andres Pastrana, US $1.3 billion Eradication program Clinton admin agreed to Plan and to increase aid if Pastrana established a plan to strengthen the military and fight drug trafficking Weaknesses: low social and economic aid, didn't counter paramilitary activity, most aid goes to military

Andean Regional Initiative

ARI The Bush administration's Andean Regional Initiative (ARI)—largely an expansion of U.S. support for Plan Colombia half of the ARI funds are earmarked for Colombia, including funds for: aerial eradication of drug crops; alternative development; logistical support, hardware, and training for the Colombian Army's counter-narcotics battalions and the Colombian National Police; social and economic programs, including assistance for internally displaced persons; and judicial reform. The remainder is for the region's six other countries—Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Venezuela, Panama, and Brazil—to support economic development and the rule of law as well as ongoing drug control efforts, including eradication, interdiction, and drug use awareness. the ARI package includes increased security assistance to protect borders in Venezuela, Ecuador, and Brazil.

AWACS

Airborne Warning and Control System an airborne radar picket system designed to detect aircraft, ships and vehicles at long ranges

Anticocainism

Anticocaine movement that began in the early 20th century, which culminated at mid-century in a full blown global prohibition around cocaine restricting producing regions, medical usage, an illicit use led by the US (also the largest consumer of cocaine in the world) in 1922 the Jones-Miller act finally closed U.S. borders to cocaine and strictly regulated residual coca imports stems from racist stereotypes that are associated with doing cocaine in the US and from the turn-of-the-century efforts to ban narcotics and rationally limit social behavior (i.e. drinking, smoking)

INL

Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs produced annual end-use monitoring reports to make sure that INC provided aid is being used for its intended purpose

CFATF

Caribbean Financial Action Task Force This task force is a regional subgroup of the FATF (Financial Action Task Force on money laundering). Was formed by the G7, leading economic powers in 1989. CFATF now has 25 members. The purpose is to combat money laundering.

Multidimensionalism

Caribbean was disappointed by US response being focused on only militarization Economic, political, social, and cultural factors must be taken into account Greater stress on socioeconomic solutions i.e. illegal arms, AIDS, etc According to this multidimensional approach security cannot be treated as a military concern only. Economic, political, social, and cultural factors must all be taken into account, as they may pose a threat to national security if ignored. Within the context of the drug war, this concept calls for shifting the emphasis of current policies to place greater stress on socioeconomic issues

kingpin strategy

Characterized strategy in 1980s and 90s where law enforcement efforts targeted the heads of drug hierarchs such as Medellín and Cali Cartels. Assumed that taking out high rollers would cut the head off of operations. In reality, allowed the industry to disperse and reorganize into small dispersed networks that are even more difficult to infiltrate and interdict

social network model

Colombian competitive advantage due to sheer size of Colombian population within US borders

mambo cocaine culture

Cuba's flourishing cocaine culture around 1959 evidence of burgeoning usage of recreational cocaine in many Latin American and Caribbean cities during the 1950's -- in clubs from Havana to Rio to Buenos Aires and Santiago Redefined or modernized the drug's consumption as a sensual pleasure drug a vital prelude to its expansive trafficker export north in the decades to come

over criminalization

Eradication policies over criminalize activities viewed locally as legal or inoffensive and lead to resistance because they threaten local livelihoods

Merck

European drug firm, sold Peruvian crude cocaine in Europe, led the spread of cocaine as a commodity in 1884 later established a branch in New Jersey by 1890's

FBN

Federal Bureau of Narcotics established in 1930 and was assigned to enforce drug policies of the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act of 1914 and the Narcotic Drugs Import ad Export Act of 1922 Harry J. Anslinger was appointed to be the head of the organization heavily involved in drug control and regulation in the latter part of the 20th century

trafficking routes

From Colombia, up the West Caribbean Coast to Mexico Pass Jamaica, in between Haiti and Cuba to Florida Drugs to Puerto Rico for shipment into the US or Europe Trafficking routes cannot be discussed without mentioning Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico is an especially relevant case because the island is both a key point on one of the most important routes in the drug trade and the largest market for illicit drugs in the region.

