Intro Psychology 2000-Chapter 2

operational definition

a working definition of what a researcher is measuring

When a researcher tests his or her hypothesis, he or she is often hoping to gather information that is consistent with a particular theory. What, more specifically, allows a researcher to say that he or she has "proven" a theory? a. A researcher is never able to say that he or she has "proven" a theory. b. Any time a hypothesis confirms one theory and simultaneously disconfirms at least one other theory, a theory has been "proven." c. Any time a hypothesis confirms one theory and simultaneously disconfirms all other known theories, a theory has been "proven." d. Any time a hypothesis is confirmed, a theory is automatically "proven."

a. A researcher is never able to say that he or she has "proven" a theory.

Nobel prize winner Daniel Kahneman refers to intuitive thinking as System 1. What type of thinking does Kahneman refer to as System 2? a. Analytical b. Speculative c. Descriptive d. Impressioinistic

a. Analytical

A friend says he will not have his new baby inoculated against any childhood diseases because he is afraid the shots will cause autism. You point out that there is no scientific evidence to support that idea. He says he knows that, but he just feels that it is true. What logical fallacy is at work? a. Emotional reasoning fallacy b. Appeal to authority fallacy c. Argument from adverse consequences fallacy d. Bandwagon fallacy

a. Emotional reasoning fallacy

Science writer Michael Shermer coined the termed "patternicity" to refer to __________. a. The human tendency to see patterns in meaningless data b. Common heritable characteristics that are passed down via the Y chromosome c. The way people use patterns to re-create existing objects in the world d. The patterns researchers must use to create falsifiable research studies

a. The human tendency to see patterns in meaningless data

mean

average; a measure of central tendency

reliability

consistency of measurement

inferential statistics

mathematical methods that allow us to determine whether we can generalize findings from our sample to the full population

statistics

application of mathematics to describing and analyzing data

Analytical thinking is __________ compared to intuitive thinking. a. Heuristic b. Immediate c. Painful d. Slow

d. Slow

scatterplot

grouping of points on a two-dimensional graph in which each dot represents a single person's data

variability

measure of how loosely or tightly bunched scores are

descriptive statistics

numerical characterizations that describe data

random assignment

randomly sorting participants into two groups

blind

unaware of whether one is in the experimental or control group

double-blind

when neither researchers nor participants are aware of who's in the experimental or control group

Science begins with the premise that knowledge should first be acquired through observation. This premise is called __________. a. Empiricism b. Rationalism c. Structuralism d. Intuition

a. Empiricism

Just as behaviorism was gaining popularity in the United States, Sigmund Freud was founding a new field of psychology, one that focused on internal psychological processes such as unconscious impulses, thoughts, and memories. This approach is called __________. a. Psychoanalysis b. Functionalism c. Cognitive psychology d. Structuralism

a. Psychoanalysis

Dr. Johansen randomly assigned research participants to three different groups during her last experiment. She then proceeded to give all the participants in the experiment a new study technique designed to enhance their learning for the upcoming test. What critical error did she make during her experiment? a. She failed to include a control group. b. She failed to identify the independent variable. c. She failed to include an experimental group. d. She failed to identify the dependent variable.

a. She failed to include a control group.

Jerry is asked to estimate which is more common in the English language: Words that end in "ing" or words that have "-n-" as the second-to-last letter. He mentally recites many examples of the first category ("running," "jumping," "flying," "talking") but can only think of a few examples of the second category ("sink," "nine"). He judges that "ing" endings are more common, which of course is incorrect. (All words that end in "ing" also have "n" as the second-to-last letter; the addition of words that do not have an "i" and a "g" on either side of the "n" makes that second group larger.) After all this hubbub, it is clear that Jerry relied on __________ to reach his conclusion. a. System 1 thinking b. Dialectical reasoning c. System 2 thinking d. Analogical reasoning

a. System 1 thinking

Sarah, a graduate student in psychology, just heard about a five-year-old child who has already learned calculus. She is thinking about doing an in-depth study of the child for her dissertation because such early-life math skill is so rare. Sarah is considering which research method? a. case study b. naturalistic observation c. experiment d. independent study

a. case study

One of the great debates that has shaped the field of psychology is the question of whether people choose their behaviors or are obliged to act in certain ways by factors beyond their control. This is known as the __________ debate. a. free will-determinism b. evolutionary psychology c. good vs. evil d. nature-nurture

a. free will-determinism

The theoretical framework of psychology known as structuralism had two major problems. One was that highly trained introspectionists often disagreed on subjective reports. The other was the discovery of __________. a. imageless thought b. psychoanalysis c. systematic observation d. natural selection

