Intro to Cognitive Science (Final)

What is the difference between high transitional probabilities and low transitional probabilities?

- High: tend to indicate syllables occurring within a word - Low: tend to occur across the boundaries of words

What are the pros of self-driving cars?

- Less human error = more lives saved - Accessible to those who cannot drive - Can engage in other activities during commute

What is a xenobot?

- Living robot - Small (< 1mm) biological machine

What are place cells and where are they located?

- Located in the posterior hippocampus - They are neurons involved in spatial navigation

How can patients lose up to 50% of their brain mass with alzheimer's?

- Loss of neurons in cortical and subcortical regions - Ventricles may be enlarged - Produces severe degeneration of large parts of the brain: can eventually destroy most of the hippocampus and cortical gray matter

What is PLANEX and what does it do?

- Monitors the execution of the plan - Ex: Calculates the degree of error at a certain stage of executing a plan, on the assumption that each ILA would introduce a degree of "noise" - When the degree of error reaches a certain threshold, PLANEX instructs SHAKEY to take a photo to check its position

How could we tell an Olympic athlete's nationality? Give examples.

Can only determine if they are smiling - Australian = friendly - American = dominant - British = polite

How to test the claim of innatism?

Can try to disprove by constructing models that simulate the trajectory of human language learning without explicitly representing any rules

T/F: Recovered memories can be real. Provide evidence to support your answer.

True Research has demonstrated that some people may indeed forget about painful childhood memories and recall it years later - There have been documented cases of individuals who had been treated in hospital emergency rooms for childhood sexual abuse, yet these individuals failed to recall the episode when interviewed as adults - Case of a college professor, Ross Cheit, who woke up one morning and suddenly remember having been molested by camp counselor - counselor confessed when confronted with the crime

T/F: The seven emotions defined by Ekman are universal. Elaborate.

True, studies have found that there are cross cultural similarities in emotional expression.

T/F: New jobs are being created by AI.

True, take AI designer, software engineer, cybersecurity developer, machine relations manager, for example

How are computer programs able to recognize human emotion from spoken auditory information alone?

They use neural networks to process features in speech, such as energy, speaking rate, and fundamental frequency

Name what Yuko Munakata and her collaborators suggested as an alternative approach to object permanence.

This involves the use of recurrent neural networks (RNN)

Memory as a information processing system involves what?

Three stages of memory processing and forgetting

How does more than 90% of our emotional communication occur? What are some examples?

Through nonverbal channels (e.g. facial expressions, and gesture, voice)

What is total physical response and how is it done?

Total physical response - Acquiring a language through movement - Can use hands to pantomime movements - Can also use gestures to represent words - Do 50-100 per session

How can AI be applied to advertising?

Tracking customer behavior to target them with personalized promotions

What are two ways to treat insomnia? Give examples.

Treatment of underlying physical/psychological problem Behavioral treatment - Sleep restriction: go to bed and get up at the same time - Stimulus control: associate your bed with sleep and/or sex - Relaxation response training

T/F: AI can generate fake emails, phone calls, video chats

True

T/F: AI poses the risk of a loss of privacy

True

Chomsky theory about language is considered a nativist view. What does that mean?

Language learning is innate

How does the example command CLEARTOP work isn SHRDLU?

"Does X support an object Y?" - Yes >>> get rid of Y and loop back to question - No >>> assert that X is CLEARTOP

In terms of BCIs, what is something that is an alternative method of collecting the same data and what are some of its drawbacks?

- A cap with electrodes can now be used instead of implants, but an extensive calibration process is required - You need to make sure the electrodes are going to match w what area you are trying to control (eg, motor context may be more rostral or caudal, etc)

What does the attentional explanation state?

- A fully processed perceptual experience that matches a minimally processed impression received moments earlier produces a strong feeling of familiarity - The original impression may not have been fully processed due to a physical distraction or a mental distraction, such as preoccupation with other thoughts

Describe a situated robot/creature.

- A situated creature is one that is "embedded in the world, and which does not deal with abstract descriptions, but through its sensors with the here and now" - Ex: Airline reservation system is situated but not embodied

Compared to junior physicians, how good is AI at diagnosing disorders?

- AI outperforms junior physicians in diagnosis of childhood illnesses like mononucleosis, flu, and chicken pox - Senior physicians did better than AI

Compared to radiologists, how good is AI at diagnosing disorders?

- AI was equal or better than radiologists at reading mammograms for high risk cancer lesions needing surgery - Reduced the number of benign surgeries by more that 30% compared to existing approaches

What is source amnesia?

- AKA source confusion: attributing to the wrong source an event that we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined - Case of Donald Thomson, a psychologist studying memory who was accused of rape after being interviewed on live television

Who experiences deja vu?

- About 60% of the population - Negatively correlated with age - Positively correlated with socioeconomic level and education - Positively correlated with stress and fatigue - More common in people who travel

How does a recurrent neural network (RNN) work?

- Activation associated with "sight" of the hidden object at a previous temporal stage is transmitted to the current stage - This information is then used to predict what the next set of inputs will be

How does sleep, or lack thereof, affect emotional regulation?

- After a night of no sleep, brain scans show a shutdown of the medial prefrontal cortex, which normally helps keep our anxiety in check - Research following youth through time found that sleep loss predicts depression rather than vice versa

What happens in the preoperational stage?

- Ages 2 to 7 - Child develops ability to symbolize objects and events that are absent - Engages in pretend play However, child still has trouble seeing things from different points of view: thinking is egocentric - Example is the three-mountain task: child is unable to describe how the mountains would look to the doll - Shift to new stage often happens quite abruptly, within a matter of a couple of weeks -Understanding at this stage is based on appearances rather than principles - Example is the conversation of liquid quantity where a child may say tall glass has more milk

What did Chomsky say about language?

- All human languages can be understood in terms of different parameter settings in a universal grammar - The universal grammar is an innate fixed structure that holds across all languages - The parameter settings are language specific and learned through hypothesis formation and testing

What does mind reading enable us to do and what is its significance?

- Allows us to make sense of other people - Allows us to coordinate our behavior with theirs - Key to human social interaction

What is one feature of the brain found in people with antisocial personality disorder and what may be a mediating factor in these individuals?

- An 11% reduction in volume of gray matter in prefrontal cortex - Research indicates that frontal lobe damage sustained in childhood through abuse may be mediating factor

Describe an embodied robot/creature.

- An embodied creature is "one that has a physical body and experiences the world directly through the influence of the world on that body" - Ex: An assembly line robot that spray paints parts in an automobile manufacturing plant is embodied but not situated - it doesn't interact dynamically or adaptively with the environment

What are dynamical models used to understand and how is this done?

- Are used to understand how agents are embedded in their environments - This is done by calculus-based methods to track the evolving relationship between a small number of variables over time

What are some problems with the polygraph as a lie detection test?

- Arousal associated with lying is no different from arousal caused by other stressful situations, such as being accused of a lie - Some people tend to be more prone to arousal so that they tend to show arousal even when they are not guilty - 1/3 of innocent declared guilty - 1/4 of guilty declared innocent

What is the dishabituation paradigm?

- Basic idea is that infants look longer at events that they find surprising - If infants perceive the event as we do, then they will look longer at the impossible or "magical" event than at the possible event

Describe Rodney Brook's robot Allen.

- Basic layer is obstacle-avoidance layer - Over time, more and more layers were added, mimicking how evolution works - Semi-autonomous subsystems operate relatively independently of each other, though some subsystems can override others - There is no central "controller" comparable to PLANEX in SHAKEY maintaining a continuously updated model of the world and its own state - Direct perception-action links allows robot to deliver immediate motor responses to sensory input

What is evidence to support the fact that people who are bilingual may think differently in different languages?

- Bilinguals reveal different personalities when taking the same personality test in their two languages - Bilinguals often switch languages, depending on which emotion they want to express - When responding in their second language, bilingual people's moral judgments reflect less emotion - they respond with more "head" than "heart"

What happens in the sensorimotor stage?

- Birth to 2 years - Act on objects (e.g., grasping, sucking, stepping) - Coordinate sensory experiences (e.g., vision and hearing) from these interactions - Form schemas (internal mental representations) about the objects - They learn to think about aspects of the environment outside of the reach of their senses - Object permanence

What are amyloid plaques and where are they found?

- Brains of alzheimer's patients - The plaques contain a core of misfolded b-amyloid protein surrounded by degenerating axons and dendrites, and neurofibrillary tangles, dying neurons that contain twisted filaments of tau protein - Deficiencies of acetylcholine: failure to show eyeblink conditioning

How does Oxford's AI "Lipnet" compare to humans?

- Can now also lipread (i.e., translate lip movements to text) with 93% accuracy - Human lip readers have an accuracy of 50-60 %

How accurate are computer programs able to recognize human emotion from spoken auditory information alone and what has that lead to?

- Can recognize emotions with about 79% accuracy (equivalent to human-level performance) - Programs like these have been used to develop virtual therapists and chatbot therapists

What are the cons of online programs that can help treat psychological disorders?

