Intro to Arch
BCE
"Before Common Era": the same as BC, avoiding religious connotation.
BP
"Before Present": AD 1950 arbitrarily selected as the zero point.
CE
"Common Era": the same as AD, except without religious connotation or privilege.
BC
"before Christ"
How was the rise of archaeology connected to the discovery of "deep time?"
- The discovery of human artifacts alongside extinct animal bones encouraged the archaeological study of the past.
Pausians
- was a ancient antiquarian (2nd century A.D) -he wrote a description of greece (as a travel guide to the ruins and other sites around greece) - was described as the 'prince of antiquaries" and relied on word of mouth -connected material culture and tradition
Gertrude Caton-Thompson (1888-1985)
-Advanced archaeology intellectually -Studied settlement patterns -Conducted interdisciplinary work: surveyed the northern Fayum Desert in Egypt, working with a geologist -Established the importance of site stratigraphy, a site's physical structure produced by the deposition of geological and/or cultural sediments into layers, or strata, to reveal age and original inhabitants
"Archaeologists" or "Antiquarians"?
-Archaeologists study artifacts systematically to understand past cultures. Think through things. -Antiquarians collect, document and exhibit artifacts for the artifacts for themselves. Think about things.
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
-Charles Darwin,1859, On the Origin of Species -Suggested the process by which modern people could have arisen from ancient primate ancestors. -His concept of natural selection helped to explain changes in the palaeontological record. Archae- ology became important for investigating humanity's antiquity.
Boucher Crèvecoeur de Perthes (1778-1868)
-Director of customs in northwestern France -In excavations for railways and canals, he found paleolithic handaxes associated with the bones of mammoths in deep, stratified deposits. -He believed they were "antediluvian" - before the flood
Alfred Vincent Kidder (1885-1963)
-Established archaeology as "the branch of anthropology which deals with prehistoric peoples" and the ultimate objective to move from things to people. -Excavated the Pecos Pueblo in New Mexico for ten summers -Interdisciplinary - ethnographers, botanists, geographers, geologists, early aerial photography
Dorothy Garrod (1892-1968)
-First female professor at the University of Cambridge
James Hutton (1726-1797)
-Proposed a uniformitarian view of geological -All geological strata around the globe could be accounted for in terms of the forces currently at work operating over long periods of time.
James Ussher (1581-1656)
-Ussher figured the age of the earth to be no more than about 6000 years. -According to Ussher, "Creation occurred on Saturday, October 22, 4004 BC."
Nabonidus
-ancient antiquarian: , the last king of the neo-Babylonian Empire (6th cen. BC). -used artifcats for political reason (confirm and legitimize authority)
Petrach
-modern antiquarian (14th century) -father of humanism (emphasizing the human over the divine) -degenerationist: things were better in ancient greece and rome, not enough to study text, the need to study them critically and comparitively and in the context of the monuments
Belzoni
-modern antiquarian (19th century) -circus strongman with the knowledge of hydraulics, traveled to Egypt in 1815 -used British financial backing, used engineering knowledge to pillage massive antiquities -used destructive methods, but he did take notes , observations and made illustrations -interested in what ancient "things" had to tell
Four Stages of Archaeological fieldwork
1. systematic survey and random sample 2.field testing by plotting materials recovered from shallow holes 3. survey area using subsurface testing 4.near and far remote sensing
Cultural-Historical paradigm
1900-1960: normative model of culture, describes artifact attributes to outline a temporal sequence and geographical distribution of past cultural norms Extensive excavation and interpretation of artifacts conducted to establish representative types of artifacts for different time periods and regions
Processual Paradigm
1960-1990; General systems theory, an effort to describe the properties by which all systems, including human societies, allegedly operate.Downplays the importance of the individual, Favours adaptive vs. ideational interpretations,Explanation is explicitly scientific - hypothesis testing,Attempts to remain ethically neutral and nonpolitical, Its origins trace to the 1960's and 1970's - the so-called "New Archaeology" most famously associated with Lewis Binford, Trigger says "New Archaeology" is less a paradigm shift (high level theory) and more a methodological break (low-middle level) with culture-history.
What is a GIS?