a. imageless thought

Ways of thinking that appear to make intuitive sense but are actually traps that lead to mistaken conclusions are called __________. a. logical fallacies b. confirmation biases c. ad hoc immunizing hypotheses d. patternicity

a. logical fallacies

A researcher is interested in determining how frequently bullying behavior occurs in real-life settings. This researcher would best be advised to use the __________ design. a. naturalistic observation b. correlational c. case study d. experimental

a. naturalistic observation

Because religious concepts cannot be tested scientifically, we should consider that __________. a. science and religion are nonoverlapping realms of understanding the world b. religion is a pseudoscience c. moral values are unimportant because there is no data about them d. science is inadequate to explain the physical world

a. science and religion are nonoverlapping realms of understanding the world

Psychological researchers have become more aware of the importance of replicating research results. Part of this awareness is driven by the observation that the size of certain psychological findings appears to be shrinking over time. This phenomenon is known as the __________. a. Reproducibility fallacy b. Decline effect c. Correlation-causation fallacy d. Skepticism effect

b. Decline effect

One reason people are drawn to believing in pseudoscience is that we use our emotions as guides to evaluate the validity of claims. This is known as the affect heuristic or the __________. a. Pathetic fallacy b. Emotional reasoning fallacy c. Bandwagon fallacy d. Attribution fallacy

b. Emotional reasoning fallacy

Wilhelm Wundt developed the first full-fledged psychological laboratory in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany. He pioneered the technique of __________, in which trained observers reflected on and reported on their own mental experiences. a. Behaviorism b. Introspection c. Heuristics d. Insight analysis

b. Introspection

Some main warning signs of pseudoscientific claims include overreliance on anecdotes, exaggerated claims, absence of connectivity to other research, lack of peer review, and __________. a. Talk of evidence instead of proof b. Use of scientific-sounding terms that make little sense c. The scientific method d. replication by independent agencies

b. Use of scientific-sounding terms that make little sense

Of the 3,500 or so self-help books published every year, what percentage are scientifically tested? a. 25 percent b. about 5 percent c. up to 95 percent d. 40 percent

b. about 5 percent

Georgio does not want to take the SAT or ACT exams because he thinks they will not accurately reflect his ability to succeed in college and are no more useful than flipping a coin. His guidance counselor explains that psychologists have determined that, although not perfect, these tests are significantly better than chance at predicting college success. These psychologists are sharing some __________ with Georgio. a. Hasty generaizations b. applied research c. fallacies d. clinical psychology

b. applied research

Twin and adoption studies addressing the nature-nurture debate are typically conducted by __________. a. forensic psychologist b. behavior geneticists c. developmental psychologists d. cognitive behaviorists

b. behavior geneticists

The phrase "don't confuse me with the facts" would best describe which self-deception trap? a. naive realism b. belie perseverance c. confirmation bias d. individualism

b. belie perseverance

One reason that intuition and common sense are not a good basis for scientific psychology is that we often do not notice __________. a. universal traits across individuals b. contradictions between our views c. empirical findings in non-standard forms d. when we are in a dangerous situation

b. contradictions between our views

Research has shown that people are especially prone to find patterns of meaning in meaningless stimuli when they __________. a. are psychic b. do not feel a sense of control c. have a lot of life experience d. are under 18

b. do not feel a sense of control

According to David Hume, an eighteenth-century Scottish philosopher, the more a claim contradicts what we already know, the more __________ must be the evidence for the claim. a. unusual b. persuasive c. recent d. interesting

b. persuasive

British philosopher John Locke stood on the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate, comparing the mind of a newborn to a sheet of paper that had yet to be written on. Others later used which term to describe the same idea? a. genetic inheritance b. tabula rasa c. determinism d. free will

b. tabula rasa

In thinking of the multiple levels of analysis in psychology, the neurochemical level is considered to be __________ because this level is more closely tied to biological influences. a. at the top of the ladder b. toward the lower end of the ladder c. on the same rung of the ladder as personal relationships d. near the top of the ladder

b. toward the lower end of the ladder

Alice is looking for an effective diet program. She is able to evaluate the claims of competing programs in an open-minded and careful fashion by __________, the hallmark of scientific skepticism. a. Being open to metaphysical reasoning b. using her critical thinking skills c. Remembering that extraordinary claims require ordinary evidence d. Using her common sense and intuition

b. using her critical thinking skills

Students of psychology are often frustrated because there are very few, if any, clear-cut answers to many of their questions. What is the primary limiting factor in obtaining firsthand knowledge of questions such as the long-term effects of child abuse or the effects of smoking marijuana on a pregnancy? a. Institutional review boards encourage participation in studies that may be harmful to participants either mentally or physically. b. Most people in the general public are not concerned with these issues. c. Ethical guidelines in research prevent psychologists from carrying out many of these studies. d. It is difficult to find people who are victims of abuse or mothers who smoke marijuana during pregnancy

c. Ethical guidelines in research prevent psychologists from carrying out many of these studies.