- Can't really replace human empathy - Adherence to treatment may be poor

What are the moral issues that come with self-driving cars?

- Cars will need to make "moral" decisions in unavoidable accidents - Which person to sacrifice, the pedestrian or the driver?

Give two instances in which eye witness testimony has wrongfully/fatally convicted individuals of a crime.

- Case of man who spent 11 years in prison for rape before they found out on the basis of DNA testing that he couldn't have been the assailant - A study examined 62 cases in which innocent people were later exonerated on the basis of DNA evidence (including 8 in which person had been sentenced to death); in 52 of these 62 cases, the crucial evidence leading to conviction had come from eyewitnesses

What are intermediate-level actions (ILAs)?

- Chain LLAs - Could recruit other ILAs - Ex: GETTO action routine calls upon the NAVTO routine for navigating around in the current room, as well as the GOTOROOM routine

What is one theory of why people are better at reasoning with deontic conditionals than with non deontic conditionals?

- Cheater detection module - When they solve problems with the deontic conditionals, they are using a specialized module for monitoring social exchanges and detecting cheaters

What is the container test?

- Child is shown a familiar kind of container (M&Ms bag) that contains an unexpected object (marble) - Asked to predict what other person will think is inside

What is some evidence in support of comprehensible input?

- Complexity of language learning, e.g., of vocab and grammar, wipes out skill building as a possibility - Average native English speaker knows 40,000+ words - Study found that second language readers who read a lot have larger vocabularies than native speakers who didn't read a lot - It's possible to acquire language without any conscious learning

Describe the experiment that explore the direct vs. indirect access hypothesis.

- Condition 1 (looking, passively viewing words): Participants asked to focus on a fixation point (a small crosshair) in the middle of a screen - Condition 2a (reading silently): Participants were presented with words flashed on the screen but told not to make any response - Condition 2b (listening): Participants listened to the same words being spoken - Condition 3 (reading out loud): Participants were asked to say out loud the word appearing on the screen - Condition 4 (speaking, generating verbs): Participants were presented with nouns on the screen and asked to utter an associated verb

What does a standard procedure for a polygraph lie detector test look like?

- Control question: up to age 18, did you ever physically harm anyone - Relevant question: did [the deceased] threaten to harm you in any way? If the response to the relevant > control, then it's a lie

What are some tasks that AI home robots can complete?

- Cooking, cleaning, and fetching - Increasingly used in instances that can be described as dangerous, dirty, or dull

What are the cons of self-driving cars?

- Criminal hacking or system glitches - Loss of jobs - High initial cost - Fewer people using public transportation

Describe the design process of the xenobots.

- Designed and programmed by a supercomputer using an evolutionary algorithm - A few hundred simulated cells were reassembled into myriad forms and body shapes The most successful simulated organisms were kept and refined

Briefly summarize how the use of AI in the public sector has evolved.

- Devices were initially controlled remotely, with a human supplying the "intelligence" - However, these agents are increasingly being sent into environments where the robots are required to "make decisions" on their own

In terms of psychotherapy, what are the two main (broad) things that AI can do?

- Diagnose/identify psychological disorders - Treat psychological disorders

What is the difference between the direct and indirect access hypothesis?

- Direct: do readers recognize a word directly from the printed letters? - Indirect: do they convert the printed letters into a phonological code to access the word and its meaning?

What is the obstacle avoidance layer?

- Directly connects perception (sensing an obstacle) to action (either swerving to avoid the obstacle, or halting when the obstacle is too big to go around) - Whatever other layers are built into the subsumption architecture, the obstacle avoidance layer is always online and functioning - For instance, there may be a "higher" layer that directs the robot toward a food source, but the obstacle-avoidance layer will still come into play whenever the robot finds itself on a collision course with an obstacle

List the three main scientific explanations for deja vu.

- Dual processing explanation - Attentional explanation - Memory explanation

What is/was SHAKEY and why was it called that?

- Early robot developed by Stanford Research Institute (1970) - Called SHAKEY because of its jerky movements - First robot that was able to move around, perceive, follow instructions, and implement complex instructions in a realistic environment (as opposed to just in a virtual micro-world like SHRDLU)

What are the pros of online programs that can help treat psychological disorders?

- Easy accessibility and affordability - Research has indicated that people would rather share their innermost secrets with an avatar than a human being

What are the three stages of memory processing and forgetting. Briefly describe each.

- Encoding: getting information into brain - Storage: retaining that information - Retrieval: getting the information back out - Forgetting can derive from problems in encoding, storage, or retrieval

The growing use of AI will inevitably lead to a loss of jobs. Within the next 15 years, do AI experts predict will be lost?

- Estimated that AI will replace or eliminate 40% of jobs - Greatest impact will be on jobs involving tasks that are repetitive and can be automated

What are some helpful practices to sleep better?

- Exercise daily (preferably in late afternoon), but not right before bed - No caffeine after 5pm - Relax and dim lights hour or two before bedtime - Using screens in a dark room was associated with worse sleep outcomes that using them with the lights on - Children who used screens at bedtime consistently scored lower on quality-of-life tests - Consume milk, banana, or sunflower seeds right before bed to raise serotonin levels - Identify problematic thoughts and determine how to deal with them

What are BCIs usually used in tandem with? How and why?

- Exoskeletons (robot suits) - Restore some movement to paralyzed patients - The user's EEG waves are read and translated into signals that control the robot's limbs - At the same time, feedback is sent to user's brain from sensors in soles of robot's feet

What is retrieval failure?

- Failure to access information that is stored in long-term memory - "Forgotten" material is not completely erased but merely inaccessible

What are some things (4) that AI cannot do well?

- Feel or show empathy - Have insights - Make plans for the distant future - Be conscious

Describe what must occur for language learning to occur by storytelling.

- Find fluent partner - Find magazines and children stories - Language partner will describe the photos how they would to a child,, elaborating a bit - NO ENGLISH - Don't teach grammar and don't correct

What did Cynthia Breazeal's Kismet Project accomplisH?

- First step in direction towards affective computing

What is damage to the hippocampus and surrounding areas called and what is the result of this?

- Full temporal lobe amnesia - Cannot form new explicit memories though they can form the new implicit memories - They often have normal IQs and can carry on a normal conversation but cannot remember anything that happened more than a few minutes previously

What are schemas?

- Generalized information about a situation or event (e.g., things people do at birthday parties) - In general, people show enhanced recall for schema-consistent material but there are exceptions

Summarize some of the causes of Alzheimers.

- Genetic component - Higher risk of disease in those who have previously suffered a stroke or head trauma - Conditions associated with cardiovascular disease, e.g., obesity, diabetes, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, smoking, and lack of exercise all increase risk - Associated with low levels of vitamin D and certain B vitamins - Exposure to lead and toxic substances, such as air pollutants, may increase the risk

Summarize

- Group of schoolchildren was shown a picture for 30 seconds. - Picture was taken away, and children asked whether they could still see anything, and if so, to describe what they saw - Some children showed evidence of this kind of memory

What are the functions of a xenobot?

- Groups of xenobots can move around in circles, pushing pellets into a central location - spontaneously and collectively - Others were built with a hole through the center and were able to use that as a pouch to successfully carry an object - When xenobot was cut in half, it stitched itself back up and kept going

The robot "Nao" will begin replacing tellers at a number of bank branches in Japan. How does it work?

- Has cameras in his face to analyze customers' facial expressions - Has microphones to judge their mood by tone of voice - Can greet customers in 19 different languages and ask which service they need

Name 7 domains in which AI can be applied.

- Healthcare - Home robots - Social robots - Public sector - Psychotherapy - Transportation - Misc.

Describe sensory memory.

- Holds sensory information very briefly (1/2 to 4 secs) - Large capacity store - Sensory input is held very briefly in sensory memory to allow selection and processing of information - Now often considered to be a part of perception

In terms of language, what does SHRDLU illustrate?

- How grammatical rules might be represented in a cognitive system and integrated with other types of information about the environment - How linguistic understanding can result from the interaction of many, independently specifiable cognitive processes

In terms of making plans for the distant future, how do humans and robots differ?

- Humans can plan their lives years in advance - Robots tend to focus only on completing the immediate task at hand

What is one response to the challenge that subsumption architecture robots do not constitute intelligent agents based on hybrid architectures?

- Hybrid architectures have subsumption architecture for low-level reactive control ("scaled-up insects") with... - traditional central planner for high-level decision-making ("scaled-down supercomputers") grafted onto them

What are the two types of sensory memory?

- Iconic memory (photographic memory): visual sensory memory - Echoic memory: auditory sensory memory

What part of the brain does a lack of sleep impact? What are the general effects of this?

- Impairs functioning of the prefrontal cortex, which has a negative impact on attention, memory, and decision making - Reduces neuroplasticity and the proliferation of cells in hippocampus, which can result in memory impairments

What does the memory explanation state?

- Implicit familiarity without explicit recollection - Ex: seeing a lamp in your friend's apartment that is similar or identical to one that used to be in your aunt's house

Describe the brain activity that fMRI brain imaging uses to identify lies.