vladimiro montesinos

Government's chief adviser on security and drug trafficking role in government expanded manipulated the military and intelligence services CIA had a close relationship with him although the DEA disapproved

GAFE

Grupos Aeromoviles de Fuerzas Especiales Combat ready shock troops ready to attack drug cartels

INC

International Narcotics Control in the 1980's it was important funds law enforcement training to police, judges lawyers and prosecutors on how to investigate, prevent and prosecute drug related crimes

Procuradoria General de la Republica (PGR)

Mexico's lead drug control agency established checkpoints, maritime patrols, and aerial surveillance to detect and interdict drug trafficking

Fujimori doctrine

Mix: US was willing to see eradication suspended if Peru would militarize its drug control activities advocated the incorporation of coca farmers into the formal economy by granting them titles to their lands, which would then allow them to obtain credit for planting substitute crops. De Soto (creator) resigned Jan 1992, claiming that the Fujimori doctrine was being corrupted and sabotaged from within the govt. The militarization of the state and of drug control → abandonment of the initial priority given to alternative development for coca farmers Washington policy makers considered that corruption weakened drug control efforts, but they did not appear to accept that this was the result of misguided policies. US was willing to see eradication suspended if Peru would militarize its drug control activities gave farmers titles to their land

National Drug Control Strategy

NDCS is a policy initiative of the early 2000's that sought to reduce drug use in the US expanded the drug treatment system (rehab) increased policing of drug usage and interdiction efforts focuses on disrupting the market, educate citizens about the dangers of drug usage

U.S. Andean Cocaine chain (1910-1950)

North American interest in coca and cocaine grew after 1860, explosively after 1884 -- (in comparison to Germany's cocaine, the US chain had a pronounced medical, cultural, and political economic bias toward coca leaf) in 1900, American's were world's largest and most avid consumers of cocaine and coca but drastically shifted 1910 -- therefore exerted decisive influence on the drug's longer history increasingly ties to corporate privilege (mainly coca cola) and government drug control

shining path

Peruvian communist group a Maoist guerrilla insurgent organization in Peru. When it first launched the internal conflict in Peru in 1980, its stated goal was to replace what it saw as bourgeois democracy with "New Democracy". The Shining Path believed that by establishing a dictatorship of the proletariat, inducing cultural revolution, and eventually sparking world revolution, they could arrive at pure communism. Their representatives said that existing socialist countries were revisionist, and they claimed to be the vanguard of the world communist movement. alleged resurgence of the Shining Path masked from public sight a set of more complex questions related to US Peruvian drug control policy in the aftermath of the downfall of President Alberto Fujimori Toledo & US had agreed on higher goals in coca leaf eradication (during a time of public anti-eradication protests) than those demanded by Washington during the Fujimori regime

Alfred Bignon

Peruvian pharmacist invented way to extract cocaine from dried coca leave using kerosene, soda ash, and lime moved some production from Germany to Peru and allowed for greater availability in North America valorized the properties of cocaine over coca, which he deemed too inert or inexact for clinical use

Policia Federal Preventiva (PFP)

Policia Federal Provincia, responsible for order and security → has ability to detain suspects caught in the act of committing crimes & gather intelligence on federal crimes → operated under the Public Security Ministry

FARC

Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia on US State Department's list of foreign terrorist organizations because of their systematic use of tactics that target noncombatants 1964: established as military wing of the Colombian Communist Party after La Violencia

UMOPAR

Rural Mobile Patrol Unit; created in 1983 with US providing $4 mil to create, train, and outfit police unit specializes in jungle patrol, air insertions, mobile roadblocks, and river operations stationed throughout Bolivia but mainly based in Chapare, Yungas, and Trinidad makes use of more than 50 undercover informants and original UMOPAR officers trained at the School of the Americas in Panama linked with corruption and human rights violations

ATPDEA

The Andean Trade Preference and Drug Eradication Act signed into law by George W. Bush in Aug 2002 placed emphasis on a country's meeting its drug target before it could benefit from trade preferences of US economic assistance

Caribbean barrier

The United States government's antidrug strategy defines the Caribbean region as a transit zone. A transit zone is an extensive and problematic border that must be controlled to keep drugs away from US shores. A transit zone implies that drugs pass directly through the region from the production zone to the consumption zone and the flow of drugs could be stopped by turning the border into a shield. At the most extreme, this would involved the impossible task of building a "Caribbean barrier" against illicit drugs, using police and military controls.