A mental shortcut or general "rule of thumb" is referred to as a(n) __________ by psychologists. a. Intuition b. Deliberation c. Heuristic d. Algorithm

c. Heuristic

Evolutionary psychology has been criticized because __________. a. Researchers prefer newer psychology theories b. Evolution is just a theory c. Its predictions are difficult to falsify d. It favors determinism over free will

c. Its predictions are difficult to falsify

An important principle of scientific thinking states that if two explanations account equally well for a phenomenon, we should generally select the simpler one. This principle is known as __________. a. Replicability b. Falsifiability c. Occam's Razor d. Correlation vs. causation

c. Occam's Razor

The police have arrested a suspect in an assault case and the victim has agreed to look at a lineup to see if he can identify the person who attacked him. Gary, a police psychologist, is advising the detectives on the most accurate way to put together a lineup. What should he recommend that they use? a. Simultaneous Lineup b. Segregated lineup c. Sequential lineup d. Subsequent lineup

c. Sequential lineup

E.B. Titchener was a leading figure in which framework of psychology, which advocated the use of introspection to identify basic elements of experience? a. Functionalism b. Psychoanalysis c. Structuralism d. Cognitivism

c. Structuralism

According to astronomer Carl Sagan, scientific skepticism includes (1) a willingness to keep an open mind to all claims, and (2) a willingness to __________. a. read and learn more about scientific subjects b. believe in the possibility of life existing throughout the universe c. accept claims only after researchers have subjected them to careful scientific tests d. change our minds when we encounter persuasive people

c. accept claims only after researchers have subjected them to careful scientific tests

The idea of placing a third brake light at the base of a car's back windshield and changing the color of fire engines from red to yellow are examples of __________. a. basic psychological research b. critical multiplism c. applied psychological research d. psychoanalysis

c. applied psychological research

Which type of psychologist is most likely to work with patients who have serious mental disorders such as major depression? a. developmental psychologist b. forensic psychologist c. clinical psychologist d. counseling psychologist

c. clinical psychologist

In the 1950s and 1960s, many psychologists were disillusioned with behaviorism's neglect of the mental processes involved in different aspects of thinking. Arguing that thinking has a powerful effect on behavior, psychologists such as Jean Piaget began to develop the field of __________. a. psychotherapy b. structuralism c. cognitivism d. functionalism

c. cognitivism

Your friend is an emergency room nurse. He tells you the ER is always busier when there is a full moon; he claims it is because unstable people are more affected by the moon's gravitational pull. To evaluate his claim, you should understand that __________. a. the moon has more gravity when it is full b. it is the quality of moonlight that affects unstable people, not the increased gravity c. correlation is not causation d. his direct experience of the phenomenon is important evidence

c. correlation is not causation

The variable that an experimenter assesses or measures to determine whether or not the manipulation has had an effect is the __________ variable. a. confounding b. independent c. dependent d. causal

c. dependent

The perception of a statistical association between two variables where none exists is known as __________. a. Type I error b. existence proof c. illusory correlation d. confirmation bias

c. illusory correlation

According to philosopher of science Sir Karl Popper, for a scientific claim to be meaningful, it must be falsifiable, which means __________. a. it is inconsistent with any conceivable body of evidence b. it predicts every possible outcome c. it can be tested to determine if it is false d. it has been proven to be false

c. it can be tested to determine if it is false

The outgoing behavior of other people can make an extraverted person act even more extraverted. Bandura called this mutual influence on one another's behavior __________. a. operant conditioning b. reactivity c. reciprocal determinism d. reflexivity

c. reciprocal determinism

What is the purpose of an institutional review board? a. to hinder the research process by placing unnecessary hurdles in the way of researchers b. to help protect the university from lawsuits from unhappy research participants c. to help protect research participants from abuse d. to encourage the use of deception in medical and psychological research with humans

c. to help protect research participants from abuse

demand characteristics

cues that participants pick up from a study that allow them to generate guesses regarding the researcher's hypotheses