- In general, deception is associated with increased activity on both sides of prefrontal (linked to response inhibition) - However, particular brain regions that are activated depend on various factors, such as whether lie is spontaneous or memorized and well-rehearsed, and whether lie has high or low salience

How do AI home robots aid elder generations?

- In retirement homes, they can provide interaction with the elderly who would otherwise be devoid of "human" interaction for long periods of time - Can permit family members to "visit" elderly parents -- or elderly parents to visit with family

Summarize the stepping reflex.

- In the first few months of life, infants are able to make stepping movements - They stop making these movement during the "non-stepping window" - The movements reappear when the infant starts walking at around 11 months of age

How does working memory work?

- Includes a phonological loop (associated with the left hemisphere) that briefly stores sounds, and a visuospatial sketchpad (associated with the right hemisphere) that stores visual and spatial information - Two visuospatial tasks will interfere with each other if performed simultaneously, as will two items in the phonological loop - However, people can perform a verbal task and a spatial task simultaneously - Episodic buffer - Central executive

What does the dual processing explanation state?

- Incoming sensory data follow several different pathways - A slight alteration in transmission speed in one pathway could cause the brain to interpret the data as two separate experiences

What is the traditional explanation for the U-shaped developmental trajectory of stepping?

- Infant's initial stepping movements are purely reflexive - They disappear during the non-stepping window because the cortex has matured enough to inhibit reflex responses - but is not sufficiently mature to bring stepping movements under voluntary control

How does a storage failure occur?

- Information stored in long-term memory gradually fades - In general, storage decay is not as severe as most people tend to think

What is the central executive?

- Integrates information from phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer - Similar to attention/sensory memory in Atkinson Shiffrin model

What are the potential applications of xenobots?

- Intelligent drug delivery: carrying medicine to a specific place in body - Traveling in arteries to scrape out plaque - Searching out and break down harmful compounds or radioactive wastes - Gathering microplastics in the oceans - Serving as new material for technologies that is fully biodegradable, unlike steel, concrete, or plastic that can cause ecological and health problems - Helping to develop greater understanding of how complex behaviors emerge from simple cells

How is weather prediction and the flap of a butterfly's wing related?

- Involves plotting paths that particles in atmosphere will take given different initial positions - If two particles start very close to each other, their paths will stay very close together for a short period of time, but eventually the distance between them becomes large and their trajectory, completely unpredictable - This is an example of "sensitivity on initial conditions" - It is this sort of sensitivity on initial conditions that makes weather difficult to predict - The period of time that we are able to accurately predict the weather is usually around 5-10 days

How useful is eidetic memory?

- It is not an especially useful form of mental activity - Contrary to popular lore, memory experts don't generally have eidetic imagery; their skill is in organizing material in memory, rather than in storing it in picture form

How does the TOTO robot identify the shortest route between previously visited landmarks?

- It uses a topological, rather than a metric map, that simply contains information as to whether two landmarks are connected, but not as to how far apart they are, and selects the path that goes via the smallest number of landmarks - Bees operate in similar fashion to identify shortcuts between feeding sites

Name three examples of AI in transportation.

- Kiwibots -Autonomous ships - Self-driving cars

In terms of hemispheric specialization, explain how the right and left side differ.

- Left: performs most language processing (95% for the right-handed; 50% for the left-handed) - Right: interprets a message's emotional tone, decodes metaphors, and resolves ambiguities

What are some factors that affect language acquisition?

- Motivation: positive correlation - Self-esteem: positive correlation - Anxiety: negative correlation - For language acquisition to really succeed, anxiety should be zero

Why is speech perception is an extremely complicated process?

- Need to separate voice of speaker from irrelevant background noises, which might include other simultaneous conversations - Pronunciation varies, depending on vocal characteristics of speaker - Speakers often slur or mispronounce words - Pronunciation of specific phoneme depends in large on previous and following phonemes - As mentioned, an actual physical event, such as a pause, marks a word boundary less than 40% of the time - Children's mispronunciations of lyrics in Christmas carols and Pledge of Allegiance - People use visual cues to facilitate speech perception - Study in which participants watched video of woman making one sound (ga) while different sound played (ba) - Responses reflected compromise (participants reported hearing da)

Briefly describe the capabilities of ELIZA.

- Not capable of anything that really resembled linguistic understanding - Simply programmed to respond to certain cues by making one of a small set of responses - Depending upon who one asks, ELIZA was either based upon or intended to parody typical conversational exchanges between psychotherapists and their patients

What is the False Belief (Displacement) Task and what is it used to asses?

- One of the best-known tests for mindreading ability - Tests whether children are able to abstract away from their own knowledge to understand that someone else can have different (and mistaken) beliefs about the world

What is word segmentation?

- One of the most basic challenges in understanding speech - Segmenting a continuous stream of sounds into individual words

Summarize two studies that show how easy it is to plant a false memory in someone's mind.

- Participants in one study were falsely led to "recall" that they had knocked over a punch bowl at a wedding when they were six-years-old - In a more recent study, 70% of students reported a detailed false memory of having committed a crime, such as assaulting someone with a weapon

What were the conclusions of the experiment that tested the direct vs. indirect access hypothesis?

- Patterns of activation identified across the different tasks thus supported a parallel rather than a serial model of single-word processing - In addition, the results support the direct access hypothesis: we do not need to sound words out (or subvocalize) to access meaning of words

Summarize the study done about the traffic accident.

- People were shown a film depicting a traffic accident then either asked how fast the cars were going when they hit each other or how fast they were going when they smashed into each other - People gave faster estimates when the word smashed was used - When asked a week later whether there was any broken glass in the accident, people who heard smashed were much more likely to answer yes

What do deontic conditionals involve and how have they been illustrated?

- Permissions, prohibitions etc. - Wason card problem

What are the two types of dyslexias that reflect the direct and indirect approaches?

- Phonological dyslexia manifests as severe impairment in reading phonetic script (similar to alphabetic system), but preserved ability in reading pictographic script - Surface dyslexia manifests as impairment in reading pictographic script (characters)

What is organic amnesia?

- Physical cause - Brain injury though accident or stroke

What observation by Piaget led him to believe that children were not just "little adults"?

- Piaget observed that children of different ages made different kinds of mistakes when solving problems - This led him to believe that children are not just "little adults" who know less - Rather, they think and speak differently - He proposed that humans progress through four developmental stages

Summarize the various findings related to object permanence.

- Piaget thought understanding of object permanence developed in infants around the age of 8 months - But, Renée Baillargeon argued that Piaget's finding was rooted in lack of motor ability in infants since experiments required infant to manually search for the hidden object by pulling a cover off to reveal the object - More recent studies have indicated that infants as young as 3.5 months of age and perhaps younger understand that objects continue to exist when hidden, that they can't just disappear

What did SHAKEY's programs enable it to do?

- Plan ahead and learn how to perform tasks better

List the different methods of lie detection.

- Polygraph - Guilty knowledge test - "Brain fingerprinting" - fMRI brain imaging

What are some features of the FELIX robots being developed?

- Programmed to learn to adapt to the actions and moods of their human caregivers - Programmed to become attached to human agent - Able to express anger, fear, sadness, distress, happiness, excitement, and pride

What do situated cognition theorists believe/propose?

- Propose a dynamical systems-like approach to robotics - Believe that we should start small and focus on basic ecologically valid problems - For instance, studying insects can allow us to better understand how organisms interact with their environment - Insects achieve high degrees of "natural intelligence" by exploiting direct connections between their sensory receptors and effector limbs

What does the connectionist approach to past tense acquisition provide evidence for?

- Provides an alternative to the rule-based conception of language comprehension and learning of nativist approaches discussed above - Demonstrates that it is possible to learn complex linguistic skills without having any explicit linguistic rules encoded in it

What are the strengths of the Piagettian theory?

- Provides good overview of children's thinking at different points - Fascinating observations

How can reading help you learn a language?

- Read things that you're passionate about - Watch baseball game, then go read about it in newspaper - This is also the key to teaching kids who don't want to learn to read

What are four ways to read emotions?

- Reading the Mind in the Eyes test (RMET) - Real vs. fake smiles - Identifying micro-expressions - Emotions conveyed by tone of voice

What is repisodic memory?

- Recall of a supposed event that is really the blending of details over repeated and related episodes - If asked to recall the details of last Monday's lunch, you might produce a episodic memory based on what you usually do for lunch

List the four factors that mess up our memory.

- Reconsolidation - Schemas - Source amnesia - Misinformation effect

How can AI be applied to economics?

- Record keeping - Fraud detection - Optimizing profits in online trading - Predicting market supply and demand

How are RNNs designed and how do they function?

- Recurrent neural networks are designed to deal with time series and sequence data - In a recurrent neural network, there are feedback connections that result in the output at Time 1 serving as the input at Time 2 - This functions as a type of memory

What are three characteristics of long term memory?

- Repository of all one's knowledge - Unlimited in the amount it can store - No time limit

In addition to the building of robots, what are the FELIX groups researching and what is their goal?