manta

US Air Base founded in 1999 that was a counterdrug operation that allows unrestricted access to U.S. Used to monitor Colombian drug activities Although the air base was in Ecuador most civilians did not know what went on inside. citizens had mixed feelings about whether or not the air base should be there. Manta is no longer used in Ecuador.

narco-guerilla

US labeled Shining Path members as "narco guerrillas" attacked police in a campaign against forced eradication - killed members of eradication brigades

DynCorp

US-based private military contractor has provided services for US military in Bolivia and Colombia among other countries; since 1997 has operated under $600 million State Dept, contract in Latin America mainly participates in eradication missions, training, and drug interdiction Sept 2001: Ecuadorian farmers filed class-action lawsuit against them → Feb 2013: court granted summary judgement to DynCorp, dismissing claims brought by Ecuadorian plaintiffs in connection with herbicide spraying operations in Colombia

AUC

United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia; over 13,000 members August 2002: Congress granted Bush administration's request for "expanded authority" for a "unified campaign" in Colombia against drug trafficking and organizations designated as foreign terrorist groups (FARC, ELC, and AUC) linked with Colombian government for killings and human rights violations

Southcom

United States Southern Command responsible for providing contingency planning and operations in central and south America and the Caribbean often gets its way in internal debated over security and foreign policy toward the region the most significant US agency in the regional military-to-military relationship

forward operating locations

a U.S. military term for facilities, defined as "a scalable, 'warm' facility that can support sustained operations, but with only a small permanent presence of support or contractor personnel.

Merida Initiative

a package of U.S. assistance for Mexico and Central America that would begin in FY 2008. The Mérida Initiative was developed in response to the Calderón government's unprecedented request for increased U.S. support and involvement in helping Mexico combat drug trafficking and organized crime. As part of the Mérida Initiative's emphasis on shared responsibility, the Mexican government pledged to tackle crime and corruption and the U.S. government pledged to address domestic drug demand and the illicit trafficking of firearms and bulk currency to Mexico Merida Initiative aims to: 1) disrupt organized criminal groups 2) institutionalize the rule of law 3) create a 21st Century border 4) and build strong and resilient communities

Tijuana Cartel

also known as the Arellano- Felix organization (AFO) was one of the most powerful drug trafficking organization operating from Mexico. The cartel is family run and was led by Benjamin Arellano Felix. Benjamin's arrest in 2002 by Mexican special forces was described as "the most significant arrest ever of a wanted drug trafficker." Joint task force of the DEA and FBI has been established in San Diego, CA to target the AFO.

chapare

area where most of Bolivia's illicit coca is grown most of 20th century: seen as frontier area that needed settling; Bolivian government encouraged migration but failed to establish state presence → migrants created sindicatos and organized local coca trade. Systems continues today with each sindicato belonging to one of six Chapare federations → all come together to make up the Six Coca Growers' Federations 1970s: became main source for cocaine industry became epicenter of conflict during forced eradication operations

Section 1004

authorized in 1991; permits the Defense Department to give US and foreign security forces additional support for counter-narcotic activities

Narco-terrorists

blurring of lines between narcotics and violence coined in Peru in 1980s

"go-fast" boat

boats that are great for smuggling things

Roundup

chemical mixture whose active ingredients kills most plants and trees manufactured by Monsanto Corporation pilots use to eradicate coca

la coca no es droga

coca is not a drug popular slogan used by cocaleros (cocaleros are coca leaf growers in Peru and Bolivia FYI)

Merchandise No. 5

coca leaf extract used in Coca-Cola Stepan Corporation (NJ) extracts the ecognine alkaloid from the coca leaf; have arrangement with DEA and is only group allowed to import coca leaves each year ($21 billion of cocaine)

Maywood Chemical

facility owned by Stepan Company - purchased in 1959 coca leaf extract is made here only commercial entity in USA allowed by DEA to import coca leaves cocaine-free leaves are sold to Coca-Cola and cocaine is exclusively sold to Mallinckrodt (pharmaceutical firm) for medicinal purposes