The cases of facilitated communication and lobotomies demonstrate that good research design is important because intelligent, well-trained people __________. a. Only seek confirmatory evidence of their beliefs b. Usually do not conduct experiments c. Can be passively cruel in their pursuit of an outcome d. Can be swayed into believing that a treatment is effective when it is not

d. Can be swayed into believing that a treatment is effective when it is not

The "third variable problem" is associated with which scientific thinking principle? a. Ruling out rival hypotheses b. Falsifiability c. Replicability d. Correlation is not causation

d. Correlation is not causation

You meet a psychologist who tells you that she conducts research on children to determine how their cognitive processes differ as the child gets older. You recognize that this person is most likely a(n) __________. a. Experimental psychologist b. Biological psychologist c. School psychologist d. Developmental psychologist

d. Developmental psychologist

Ten-year-old Candace Newmaker died as a result of a pseudoscientific treatment called "rebirthing therapy." This is an example of pseudoscience causing __________. a. Indirect harm b. Scientific regression c. Cultural indifference d. Direct harm

d. Direct harm

Bud and Sandy are discussing the merits of new automobiles. Bud noted, "This car model has been tested by four different consumer agencies in hundreds of tests with virtually the same outcomes each time; it is very reliable." Sandy countered, "Yeah, but my neighbor down the street bought that car, and he has had nothing but problems. I would stay away from it." Which hallmark of pseudoscience has Sandy fallen prey to? a. Lack of self-correction b. The ad hoc immunizing hypothesis c. Insisting on evidence rather than proof d. Overreliance on anecdotes

d. Overreliance on anecdotes

Laurie told her friend Sandi, "I had a headache this morning so I used an old family cure: Three sips of ginger ale, and an hour later my head felt better." Sandi replied, "I am glad you are feeling more comfortable now, but maybe the sheer passage of time made your headache go away." Sandi is offering a(n) __________ in response to Laurie's explanation. a. Extraordinary claim b. Falsifiable pretext c. Causal correlation d. Rival hypothesis

d. Rival hypothesis

An approach to psychology that relied heavily on dream interpretation, symbolism, unconscious motives, and the suppression of sexual and aggressive urges was developed by __________. a. William James b. Jean Piaget c. Rene Descartes d. Sigmund Freud

d. Sigmund Freud

Psychics who perform poorly in laboratory tests and then blame their poor performance on "bad vibes" from skeptical researchers are displaying which sign of pseudoscience? a. overreliance on anecdotes b. insisting on evidence rather than proof c. lack of self-correction when contrary evidence is presented d. ad hoc immunizing hypotheses

d. ad hoc immunizing hypotheses

Dr. Riviera measures his students' knowledge on the topic of memory by giving them three different quizzes over the course of 3 weeks (1 per week). He is hoping to show that student scores are largely the same from week to week. He is trying to establish the __________ of his quiz. a. validity b. objectivity c. subjectivity d. reliability

d. reliability

While taking a survey on her opinions on abortion rights, Carolyn feels very conflicted. On the one hand, she believes in a woman's right to choose to terminate a pregnancy if she wants to, but at the same time she feels like this is not a particularly popular answer. Most of her friends are very opposed to the idea of having an abortion. To make herself feel like a better person, Carolyn distorts her answers to the survey questions. Instead of being totally honest, she answers in ways that make her feel like a better person. This tendency is called a __________. a. demand characteristic b. confirmation heuristic c. confounding bias d. response set

d. response set

existence proof

demonstration that a given psychological phenomenon can occur

validity

extent to which a measure assesses what it purports to measure

internal validity

extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study

external validity

extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings

placebo effect

improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement

control group

in an experiment, the group of participants that does not receive the manipulation

experimental group

in an experiment, the group of participants that receives the manipulation

informed consent

informing research participants of what is involved in a study before asking them to participate

central tendency

measure of the "central" scores in a data set, or where the group tends to cluster

range

measure of variability that consists of the difference between the highest and lowest scores

standard deviation

measure of variability that takes into account how far each data point is from the mean

heuristic

mental shortcut or rule of thumb that helps us to streamline our thinking and make sense of our world

median

middle score in a data set; a measure of central tendency

mode

most frequent score in a data set; a measure of central tendency

illusory correlation

perception of a statistical association between two variables where none exists

experimenter expectancy effect

phenomenon in which researchers' hypotheses lead them to unintentionally bias the outcome of a study

random selection

procedure that ensures every person in a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate

experiment

research design characterized by random assignment of participants to condition and manipulation of na independent variable

case study

research design that examines one person or a small number of people in depth, often over an extended time period

correlation design

research design that examines the extent to which two variable are associated

prefrontal lobotomy

surgical procedure that severs fibers connecting the frontal lobes of the brain from the underlying thalamus

response set

tendency of research participants to distort their responses to questionnaire items

confirmation bias

tendency to seek out evidence that supports our beliefs and to deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that contradicts them

independent variable

variable that an experimenter manipulates

dependent variable

variable that an experimenter measures to see whether the manipulation produces an effect

naturalistic observation

watching behavior in real-world settings without trying to manipulate the situation