- Research also explores nonverbal cues and emotions associated with physical postures, gestures, and body movements - Aim is for robots to provide caregiving and companionship (e.g. in hospital settings)

Female crickets are extremely good at recognizing and locating mates on the basis of the song they make (phonotaxis). Why would this be a good behavior to model robots off of?

- Seems like program to do this would be very complex - one would need to identify the sound, work out where it comes from, then form motor commands that will take the cricket to the right place - However, turns out crickets are simply hard-wired to move in the direction of the ear with the highest vibration (provided that the vibration is suitably cricket-like) - There is no "direction-calculating mechanism," no "male cricket identification mechanism," and no "motor controller"

List the four stages of development according to Piaget.

- Sensorimotor - Preoperational - Concrete operational - Formal operational

List the 3 stages of memory according to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model?

- Sensory memory - Working (short-term) memory - Long-term memory

What are some things to consider when prescribing drugs such as adderall/inderal?

- Should use of drugs like adderall or propranolol be legal, given risks involved in using psychotropic medications? - Does that give performers or athletes an unfair competitive edge?

How does the Plunkett-Marchman multilayer neural network model of tense learning compare to humans?

- Similarly produced overregularization errors, but without sudden increase in size of training set - However, because this a neural network, it is not really biologically viable, since human neurons don't engage in backpropagation

What are the goals of the Human Brain Project?

- Simulate the brain; generate digital reconstructions and simulations of the mouse brain and ultimately the human brain Implement models of the brain in neuromorphic computing and neurorobotic systems - Develop a model of the brain that merges theory (top-down) and data-driven (bottom-up) approaches for understanding learning, memory, attention, and goal-oriented behaviors - Develop tools to explore new diagnostic indicators and drug targets

Explain the assembly process of xenobots and how they work togehter.

- Single stem cells were then cut and joined using tiny forceps and an electrode into close approximation of designs specified by computer - Cells began to work together - Skin cells formed more passive architecture while the once-random contradictions of heart muscle cells created ordered forward motion as guided by the computer design and aided by spontaneous self-organizing patterns

Describe the affective filter.

- Somewhere in the brain is a language acquisition device, according to Chomsky. Our job is to get input into that device. High anxiety blocks the input. - If a student thinks language class is a place where his weaknesses will be revealed, he may understand the input, but it won't penetrate

Name 6 applications of RNNs.

- Speech recognition - Speech synthesis - Machine translation - Music composition - Time series prediction - Robot control

What is the STRIPS planner?

- Stanford Research Institute Problem Solver - Similar to Newell and Simon's General Problem Solver (means-end analysis) - Translates a particular goal, e.g., fetching a block from an adjacent room, into a sequence of ILAs

What are the two most effective ways to lower your risk of developing disease?

- Staying physically active/not obsese - Keeping mind active >>> less loss of intellectual functioning in general as they age - Heart health >>> brain health

Between both "theories" about the stepping reflex, what are the overall conclusions?

- Stepping movements vary independently on how the cortex has developed - They depend on a number of parameters, such as leg fat, muscle strength, gravity, and inertia - In other words, walking does not involve a specific set of motor commands that "program" the limbs to behave in certain ways (top-down) - Rather, the activity of walking emerges out of complex interactions between muscles, limbs, and different features of the environment (bottom-up)

Describe the internal part of a cochlear implant and its function.

- Stimulates different regions of the basilar membrane, producing perceptions of sounds of different pitches - High-frequency sounds cause the base of the basilar membrane (near the oval window) to flex - Low-frequency sounds cause the apex (opposite end) to flex, and the whole basilar membrane also flexes back and forth in time to the sound wave

What are two ways to take a natural language approach to second language learning?

- Storytelling - READING

List the abilities of healthcare robots.

- Take orders from and deliver items to a patient - Act as an around-the-clock sitter - Assist frail and elderly patients out of a bed or chair - Provide a video connection to a distant doctor (eg, in a remote clinic or cruise ship)

Where are the "places" of symbolic and subsymbolic processing the ACT-R buffers?

- The general information processing that takes place in the buffers is symbolic - In contrast, the calculations that determine whether or not a particular item of knowledge ends up in a buffer are subsymbolic

Simple recurrent networks have been successfully trained to predict the next letter in a sequence of letters or the next word in a sequence of word. The learning trajectory of these networks strongly resembles what?

- The learning trajectory of human infants such as learning how to form the past tense of English verbs, both regular and irregular

Summarize the main point about the ACT-R buffers.

- The main point is about what action gets implemented - There are production rules that are stored within procedural memory - Those decide which action is taken next - Other factors include: sensory data, motor feedback loops, declarative memory, and procedural memory - The pattern matching ultimately determines what action is taken

What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?

- The mechanism through which learning occurs in brain - A long-term increase in the excitability of a neuron to a particular synaptic input caused by repeated high frequency - Stimulating a particular neural circuit will increase the sensitivity of neurons in that circuit, increasing the probability that they will fire again - Process involves binding of glutamate to NMDA receptor

At what rate does a RNN learn and what is the result of this?

- The network learns gradually which means that sensitivity to object permanence is a graded phenomenon - In the early stages of training, it may be strong enough to drive perceptual "expectations" but too weak to drive motor behavior (e.g., manually search for a hidden object)

How does a recurrent neural network (RNN) learn?

- The network's learning (which works via standard backpropagation) is driven by the discrepancy between the predicted input and the actual input - As training progresses, the network becomes increasingly proficient at predicting the reappearance of occluded objects over longer and longer periods of occlusion

How do subsumption architectures operate?

- These robots do not operate by executing algorithms to map their surrounding, etc., but rather with a set of relatively simple stimulus-response mechanisms - Their intelligence aggregates from the bottom up, rather than being organized explicitly from the top down - Based on idea that intelligence (and consequently, performance of efficacious action) does not require formal symbolic representation

What have studies found out about older people with tooth and gum disease?

- They score lower on memory and cognition tests - Experts speculate that inflammation in diseased mouths migrates to the brain

What are the goals of affective computing?

- To create computers and robots with the ability to recognize emotions in people (ex: computer could tell when you are tired or frustrated based on your facial expression and recommend a rest break) - To imbue machines with ability to express emotions

In terms of AI and healthcare, how can systems like IBM Watson determine optimal treatment?

- Type and dosage of drugs - Best diet for individual, eg, to avoid glucose spikes after eating - This may vary, depending on patient's unique gut microbiome

What is object permanence?

- Understanding that object continues to exist even though they cannot see it - Infants do not understand object permanence, which is why they respond to the game of peek-a-boo - Once they develop object permanence, they quickly lose interest in the game - Infants also won't reach under cloth for toy that is hidden - According to Piaget, object permanence is one of most important accomplishments of the sensorimotor stage

What is one response to the challenge that subsumption architecture robots do not constitute intelligent agents based on behavior-based robots?

- Unlike subsumption architectures, behavior-based ones represent their environments and use those representations in planning actions - However, unlike symbolic architectures, there is no central planning system

What is the yokoi hand?

- Using a traditional computational approach, grasping an object (e.g., a glass) requires computing an object's shape and configuring the hand to conform to that shape - The Yokoi hand is instead constructed from elastic and deformable materials that allow the hand to adapt itself to the shape of the objects being grasped

What is the relationship between taxi driving and the brain?

- Volume of the posterior hippocampus of London taxi drivers was found to be larger than that of control participants - Also, the longer an individual had been a taxi driver, the larger was the volume of the posterior hippocampus

What are the implications of the comprehension hypothesis?

- What is of primary importance is not pushing a person to speak from Day One - Rather, it is listening, picking up comprehensible input

What does "memory as reconstruction" mean?

- What we think we remember often never really occurred -- we filter information and fill missing pieces

When predicting recidivism with a large number of variables involved, who is the best predictor and why?

- When a larger number of variables are involved (as generally happens in the real world) the algorithm-based tools perform far better than people - Tools approach 90% accuracy in predicting which defendants might be arrested again, compared to about 60% for human predictors - These tools consider factors such as pre-sentence investigation reports, attorney and victim impact statements, and an individual's demeanor

Why can't machines be conscious?

- Whether machines can have consciousness depends on the definition of consciousness - No machine today meets all the criteria that we may give to consciousness and that humans have

What are 4 reasons that may cause eyewitness testimony to make errors?

- Witness' attention was stressed and/or distracted (eg, by presence of a gun) - Plausible misinformation was given during questioning - Witness is pressured to give a specific response - Witness is given positive feedback (could be even a simple "Okay")

What is the preferred term for short term memory and why?

- Working memory (Baddeley) - It emphasizes that this is an active, rather than a passive, process

How do xenobots move and what does this enable them to do?

- Xenobots are able to move in a coherent fashion to explore their watery environment and can survive for days or weeks, powered by embryonic energy stores

What is savant syndrome is largely attributed to? Give examples.

A seemingly limitless memory - Musical savants can play back, note for note, lang passages of music heard just once - Artistic savants can reproduce exact copies of animals or people or scenes from memory - Human calculators can tell you the day of the week that corresponds with any given day of any given month and year, past, or future

What has delayed the release of self-driving cars into the public?