Evo Morales

cocalero activist and President of Bolivia since 2006; Bolivia's first Indian president and founder of leftist Movement for Socialism (MAS) first rose to prominence for campaigning against US and Bolivian attempts to eradication cocoa 1995: entered into politics and election to Congress; 2002: expelled from Congress for encouraging protesters but came in second in 2002's presidential election, losing by only 1.5% 2002 presidential election dramatically restructured the political landscape → MAS became the second largest bloc in congress and a legitimate opposition force

Toxicomania

coined by Dr. Sebastian Lorente and Dr. Baltazar Caravedo in a report for 8th Pan-American Sanitary Conference term encompassing drug manias and addiction argues that Peru's Incan history and place of coca in Peruvian society did not fit in such category

DTO

complex organizations with highly defined command-and-control structures that produce, transport, and/or distribute large quantities of one or more illicit drugs responsible for large portions of illegal drugs entering US each year

eradication

controversial strategy promoted by the US government in the 60's as part of the War on Drugs to eliminate the cultivation of Coca. had environmental health and socioeconomic impacts

balloon effect

criticism of US drug policy draws analogy between efforts to eradicate production of illegal drugs in SA countries and what happens to air inside of balloon when squeezed -- the air is moved but does not disappear. crackdown in one area only for the problem to emerge in an other ex: late 1990's when coca was largely eradicated in Peru and Bolivia; only replaced by new crops in Colombia

Putamayo

department of Colombia in south-west of the country; borders Ecuador and Peru; capital is Mocoa at center of War on Drugs → ~50,000 acres of coca are grown in the province high concentrations of coca and its international borders make it a strategic area of control for armed groups battle for Putumayo has resulted in high rates of violence, human rights abuses, economic decline, and environmental devastation

ROTHR

detection system Relocatable Over The Horizon Radar. After a 1989 book emphasizing new threats, all maritime and land zones fell under the jurisdiction of the Atlantic Command. The Atlantic Command brought forth changes in the regional electronic system with the construction of the ROTHR. Joint Interagency Task Forces (JIATF) used information provided by the ROTHR to coordinate operations for intercepting drug boats in the Caribbean.

Barry McCaffrey

director of Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) from 1996 to 2001; came to position because of his experience as head of the Southern Command (Southcom) disliked metaphor of "war" on drug; however, headed an initiative to eliminate cocoa farming in Colombia wrote "National Drug Control Strategy"--The book-length white paper proposed a comprehensive 10-year plan; profiled drug abusers and trends in youth drug abuse; listed health consequences; estimated the cost of drug-related crime; recognized that illegal drugs remain widely available; presented strategic goals and objectives for demand and supply reduction and measures of effectiveness; and proposed a comprehensive approach including initiatives aimed at youth and initiatives to reduce drug-related crime and violence, to reduce health and social problems, to shield America's frontiers, and to reduce drug availability; and asked for resources to implement the strategy

certification law

enacted by Congress in 1986, the law required the president to certify by Mach 1 of evert year that major drug-producing and trafficking nations were cooperating with the US counter Drug measures countries that were decertified faced a range of punishments: a cutoff of all economic assistance, automatic denial of loans from multilateral banks and discretionary trade sanctions

HCL

final state of cocaine production odorless crystalline powder classifies as a central nervous system stimulant

rule of law program

has provided extensive support for legal reforms in Latin America since the 1980s US attempt at institutional development judicial reforms

Carlos Enrique Paz Soldan

in 1930's, led a countermovement to nationalize the etire industry of coca and cocaine as a modernized state monopoly, in open defiance of encroaching global constraints on cocaine his idea which gathered some state support, was for Peru to face the world as the sole sanctioned exporter of medical necessity market and political flowing along the US Andean Chain led to a schizoid and increasing statis discourse on coca and cocaine -- basically more state control on cocaine and coca activity

Industrial Cocaine

in the mid 1890's, Huánuco became the world capital of Peru's leading legal cocaine industry, "the production of medicine as a national social calling" --> three factors occurred that allowed Peru to nationalize cocaine: 1. there was a need for exports in offer to recover from Pacific War 2. it held a role in scenarios of national renovation 3.it was embraced as a national commodity

pablo escobar

kingpin of the Medellin Cartel in Colombia in the 1980s.