A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer system capable of assembling, storing, manipulating, analyzing and displaying geographically referenced information, i.e. data identified according to their locations.
What is a GIS?
A computer system that assembles, stores, manipulates, and analyzes geographically-referenced data
What is the scientific method?
A cyclical process wherein hypotheses are tested through independent observation and data collection, and then rejected, revised, or retested
Data Models
A data model is the method used to represent real world objects in a computer
Arch. in North America vs. Europe
A key difference between how archaeology developed in Europe and in North America (and other parts of the "New World) is the presence of indigenous peoples.
What is "Culture History?"
An archaeological paradigm that posits that culture change happens through the diffusion of culture traits between neighboring groups.
Who were the antiquarians?
Antiquarians sought out and removed ancient objects of value, often illegally
considered contemporary antiquarians
Antique/antiquities collectors?
Geoprocessing:
Any GIS operation that creates new data. Three main types: data extraction, overlays and proximity
Earthworks
Any feature that can be seen in relief, Revealed from the air as shadow marks,differences in vegetation, retention of water, etc.
Archaeology is anthropology or it is nothing" means
Archaeologists are concerned with answering questions about human culture, like other anthropological sub-disciplines.
In the mid-twentieth century, how did archaeology change?
Archaeologists had begun specializing in the culture history of specific regions.
Why do archaeologists conduct surveys?
Archaeologists survey to generate a representative sample of a landscape.
Archaeology
Archaeology is about artifacts, any moveable object that has been used, modified, or manufactured by humans, e.g. stone, bone, metal tools, beads, ornaments, artwork, religious and sacred items. Comes from the ancient Greek - "archaeologia" - discourse on the past and was first used in the fifth century by Greek historian Hippias
Low-Level Theory
Begins with archaeological artifact, ecofact, and features and generates relevant facts or data about those objects, The observations and interpretations that emerge from hands-on archaeological field and lab work, Low" level because archaeologists rarely think about the theories behind their basic observations in the field
also considered modern antiquarians
British Society of Antiquaries, Thomas Jefferson
Three characteristics of arch. that are most important to Dr. L
Collaborative, interdisciplinary, and thinking through things
The Scientific Method
Define a relevant problem. Establish one or more hypotheses. Determine the empirical implications of the hypotheses. Collect appropriate data. Test the hypothesis by comparing these data with the expected implications. Reject, revise, and/or retest hypotheses as necessary.
Settlement pattern
Empirical group of related sites in a region
Benefits of Noninvasive Archaeology
Expensive, but becoming more affordable and can reduce a project's overall cost -Archaeologists are no longer restricted to the artifacts, ecofacts and features they can see in front of them
Near vs. Far sensing
Far: Aerial photography and LiDAR Near: Proton magnetometer, soil resistivity, ground penetrating radar
Jens Jacob Asmussen Worsaae
First Professional Archaeologist Introduced inquiry into archaeology: excavation in order to answer questions. Not just the objects, but their context. Demonstrated existence of middens, refuse deposits resulting from human activities, generally consisting of sediment Documented potsherds, fragments of pottery.
Reconnaissance Surveys
Goal is to get an idea of what is on the ground, describe sites in a manner so that if someone else looks for them, they can refind specific sites
Surveying
Goal: document the range of archaeological remains across a landscape
What role does each type of theory play in archaeology?
High: Seeks to answer large "why" questions. Middle: Links human behavior to archaeological observations. Low: Interpretations of hands-on archaeological material.
Christian Jürgensen Thomsen (1788-1865)
His coin collecting may have made Thomsen aware of stylistic changes and their value for the relative dating of artifacts. In 1816 the Danish Royal Commission for the Preservation and Collection of Antiquities asked Thomsen to catalogue its collection of artifacts. Used the "three-age" system first suggested by Roman philosopher Lucretius - Stone Bronze Iron His scientific approach arranged items in a sequence in which material, style, decoration, and the context of discovery formed a coherent pattern
Charles Lyell (1797-1895)
His research supported uniformitarianism: geological changes had occurred in the past as a result of the same geological agencies acting over long periods and at the same rate as they do in the present Argued that humans lived with now-extinct animals in far distant past.