A series of widely publicized crashes (some were fatal)

What was the physical environment in which SHAKEY operated in, like?

A suite of rooms (overall about 40 ft x 60 ft) that were empty except for some boxes that SHAKEY could move around

How many people are wrongfully convicted each year in the US on the basis of eyewitness testimony?

2,000 to 10,000

By age 3, a child growing up in poverty would have heard how many fewer words in his home environment than a child from a professional family

30 million

Out of cards A K 6 and 9, which ones would you turn over to test the statement that "If a card has a vowel on one side, then it has an even number on the other side" ?

A and 9

What is the insanity defense/plea?

A defendant is not responsible for criminal conduct "if at the time of such conduct as a result of mental disease or defect he lacks substantial capacity either to appreciate the criminality of his conduct or to conform his conduct to the requirements of the law"

What is a potential hazard of the use of AI in the diagnosis of diseases?

A radiologist who misreads a scan may harm one patient, but a flawed AI system in widespread use could injure many

What percentage of accused felons plead insanity?

1%

How would it be possible to create savant-like memorization skills and artistic abilities in people without autistic traits?

By disrupting left anterior frontal lobe with TMS

How can we explain how an 8-month-old infant figures out which combinations of syllables make words, and which ones don't?

By model of transitional probabilities

What is another way we are now able to diagnose diabetic retinopathy?

AI analysis of smartphone images can now be used to diagnose diabetic retinopathy with high degree of sensitivity

What is one way that sexual aggression is currently treated?

By using synthetic steroids that inhibit the production of androgens by the testes like Depo-Provera

How does the pattern-matching module controls which production rule gains access to the buffer?

By working out which production rule has the highest utility at the moment of selection, as determined by - How likely the system is to achieve its current goal if the production rule is activated - The cost of activating the production rule

What is eidetic memory and what categories of memories does it fall under?

AKA photographic memory - Type of iconic memory >> short term memory - Characterized by relatively long-lasting and detailed images of visual scenes that can sometimes be scanned and "looked at" as if they had real existence

About what percentage of children with autism have savant talents?

About 10%

What happens in the formal operational stage?

Aged over 11 Child develops ability to engage in hypothetical and deductive reasoning and to think about abstract concepts - Child may know that 4 + 1 is odd, that 6 + 1 and 8 + 1 is odd - However, before this stage, doesn't understand that if you add one the any even number, the result will be odd - Child is asked to discover what makes a pendulum go fast of slow (length of string, weight of object, or initial force that sets pendulum in motion) - Before this stage, they don't understand that one factor varies white the others hold constant

What happens in the concrete operational stage?

Ages 7 to 11 Child develops higher order schemas called operations which means they understand the reversible consequences of actions - Conservation of liquid quantity - Conservation of mass quantity - Conservation of number

How does AI work with firefighters?

Can have teams of autonomous aircrafts that go out and do firefighting, either fully autonomously or in tandem with human-piloted aircrafts

What is the main idea of the massive modularity hypothesis?

All information processing is modular and there is no central processing

What does the FaceSense program at MIT do and what can it be used for?

Analyzes facial expressions, head gestures, etc - Along with top-down predictions of what the expected effect should be like in a given situation, can be used to evaluate customer satisfaction - Also used as training tool for autistic spectrum disorders

How was an AI system able to generate predictions of depression risk that were as accurate as standard depression screening tests?

Analyzing Facebook posts - Indicators included references to sadness, loneliness, hostility, rumination, and increased self-reference, e.g., words like "alone," "ugh," "tears," and higher frequency of use of "I" and "me" - Length and timing of posts were also considered Analyzing Instagram photos - Photos posted by depressed individuals tended to be bluer, darker, and grayer - The more comments Instagram posts received, the more likely they were posted by depressed participants, but the opposite was true for likes received - Depressed participants were more likely to post photos with faces, but had a lower average face count per photo than healthy participants - The screening models created from the data were able to outperform general practitioners in correctly diagnosing depression without the assistance of assessment instruments

What is the episodic buffer?

Another component of working memory that can hold and combine information from phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad and long-term memory

What are cochlear implants?

Another type of neural prosthetic to aid hearing

What can the use of biofeedback/virtual reality help to treat?

Anxiety disorders and/or ADHD

What were the results of the experiment that tested the direct vs. indirect access hypothesis?

Areas of activation in Conditions 3 and 4 (speaking words) did not include areas in Condition 2a and 2b (reading silently and listening to words, respectively)

What does the video where the mother doesn't respond and the baby is like wtf provide evidence for?

Attunement between caregiver and child (child's understanding that caregiver knows how he feels) is critical for normal development

When babies show surprise at the disappearing of an object, what does that demonstrate?

Baillargeon's drawbridge experiment illustrating violation-of-expectation (VOE) Demonstrates rudimentary understanding of object permanence

By understanding how crickets find a mate, what has been created?

Barbara Webb has used this model to build robot crickets that can identify the source of a sound and move automatically toward that source without any of the systems normally assumed by GOFAI

Subsumption architectures are made up of layers that are built up from what? Name one example

Behaviors - Ex: obstacle avoidance layer

What do many cognitive scientists think that object permanence depends upon?

Body of rules/principals, a sort of explicit symbolic representation

What does LTP mean psychologically?

Both positive and negative thoughts tend to be self-reinforcing

Who differentiates between robots that are situated and those that are embodied?

Brooks

How were xenobots built?

Built from the ground up using biological cells - Made of skin cells and heart cells in the form of stem cells harvested from frog embryos

How is each basic (7) emotion expressed?

By a unique set of muscle contractions in the face

SHRDLU was one of the first attempts to write a program that was not just trying to simulate conversation, but also do what?

Capable of using language to - Report on its environment - Plan actions - Reason about the implications of what is being said to it

Where are implicit memories processed?

Cerebellum and basal ganglia

What is the role of the cerebellum and basal ganglia in the creation of implicit memories?

Cerebellum: involved in learning of procedural memories for skills Basal ganglia: deep brain structure important in motor sequencing - Parkinson's disease involves degeneration of parts of the basal ganglia

The question "Does the flap of a butterfly's wings in Brazil cause a hurricane in Texas?" is an example of what?

Chaotic system

What type of cases does 'recovered memory' literature focus on?

Child abuse

How does the brain of someone with antisocial personality disorder compare to a "normal" person?

Compared with people who feel and display empathy, brains of those with ASPD also respond less to facial displays of others' distress

What are 4 words to characterize dynamical systems? Explain.

Complex Self-organizing Emergent Nonlinear - When our brain issues a command to move our hand to grasp an object, the perception we receive of our initial movement will feed back and alter our subsequent movements, allowing us to fine-tune our movement Non-predictable - Chaotic systems, such as the brain or mind, can exhibit a wide range of possible behaviors - It is not a random process, but neither is it as predictable as a simple linear system; it only has short-term predictability - A defining feature of chaos is sensitivity to initial conditions -Two slightly different starting conditions in a chaotic system will eventually diverge to produce two very different outcomes

What is a potential threat of AI's success in lip reading?

Computers can now replicate human voices extremely accurately - Company Lyrebird has created program that can replicated voices of people, including powerful political figures, after analyzing only one minute of audio More challenging to replicate associated facial movements - Creating video of Obama required 14 hours of Obama high quality footage to train system to translate audio into mouth shapes

What is affective computing?

Computing that relates to, arises from, or deliberately influences emotions

What is a very poor predictor of whether a memory is accurate?

Confidence of a witness Nevertheless juries are strongly influenced by confidence

What is one difficulty of building robots that can observe and respond to emotions?

Construction requires a large team of different experts, including psychologists, linguists, computer programmers, etc

Why should there be a cheater detection module?

Cooperative behavior presumably has a genetic basis However, an individual who takes advantage of cooperators without reciprocating will likely do better than one who cooperates - Ex: They gain your trust, then steal all your bananas So how could the genes for cooperative behavior ever have become established? - Enter the cheater detection module...

What was the basic idea behind ELIZA?

Create the illusion of conversation by rephrasing statements as questions and by programming the computer to give certain fixed responses where this is not possible

What are display rules? Give an example.

Cultural norms that dictate what emotions are appropriate to express in particular situations Ex: Eyebrow flash, Japanese, who are more reserved in their social expressions, use it mainly when greeting young children, whereas Samoans greet nearly everyone that way

What are some common causes of retrieval failure?

Lack of appropriate retrieval cues (due to encoding specificity principle) - Ex: Inability to recognize student from your biology class at a dorm party Repression of painful or anxiety-provoking information - There have been documented cases of individuals who had been treated in hospital emergency rooms for childhood sexual abuse, yet these individuals failed to recall the episode when interviewed as adults

What are the ten happiest jobs?

Data Analyst Human Resources Manager IT Specialist Marketing Specialist NET Developer Project Coordinator Senior Software Developer Systems Analyst Teaching Assistant Quality Assurance Analyst Italics = AI related

What is explicit memory and what are the two types?