el vaticano

kingpin who told a court he had been paying Montesinos US $50,000 a month for protection of his drug-trafficking operations US ignored this and claimed the US drug control source had no information linking any high-ranking Peruvian authorities to drug trafficking

market access

means the conditions, tariff and non-tariff measures (NTMs), set by countries for the entry of specific goods into their markers. in WTO tariff commitments for goods are agreed upon and set our in each members schedules concessions on goods

Fumigation

method of pest (coca) control that completely fills area with gaseous pesticides to suffocate the pests aerial spraying of coca in Putumayo led to conflict because fumigants used in spray program drifted into Ecuador and they worried that spraying would have effects on health and environment October 2000: health problems reported in Ecuador town of Mataje were linked to fumigation → 188 farmers presented complaint to Ecuadorian Human Rights Ombudsman's Office US officials claim spray is safe but investigation carried out by NGOs, Ecuador has been affected by exposure to chemicals Spraying chemicals on drug crops is now banned in Ecuadorian territory

counterinsurgency

military or political action taken against the activities of guerrillas or revolutionaries

Jamil Mahuad

military's participation in national politics during times of crisis characterized as arbitrator between civil factions in fall of Mahuad in 2000 accused of corruption and made unpopular economic decisions and political instability November 1999: Ecuador and US signed agreement to allow US forces to use the air force base in Manta as a forward operating location

Jesus Gutierrez Rebollo

once considered by U.S. officials as a man of " absolute integrity" → Mexican Military General, thought to be a helper in U.S. War on Drugs; however, he was found guilty of perpetuating drug related violence and was on the payroll for the Juarez Cartel → convicted of aiding drug lord Amado Carrillo Fuentes in '97

yungas

one of Bolivia's two main coca-growing areas 1970s: supplied nearby markets with coca for traditional uses and Chapare became main source of coca for the cocaine industry 12000 hectares of Yungas coca remained legal under Law 1008 US officials claim that Yungas coca cultivation has expanded rapidly since 2000 and that additional production is illegal; 2001: Bolivian government responded with failed forced eradication

functional cells

part of the structure of the DTO's small tight knot groups that fulfill specific functional needs

Dry Conspiracy

phrase for criminal cases base on informants rather than physical evidence controversial, but makes drug cases much easier many smugglers unaware that no physical evidence is needed for a conviction

Andean Counterdrug Initiative

primary US program that supports Plan Colombia designed to provide assistance to seven countries in Andean region: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela objectives are to eliminate cultivation and production of cocaine and opium, build law enforcement infrastructure, arrest and prosecute traffickers, and seize their assets funds are divided between eradication programs and alternative development efforts

securitization

product of defining drug trafficking as a national security threat eroding legal protections established for both individuals and institutions and undermining already fragile human rights Increased militarization in Ecuador especially on the Northern borders

alternative development

programs intended to provide new sources of income that would allow farmers to stop growing coca this was one of the strategies proposed by president Hugo Banzer's 5 year plan to obtain eradication in Bolivia - Plan Dignidad

Leahy Amendment

prohibits the U.S. Department of State and Department of Defense from providing military assistance to foreign military units that violate human rights with impunity. created in 1997 lmao the US does not listen to this!!!!!

Lucio Gutierrez

promised he would develop autonomous national security strategy independent of US policy toward Colombia; supported a negotiated settlement to Colombian conflict since election in 2002, has changed his position on the issue once it became clear that US aid could be at stake Feb 2003: embraced US strategy while trying to downplay his turnaround by saying that Ecuador would only play a mediating role in Colombian conflict