How do adaptive and ideational research perspectives differ in their approaches to culture?
Ideational = culture is a complex set of shared understandings. Adaptive = culture is a response to the material parameters of life
Settlement systems and social systems
Interpretations of settlement patterns
Moundbuilder Myth
Mounds were large-scale earthworks built by Adena and Hopewell cultures of the Ohio Valley between 800 B.C. and A.D. 500 and the Mississippian culture distributed throughout the southeast from AD 500 to 1500. -scientists at the time believed native americans weren't complex enough to build these structures and thought someone else had built them
Which of these options describes a paradigm?
Paradigms provide an overarching framework for understanding "how the world works."
Lewis R. Binford
Recognized the need to: address cultural evolution, ecology, and social organization make use of scientific methods and quantitative techniques scrutinize firsthand the operation of disappearing cultural adaptations
How does remote sensing contribute to archaeological exploration?
Remote sensing can target sites in a noninvasive way
How do archaeologists find sites when there is no evidence of artifacts or features on the surface?
SUB-SURFACE SURVEY: Plow zone, tree throws, shovel testing
Why is science "self-correcting?"
Scientists formulate testable hypotheses that can be measured with the same results obtained by different observers
How did Professor Kahn's literature search help prepare her for excavation?
She found that the area she was interested in hadn't been previously excavated, but there were photos of old settlement sites.
Georectification
The digital alignment of a satellite or aerial image with a map of the same area.
Applied Anthropology
The practical application of anthropological method and theory to the needs of society; e.g. development work, activism
Which best describes the archaeological approach to finding sites?
The process of finding sites is progressive- archaeologists increasingly focus their investigations as they uncover new information.
What characteristics do all four fields of anthropology share?
They share a global, comparative, and holistic approach to the study of culture
Aerial Photography
To use aerial photography effectively, an archaeologist needs to know how archaeological evidence reveals itself when viewed from the air. Most common features: Earthworks,Crop marks Soil marks
Surveying Tools
Tools: GPS, radio, watch, compass, field notebook, Ziploc bags, pencils, Sharpie, shovel, screen, trowel, tape measure, graph paper, Munsell book
Two types of data models
Vector Data Model-Abstract spatial features: Point, Line,Area (polygon), Good for representing clearly defined objects (e.g. lakes, rivers) Raster Data Model-Regular grid of cells Each cell represents an area on the ground Spatial resolution, Good for representing continuously changing attributes (e.g. elevation)
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR),
a remote sensing technique in which radar pulses directed into the ground reflect back to the surface when they strike features or interfaces within the ground, showing the presence and depth of possible buried features.
Proton magnetometry
a remote sensing technique that measures the strength of magnetism between the earth's magnetic core and a sensor controlled by the archaeologist. can create a contour map of an area
Adaptive perspective
a research perspective that emphasizes technology, ecology, demography, and economics as the key factors defining human behavior
Ideational perspective
a research perspective that focuses on ideas, symbols, and mental structures as driving forces in shaping human behavior.
Shovel testing
a sample survey method used in regions where rapid soil buildup obscures buried archaeological remains. It entails digging shallow, systematic pits across the survey unit
Tree throws
a surface Survey method used to Investigate uprooted trees for signs of archaeological artifacts, ecofacts and features
Culture
an integrated system of beliefs, traditions, and customs that govern or influence a person's behavior
AD
anno Domini, "in the year of the Lord": from the year after the birth of Christ
Five functions of GIS
assemble, manage, prepare, analyze, display
Cyrus Thomas
became the Bureau of Ethnology's first head of its new division of mound studies, Conducted a massive research project (2000 sites), Consulted ethnohistorical sources - reports of French and Spanish explorers that described mound construction, dispproved the moundbuilder myth
Overlays
combination of two or more data sets to create new data set
Site
concentration of material evidence about the human past. Types of sites include work/camp sites, permanent/seasonal homes, public sites, cemeteries, etc- nothing is typical!
Crop Marks
develop when a buried wall or ditch either decreases or enhances crop growth by affecting the availability of moisture and nutrients through changing the depth of the soil.