Declarative memory (with conscious recall) - Recall or recognition of information; can be verbally transmitted - Episodic memory: recall of personal facts - Semantic memory: recall of general facts

What is a common brain activity pattern that has been found in the brains of convicted murderers?

Decreased prefrontal activity and increased subcortical activity (including amygdala)

What could be a potential danger of AI were to be leveraged by a terrorist group?

Deliberate programming of AI to be hostile

Explain Breazeal's Kismet Project.

Designed to model the interaction between an infant and its caregiver - Cute robotic head capable of sensing others and making wide range of facial expressions - Processed visual and auditory information to detect affective information - Information then guided its own emotional state, e.g, expressing frustration, anger, surprise, or sadness - If it does not receive enough stimulation, it expresses sadness - If it is getting too much stimulation, it makes a fearful face - If it receives a moderate amount of stimulation, it expresses joy

Even though readers use both direct and indirect access when reading, which is more efficient?

Direct access

What is the dual-route approach to reading?

Direct vs. indirect access hypothesis

Define alzheimer's disease.

Disease occurring in latter part of life that is characterized by deterioration of intellectual abilities (memory, reasoning, and language abilities)

What are the four main characteristics of modular processes? Briefly describe each.

Domain-specificity - Modules are designed to carry out very specific and circumscribed information processing tasks - Can only operate on limited range of inputs Informational encapsulation - Not affected by what is going on elsewhere in the mind - Cannot be "infiltrated" by background knowledge and expectations or knowledge from other modules Speed - Modular processing operates quickly and efficiently, e.g., shape analysis Mandatory application - Respond automatically - Cannot be "switched off," e.g., perception of visual illusion

What is "brain fingerprinting"?

EEG technique based on idea that brain emits a particular type of brain wave pattern when one views emotionally significant material that one has seen before

What is an example of infant folk physics and how does it differ from adult folk physics?

Ex: innate understanding of basic principles governing the behavior of physical objects Infants place more weight on spatiotemporal continuity than on featural continuity - They do not show surprise if a green scarf disappears behind a screen and a bunch of flowers emerges at the other side of the screen - They show more surprise if a large white rabbit appears in a box, then later in a hat, without seeing a path of movement for it For adults, featural constancy is more important - If they see a large, distinctive white rabbit appear in a box, then later in a hat, they assume it's the same rabbit, even if they don't immediately see a path of movement for it - If they see a green scarf turn into a bunch of flowers as it passes through a magician's hand while maintaining its trajectory, they assume it is a different object

Who is ELZA?

Early computer program that could engage in some very elementary forms of conversational exchanges

How were micro-expressions identified and how are they now organized?

Ekman identified 46 distinct muscular movements (action units) in the face Facial Action Coding System (FACS)

What are some examples of Darwinian modules that engage in more complex types of information processing?

Emotion detection Intuitive mechanics or folk physics - Innate understanding of basic principles governing the behavior of physical objects, e.g., that objects don't "magically" appear and disappear Folk psychology Cheater detection

What types of jobs are hard to replace?

Emotionally demanding jobs - Therapist (depends on individual bc some veterans like talking to AI) - Taking care of babies/children - Human resources - Politician Creative jobs - Writer - Software/graphic designer

According to Raymond Dolan and other researchers, how do emotions and thoughts differ?

Emotions, unlike thoughts, are embodied

True/false: learning language from TV is beneficial

FALSE, it can be detrimental

What is the shared attention mechanism (SAM) and when does it occur?

One of the many stepping stones to the development of TOMM Occurs when infants look at objects and take pleasure in looking at objects

Identify evidence to support the idea that implicit understanding of false belief can develop well before age 4.

Experiment similar to false belief displacement task: measured looking time in 15- month old infants - Results indicated that children looked significantly longer (indicating surprise) when actor's behavior violated expectations than someone with an understanding of false belief would have - Suggests that children may develop an implicit understanding of false belief by 15 months, but that explicit understanding (involving explicit conceptual abilities manifested in verbal responses and explicit reflection) develops later

List out the "tree" of types of long term memory.

Explicit (declarative) - episodic - semantic Implicit (prodedural)

What is morphological computation?

Exploiting features of body shape to simplify what might otherwise be highly complex information-processing tasks

Because eyewitness testimony has lead to so many wrongful convictions, there is strong evidence that...

Eyewitness testimony is both unreliable and manipulable

T/F: It is hard to plant a false memory in a person's mind.

False, it's really not all that hard to plant a false memory in a person's mind, especially if a person is asked to visualize the event

T/F: There are only a few computer programs that already exist that are capable of recognizing human emotion from spoken auditory information alone.

False, there are already a number of them that exist

T/F: Children with autistic spectrum disorder show higher performance in both pretend play and mindreading

False. children with autistic spectrum disorder show impoverished pretend play, as well as impairments in mindreading

What does FELIX stand for and what is it (briefly)?

Feel, Interact, eXpress A global approach to development with interdisciplinary grounding

The fact that human babies and kittens are exposed to the same language but only humans acquire the language supports what view held by Chomsky?

Humans are born with a specialized language acquisition device -- they are pre wired to learn language

Explain the café wall illusion: are the grey lines slanted or straight?

Not clear how this illusion works, but one theory is that neurons in the brain interpret a brightness contrast between tiles as a small wedge, making the lines appear slanted

What are the two structures that play a particularly important role in the processing and storing of new explicit memories>

Frontal lobes: recalling information and holding it in working memory Hippocampus: "save" button for explicit memories - The hippocampus acts as a loading dock where the brain temporarily holds to-be remembered information Items then migrate for storage elsewhere in a process called memory consolidation

Are the results of a polygraph allowed as evidence?

Generally no, unless both parties agree to its use

What does GOFAI stand for?

Good Old-Fashioned Artificial Intelligence

Compared to opthalmologists, how good is AI at diagnosing disorders?

Google AI algorithm found to be just as effective in diagnosing diabetic retinopathy (leading cause of blindness)

What are the seven basic emotions identified/defined by Ekman?

Happiness, surprise, disgust, contempt, anger, fear, sadness (HA! SUe DIdn't COllect ANna's FEcking SAuce)

What is psychogenic ("hysterical") amnesia and give an example.

Has a psychological cause - Ex: Dissociative identity disorder (multiple personality disorder) -- disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities

In 2017, what was discovered about hearing loss?

Hearing loss is now known to be the largest modifiable risk factor for developing neurocognitive disorders, exceeding that of smoking, high blood pressure, lack of exercise, and social isolation

How can AI be applied to customer service?

Help lines providing information to customers

Where are explicit memories formed?

Hippocampus

Describe short term memory.

Holds items that are actively being thought about Has limited capacity - 7 +/- 2 items, e.g., letters, words, dots, though this number can vary by task - Number of words you can speak in 1.5 seconds Also limited in time, but longer than sensory memory - Lasts 5 to 30 seconds - Information decays rapidly unless maintained in consciousness through rehearsal

What does the stepping reflex help us understand?

How dynamical systems function

What is an example of organic amnesia?

Korsakoff's amnesia (Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome): amnesia caused by brain damage resulting from thiamine deficiency, usually as a result of chronic alcoholism

How does a guilty knowledge test assess a person's guilt?

If a suspect shows spike in physiological measures only to items present at crime scene but claims they were not there, that indicates that they may be lying It assumes that innocent examinees will see all options as equally plausible An example question may be: Were you at the scene of the crime? What kind of clothes was the deceased wearing?

Explain the illusion that questions if Tile A or Tile B is darker, or are they the same color?

Illusion results from visual system's attempt to maintain lightness constancy: we perceive an object as having a constant color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

How is sleep related to creativity? Give an example.

Impairs process of making broad connections and gaining creative insight Ex: Participants were presented with a new task where discovery of a hidden rule greatly improved speed of performance - Sleep dramatically increased the likelihood of grasping the hidden rule - Sleep causes our brain to create new links, which is why we often wake up with solutions to previously unsolvable problems

How can object permanence be explicitly represented?

In a body of rules and principles

Where can early childhood roots of mind reading be found? Explain.

In pretend play - Typically emerges around 14 months and is considered a major milestone in cognitive and social development - Some of infant's primary representations of the world and other people become "decoupled" from their usual functions while preserving their ordinary meaning

How do children born blind/deaf manifest emotions and what does this tell us?

In the same basic way as sighted children; expressions do not have to be learned through observation

How common is alzheimer's disease?

Occurs in 7% of population above age of 65 and up to 40% of people older than 80 years

What is the misinformation effect?

Incorporating misleading information presented after an event into one's memory of the event

How does the continuing development of computer technology pose a related health risk?

Increase in screen time - 3-5 year old children with higher use of screen-based media gad lower measures of structural integrity /myelination and scored lower on cognitive tests - In older adults, increased television viewing was found to be correlated with cognitive impairment and poor verbal memory - In fruit flies, daily blue-light exposure causes brain neurodegeneration, as well as shortening of lifespan

What is proven by the fact that pretend play emerges during the second year of life, but children do not typically pass the false belief test until they are nearly 4?