Caribbean "laboratory"

puerto rico - testing grounds for US anti-drug policies

deterrent value

punishment's ability to actually reduce the occurrence of a crime ex: a 25 year sentence for cocaine doesn't have a deterrent value if smugglers don't know the sentence is high, if they think their likelihood of being caught is low, or they are desperate/poor and try to risk it

law 1008

pushed by US officials and approved by Bolivian Congress in July 1988 built up drug police → FELCN and UMOPAR Increased focus on coca eradication Greater conflict between security forces and coca farmers

enforcement capacity

refers to law enforcement's ability to enforce the laws surrounding the illicitness of drugs includes trainings/intelligence made available to law enforcement officials to make the job enforcing laws about drug interdiction easier

confidential informant

responsible for 50% of the arrests when an individual who was caught by a law enforcement agency receives reduction in his sentence for turning in others if more know its such a popular method of id-ing smugglers, it may reduce smuggling taking further steps to make sure ones group is trustworthy adds costs most feared method of being caught

coca paste

second state of the production chain; involved the release and concentration of cocaine alkaloid from dried coca leaves

alvaro uribe

served as the 31st President of Colombia from 2002 to 2010 → Uribe's relative popularity is largely attributed to his administration's successful campaigns against the FARC and the ELN, and in part to the efforts to begin demobilizing the paramilitaries

sensitive investigation units

specialized units within anti-drug units that mainly carry out intelligence and special investigations

irregular rendition

term coined for the DEA's hiring of a man to kidnap drug lord Humberto Alvarez Machain and bring him to the U.S. for prosecution → born out of DEA'S frustration with corruption

decriminalization

the abolition of criminal penalties in realation to certain acts, perhaps retroactively, though perhaps regulated permits or fines might still apply

Huallaga Valley

the main corridor in the rise of drug trafficking the site was to become central to the world cocaine boom of the 1970's-90's at the boom's height in the 1980's, the Huallaga supplied over half of the world's illicit coca crop and coca paste, previous US interventions helped create an environment that created an intransigent peasant base for the illicit economy of cocaine known for its river system, that contains 8 major tributaries, which allows passage into the Amazon territories has had a long history of

transshipment

the shipment of goods or containers to an intermediate destination, then to yet another destination. one possible reason for this is to change the means of transport during the journey

Madrinas

thugs hired as police back up or to serve as freelance policeman themselves. The Mexican justice system evolved not to establish the rule of the law but to protect the elite. So, while police officers were protecting the powerful when called to solve crimes, they resorted to violence and threats or they relied on the madrinas to step in

Vin Mariani

tonic and patent medicine created by Angelo Mariani in 1863 made from Bordeaux wine and coca leaves contained 7.2 mg of cocaine per ounce claimed it would restore health, strength, energy, and vitality

illicit cocaine

used to describe drugs which are under international control (and which may or may not have licit medical purposes) but which are produced, trafficked and/ or consumed illicitly

Medicinal Cocaine

used widely during surgery by the late 1880's as an anesthetic, also as a tonic and stimulant and injected severely depressed patients with cocaine used to counter opiate addiction (which was realized as problematic) used in treatments for tobacco and alcohol addictions hay fever, asthma, respiratory ailments cocaine was regarded as highly reputable and a "modern" American drug thought cocaine was the new "cure all" drug but was bad wrote the "cocaine papers" 1884-1887 tradition but modern

Section 660

was an amendment to the Foreign Assistance Act (which is..?) cut off all funding "used to provide training or advice, or provide any financial support for police, prisons, or other law enforcement forces for any foreign government or any program of internal intelligence or surveillance on behalf of any foreign government within the United States or abroad." applies only to activities funded through the annual foreign assistance budget passed by Congress. It never affected use of the separately authorized and appropriated budgets of the Departments of Justice, Defense, Treasury, or Transportation for training or otherwise assisting foreign law enforcement officials. amendments were made, making exceptions to the rules, making section 660 basically useless

los extraditables

was an organization created by Colombian drug lords in the early 1980s for the purpose of persuading the Colombian government into banning extradition. Initially the group's purpose was to publish newspaper ads in which they defended their position and to influence political parties to speak in favor of their goals. However, over time their actions escalated into a war between the state and the mafia, with violent acts of terrorism committed against politicians and members of law enforcement. Its members were largely drawn from the Medellin Cartel and others linked to the drug trafficking racket

Augusto Durand

was one of the first to extensively develop cocaine becoming one of the world's largest producer of cocaine becoming one of the world's largest producer helped modernize cocaine production by bringing his farms the most modern scientific advances Don Augusto was scandalously murdered from political motives in April 1923 Durand's strong role suggests the depth of the ties between the cocaine industry and Peru's elitist Aristocratic Republic