Cultural anthropology
emphasizes nonbiological aspects: the learned social, linguistic, technological, and familial behaviors of humans
Characteristics of science
empirical, or objective, systematic and explicit, logical, explanatory and predictive, self-critical and based on testing, public
TJ on Mound builder debate
even though he excavated a mound on his property he refused to take sides in the debate
What do archaeologists document?
everything they can observe about an artifact and the context in which it was recovered
Culture history
explains differences or changes over time in artifact frequencies by positing the diffusion of ideas between neighboring cultures or the migration of a people who had different mental templates for artifact styles.
Linguistic anthropology
focuses on human language: its diversity in grammar, syntax, and lexicon; its historical development; and its relation to a culture's perception of the world
Before the discovery of deep time
followed the tradition of Petarch -did not challenge the tradition of the Bible as the authority of humans and the world
Archaeological fieldwork
is progressive in the sense that proceeds in stages. Ideally, each successive stage builds on the one that preceded it
characteristics of culture
learned, shared, not biological or genetic, changes of time and space, is experienced (not something you have), manifests itself in material culture and the built environment, is symbolic (
Middle Level Theory
links observations of the contemporary archaeological record with the past human behavior or natural processes that produced them, Moves past the archaeologically observable to the archaeological invisible; that is, the relevant, human behaviors or natural processes of the past, Deriving middle-level (or middle "range") theories can occur through: Experimental archaeology Ethnoarchaeology Taphonomy Allows archaeologists to make "if...then" statements in their hypotheses
In Professor Kahn's lecture, she described using a reconnaissance survey before her excavation to:
locate, describe, and photograph sites for later excavation
Near and Far remote sensing
photographic and geophysical techniques that use of some form of electromagnetic energy to detect and measure characteristics of an archaeological feature Aerial photography [far] Proton magnetometer [near] Ground penetrating radar (GPR) [near] Soil resistivity [near] TIMS [far]
Sample universe
region that contains the statistical population and that will be sampled. Its size and shape are determined by the research question and practical considerations
Postprocessual paradigm
rejects the processual search for universal laws and emphasizes the role of the individual, Its origins trace to the 1980's and the work of Ian Hodder, who was at the University of Cambridge before moving to Stanford. Rooted in postmodern theories that reject universality, binaries, stability,Concerned with interpreting the past, more than with testing hypotheses, Artifacts are not just functional, they have symbolic meaning,Knowledge is "historically situated" and not objective as processual archaeologists argue,Postprocessual archaeology argues that all archaeology is political.
Soil marks
reveal the presence of buried ditches, banks or foundations by the changes in the sub-soil colour caused as plowing catches and turns over part of the feature, bringing it to the surface. -most commonly revealed during winter months
High-Level Theory
seeks to answer large "why" questions, Applies to inquiry about the human condition, Archaeologists might begin to answer these "Why?" questions by framing them within a paradigm
Statistical population
set of characteristics, counts, or measurements about which relevant inquiries are to be made (e.g. particular type of artifact such as lithic projectile points).
Systematic regional survey
set of strategies for arriving at accurate descriptions of the range of archaeological material across a landscape
Theory
statements that purport to explain observed, empirical phenomena.
Ephraim Squier, Edwin Davis
systematically investigated 200 sites - surveyed, excavated some and recorded artifacts. They still believed in the moundbuilder myth
Participant observation
the primary strategy of cultural anthropology, in which data are gathered by questioning and observing people while the observer lives in their society
Deep time
the recognition that life was far more ancient than recognized by biblical scholars and that human culture had evolved over time -ties in with geology
Science
the search for answers through a process that is objective, systematic, logical, predictive, and public.
Anthropology
the study of all aspects of humankind - biological, cultural, and linguistic; extant and extinct- employing a holistic, comparative approach and the concept of culture
Archaeology anthropology
the study of the past through the systematic recovery and analysis of material remains.
PLOW ZONE
the upper portion of a soil profile that has been disturbed by repeated plowing or other agricultural activity
Biological anthropology
views humans as biological organisms; also known as physical anthropology
Plow Zone archaeology
walking through plowed fields after tilling (and especially after a rain) because the plow turns up shallow buried remains.