Indicates that the BELIEVES operation is much harder to acquire than the PRETENDS operation

What research was done that contradicted the initial theory about the stepping reflex and what conclusions were drawn?

Infants in the non-stepping window will make stepping movements - When they are suspended in warm water - When they are placed on a treadmill On the other hand, stepping movements can be inhibited before the start of the non-stepping window by attaching small weights to baby's ankle Conclusion: stepping movements could be artificially induced or inhibited in infants by manipulating features of the environment

How does an encoding failure occur?

Information never entered long-term memory (lack of attention)

What could implants replace in the future? How? What is a drawback to this?

Inout devices - Mouse, keyboard, touchpad would no longer be needed - Would result in faster information exchange between human and machine - There are always some number of neurons in the brain that get damaged with implants which would anger IRB (lol)

Define neurolaw.

Interdisciplinary field of study that explores effects of new research findings in cognitive science on forensic psychiatry and legal practice

What are the effects of sleep deprivation?

Irritability, fatigue, impaired concentration and creativity, and greater vulnerability to accidents - Surprisingly, people are often unaware that their concentration, judgement, etc, are impaired

What is being awake for more than 24 hours equivalent to?

It impairs performance as much as having a blood alcohol level of .10% - which is legally drunk

Why is the ACT-R hybrid cognitive architecture considered hybrid?

It incorporates both symbolic and subsymbolic information processing

Why is fMRI brain imaging not currently used as much to detect lies?

It is very expensive and has questionable accuracy

What does it mean to apply the idea of morphological computation to robotics?

It means building as much of the computation as possible directly into the physical structure of the robot

Describe how Cynthia Breazeal's "Leonardo Robot" acted in the video.

It responded accordingly to stimuli after it was trained to respond in a certain manner

What is the skill building hypothesis?

Language is acquired as a result of learning language skills, such as vocabulary and grammar - Use skill building: learn grammar, study vocab lists, do drills, take tests - "No pain, no gain" - General public (and government) believe this is the way to learn language

What do reflexive responses tell us about knowledge?

Knowledge does not exist in isolated representations; rather, knowledge is embodied

What is the comprehension hypothesis?

Language skills such as vocabulary and grammar, result from language acquisition - we acquire language in one and only one way: when we understand messages - Use "comprehensible input": listen to stories, read books, have conversations, watch movies - Immediate gratification: have a good time - the more you enjoy it, the better your comprehension will be - Comprehensible input has won in pretty much every single study comparing the two methods

SHAKEY was the first robot that used what?

Layered architecture - complex behaviors are hierarchically organized

The consortium of universities and robotic companies across Europe involved in FELIX are that are developing roots that can do what?

Learn, interact, and respond to humans as children might do

What is dyslexia?

Learning disability that interferes with reading despite average or above average intelligence

How can you tell which smiles are real and which one's aren't?

Look at the eyes

What happens to the metabolic rate of an 18 year old after 2 weeks of restricted sleep and why?

Looked like 60-year-old in ability to metabolize glucose Sleep debt can also cause metabolic and hormonal changes that mimic aging and lead to diabetes, obesity, hypertension, and memory impairment

What may lesions in the amygdala be a cause of?

Loss of ability to learn fear conditioning and may also play a role in aggressive behavior

Why can't machines has insights?

Machines cannot tackly novel situations; they need to learn from large volumes of past data As Anthony Goldbloom puts it, machines cannot "connect seemingly disparate threads to solve problems they have never seen before" Percy Spencer was working on radar during World War II when he noticed a magnetron (used to generate radio signals) melting his chocolate bar >>> discovery of the Microwave oven

What does the shared attention mechanism enable? Name one exception to this.

Makes possible a range of coordinated social behaviors and collaborative activities Children with autistic spectrum disorder have difficulties with this type of joint attention - There is a strong correlation between severity of social impairments and inability to engage in joint attention

What has been found between the emotional expressions of Japanese Americans and Japanese nationals?

Many differences, but the two groups are nearly indistinguishable when displaying neutral facial expressions

Outline evidence that supports the fact that recovered memories can be false.

Many reported incidences of abuse probably never happened - Case of woman who "remembered" being raped by father Study on implanting false memories in children - An adult repeatedly asked a child to think about several real and fictitious events - "Think hard, and tell me if this ever happened to you. Can you remember going to the hospital with a mousetrap on your finger?" - After 10 weeks, a new adult asked the same question - 58% of preschoolers produced false (and often vivid) stories regarding one or more events they had never experienced - When reminded that his parents had told him several times that the mousetrap incident never happened - that he had imagined it, the child protested, "But it really did happen. I remember it!"

Memory disorders serve as evidence for what?

Memory systems

How rare is photographic memory?

Only 5% or so of tested schoolchildren have it and proportion is much smaller in adults"

What was found in the autopsy of Charles Whitman, the sniper who murdered 16/38 individuals he shot at?

Midbrain tumor that pressed against his amygdala

What are nootropics?

Mind-enhancing drugs to boost performance (overall cognitive function, not just memory)

How can virtual therapists recognize emotions?

Neural networks

What is a Brain Computer Interface (BCI)/Brain Machine Interface (BMI)? How does it work and what does it do?

Neural prosthetic - Computer chip is implanted in motor cortex and communicates directly with external device - Allows animal (or person) to directly control a robotic arm with their thoughts

What is the importance of the study about low-activity of the MAOA gene?

Neurological evidence could thus potentially be used in determining criminal sentence length or need for personal rehabilitation

What could diminish, for example, the risk of an offender reoffending?

Neuroscience-based interventions that will be developed in near future Ex: deep brain stimulation as a way of reducing sex drive in sex offenders

What is implicit memory?

Non-declarative memory (without conscious recall) - Memory that influences one's behavior or thought but does not itself enter consciousness; cannot be verbally transmitted - Procedural memory: recall of how to do things

What kind of disease/amnesia is Alzheimer's Disease?

Organic -- can lose up to 50% of brain

Explain the Muller-Lyer illusion: is line AB or BC longer?

Our brains are used to perceiving angles as corners that are near or far away and sees the inward-facing corners as more distant and therefore smaller

Researchers are experimenting with manipulating reconsolidation to treat people with traumatic memories. How does that work?

People are asked to recall the traumatic or negative experience At the same time, they are given Propranolol, a memory-blocking drug or - A brief painless electric shock - This disrupts reconsolidation of the memory, "erasing" it in part - Treatment still in experimental stages at this point

Why is it difficult to create simulations of virtual/chatbot therapists?

People are extremely sensitive to subtle deviations - early roboticists had a tough time creating robots that didn't creep people out!

What is savant syndrome?

People who are born with severe intellectual disability but show superior ability in one intellectual domain, such as music, art, or mental arithmetic

What is one real-world example of the way emotions, conveyed by tone of voice, effect us?

Physician's malpractice study - research participants were able to very accurately predict which doctors would later get sued based on the pitch, intonation, and rhythm of their speech

What does the episodic buffer do and what does this lead to?

Pieces together auditory and visual images >>> creates that seamless storyline

What is adderall and what is it used for?

Prescription medication for ADHD that is often used by college students to boost academic performance

What is inderal and what is it used for?

Propranolol Beta blocker that was originally approved for treatment of hypertension; off-label use for treatment of social anxiety Used to treat social anxiety - Many professionals (musicians, lawyers, college students, professors, physicians) now take this medication before important presentations or tests - Professional musicians given Inderal felt more in control, had heart rates that were 40 beats a minute slower, and gave performances that were rated significantly higher by judges - SAT scores of high school students with test anxiety went up an average of 120 points when given this med

What are two additional usual characteristics of modular processes? Briefly describe each.

Prosopagnosia: failure to recognize particular people by the sight of their faces - After stroke, sheep rancher could not recognize people but could recognize sheep However, according to Fodor, not all cognition is carried out by modular mechanisms - Modules provide inputs to non modular central processing - The latter can evaluate and correct the outputs of cognitive models - Ex: evaluating beliefs and decision making

Within the public sector, how has AI be utilized?

Public agencies (the military, police, and fire services) have used robots to neutralize and destroy bombs, fight fires, and carry out other dangerous missions

What is "Ellie" and how does it work?

Robot therapist - Computerized glasses provide specialized feedback to coach children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder in emotional identification and social skills (e.g., making eye contact)

What can we look out for in the immediate future from social robots?

Robotic IAs that can reproduce the skills of therapists, caregivers, guides, and security guards

What and how did Lashley discover where and how long term memory is stored?

Rats learn maze Lesion cortex - Removed different part of brain for each rat but no matter what part of the brain he removed, the rat had some sort of recall Test memory - Memories do not reside in singe, specific spots

What is the use of anticholinergics generally associated with?

Reduced brain volume and lower levels of glucose metabolism, particularly in the hippocampus - Those on anticholinergics also showed poorer performance on cognitive tests - Anticholinergics Tylenol PM, Benadryl, Claritin, Dimetapp, Paxil, and Xanax - Researchers concluded that these drugs could trigger or worsen Alzheimer's

Robots constructed with subsumption architectures make what type of responses to environmental stimuli?

Reflexive responses

What are reflexive responses?

Representations exist as production rules (if-then statements) or reflexes that map a stimulus onto a behavior

Is storage decay simply due to the passage of time or to interference from new memories formed during this interval?

Research suggests that storage decay is primarily due to interference - Participants learned lists of nonsense syllables, then either slept or engaged in normal daily activities - Recall was significantly better when participants slept during the retention interval The degree to which memories interfere with each other depends on their similarity ! - It's harder to remember a list of letters if all the letters rhyme (V, G, P, D)

What are low-level actions (LLAs)?

SHAKEY's basic behaviors, e.g., rolling forward or backward, taking photos with its onboard camera, moving its head

What are the most common uses for a polygraph lie detection test?

Screening purposes for certain types of jobs, such as law enforcement, and in questioning of suspects

What are the factors that are always raised when questioning the viability of self-driving cars?

Self-driving cars need more than sensitivity to patterns and the ability to learn from experience - They need to be able to deal with the unexpected - completely unpredictable behavior from other drivers, pedestrians, cyclist, and even wild animals Human drivers are constantly exploiting their knowledge of how physical objects move and behave (folk physics), as well as their knowledge of other drivers and road-users (mind reading) - Perhaps a key challenge for designers of self-driving cars is how to equip their vehicles with this kind of general knowledge

What are some legal ramifications of removing tumors like Whitmans (shooter/murderer)?

Should the accused be exonerated or given a lighter sentence after surgery since he presumably would no longer be violent? This is controversial because the families of those killed would not be okay with the killer being free, even though it wasn't truly his fault.... ?

How could military action be "authorized" with the use of AI?

Simulation of government leader's image and voice issuing unauthorized orders

Describe the external part of a cochlear implant and its function.

Sits behind the ear - Picks up sounds with a microphone - Then analyzes the sound and sends signals to the internal part of the implant

How has SHAKEY's inability to operate in the real world been addressed?

Situated cognition theorists propose a dynamical systems-like approach to robotics, where behaviors emerge out of complex interactions between an organism and its environment

What was discovered from Peter Tripp's wake-a-thon?

Sleep deprivation can produce hallucinations, delusions, and paranoia

Why is the ACT-R is designed to operate serially?

So that at any given moment, only one production rule can be active

Why was SHAKEY able to perform the way it did?

Software that allowed SHAKEY to operate was run on a separate computer system that communicated with SHAKEY via a radio antenna

How accurate/valid is "brain fingerprinting"?

Some studies have found high accuracy rates, but overall, controversial and of questionable validity

What are darwinian modules in terms of modulation in the mind?

Specialized modules, each of which evolved to solve a specific set of problems encountered by our primitive ancestors

What are phonemes?

Speech sounds

Summarize the way children learn the English past tense.

Stage 1: - small number of common past tense verbs are used - most of the verbs are irregular, assumingely learned by memorization - children are not able to generalize from the words they've learned >> dont make that many mistakes Stage 2: - many more p.t. verbs are used - most of these are -ed - start to overgeneralize this rule >> mistakes on irregulars Stage 3: - more verbs are learned - over-regularization errors end

How do Bayesian (probabilistic) models of language learning argue against innatism?

They show how much can be learned through sensitivity to statistical regularities in heard speech

What are the weaknesses of the Piagettian theory?

Stage model depicts children's thinking as being more consistent than it actually is - Figure A shows a bottle with some water in it. In Figure B, the bottle has been tilted. Draw a line to show how the water line would look. - 50% of male undergraduates and 75% of female undergraduates failed this "formal operations" test! Later research found that children are more cognitively competent than Piaget recognized Understates contribution of the social world Does not explain underlying mechanisms

Sophisticated cognitive ability, such as use of language, involves what?

Stored bodies of information -- about phrase structures and transformation rules -- which can then be manipulated algorithmically

In terms of AI and healthcare, what is one way to eliminate common human "flaws" during surgery?

Study comparing computer-controlled robots with human surgeons in performing intestinal surgery on a pig found that the robot sutures were much better -More precise and uniform - Fewer chances for breakage, leakage, and infection

Webb's robot crickets and the Yokoi hand are examples of what?

Subsumption architectures

In order to carry out various actions through a (virtual) robot arm, SHRDLU needs to be able to carry out what three actions? Describe each one.

Syntactic analysis: needs to parse the sentence to work out which units in a sentence are performing which linguistic functions, e.g., nouns (picking out objects) and verbs (characterizing events and processes) Semantic analysis: needs to assign meanings to individual words in way that reveals what sentence is stating Integration of the information acquired with the information the system already possesses in order to obey a command or answer a question

What is suspected about those with low-activity form of the MAOA "warrior" gene?

These individuals tend to behave aggressively when provoked One study found that those who have the low-activity (as opposed to high-activity) form of the MAOA gene and were abused as children were six times more likely than normal controls to be convicted of violent crimes

What types of questions could risk assessment (neurolaw) tools help answer?

They could aid in making critically important decisions, such as: - Which individuals can be rehabilitated in the community, rather than in prison? - Which could go to low-security prisons, and which to high-security sites? - Which prisoners can safely be released to the community on parole?

What is mind reading?

The ability to understand other people's mental state

What part of humans are amazing emotion detectors? What are two facts to qualify this?

The brain! - After a quick glance at someone's photo, we have a pretty good sense of the person's extraversion and agreeableness - Watching 90 seconds of people walking and talking will allow us to accurately predict how others evaluate them

What have cases of organic amnesia provided evidence for?

The distinction between different memory systems

Why can it be argued that subsumption architecture robots do not constitute intelligent agents?

They do not really involve decision-making processes

Why does the shared attention mechanism occur?

They see that another person is looking at that object - I see (Mother sees the cup) OR they see that the other person sees that they are looking at the object: Mother sees (I see the cup) - This requires infant to be able to embed representations - to represent that an agent is representing someone else's representation

What is known about the amygdala in people with antisocial criminal tendencies?

The emotion controlling amygdala is smaller, but shows greater reactivity

What did Fodor propose about the mind?

The existence of specialized information-processing modules for things like - Color perception - Shape analysis - Visual guidance of bodily motions - Grammatical analysis of heard utterances - Detecting melodic or rhythmic structure of acoustic arrays - Recognizing the voices of conspecifics

What is the relationship between number of words heard and IQ?

The greater the number of words children heard from their parents or caregivers before they were 3, the higher their IQ and the better they did in school

What idea did Fodor reject?

The mind is organized in terms of faculties such as memory and attention that can process any type of information

What is the transitional probability between any two sounds?

The probability that the second will follow the first sound

What are the limitations to SHAKEY?

The robot is not embedded in a real-life environment and can never really come to terms with real-life problems and challenges - Can only operate in a highly constrained environment - Cannot learn to solve problems -- all solutions to problems are built in - Ex: Cannot look at a photo it has not seen before of a person in a room with a banana just out of reach, and suggest a plan of action - Even a young child can solve the problem, but classical AI cannot

What is neurolinguistics?

The study of relationship between the brain and language

What can happen if a person believes a polygraph is 100% accurate?

The test may approach 100% accuracy

What happens to the test if a defendant pleads insanity?

The test thus takes into account both cognitive and volitional capacity

What is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?

The view that language determines thought - Underlying assumption of use of affirmations in cognitive therapy

What is the Wason card problem?

The vowel/even number deck and then extending/reframing it to the drinking alcohol scenario.

What is the children's theory of mind mechanism and how is it tested?

Their ability to identify and reason about other people's complex mental states, such as beliefs, desires, hopes, and fears Tested by the false belief task tests

What is Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

Theory of how humans acquire, construct, and use knowledge with specific regard to children

T/F: New research indicates that complex algorithms are significantly more accurate than humans in predicting which defendants will later be arrested for a new crime (recidivism)

True, when assessing just a handful of variables in a controlled environment, even untrained humans can match the predictive skill of sophisticated risk-assessment instruments

Are the processes involved in memory reconstruction conscious or unconscious?

Unconscious which means that we can be convinced that our memories are accurate even when they are partially or even wholly wrong

What is metarepresentation and what are two examples that involve its use?

Use of a representation to represent another representation, rather than referring directly to the world - pretend play - mind reading

How can AI be applied to language processing?

Use of natural language processing of speech to synthesize notes in professional settings

How is "Paro," the therapeutic robot seal, used?

Used to comfort/provide company to adults living in senior communities

What is biorobotics?

Using knowledge of living insects, as well as AI, to create agents capable of moving about and solving problems in their environment

What is dissociation? Give an example of a case study.

When brain damage affects two behaviors very differently, this suggests that the two behaviors are produced by different processes Ex: Clive Wearing - English musician who suffered damage to his hippocampus as a result of encephalitis - If you walk out of the room then come back 10 minutes later, he won't remember you, but he can still conduct a choir and play the piano and harpsichord beautifully

Give one real world example of an occasion where AI had the potential to turn "malicious."

When two Facebook computers started communicating with each other in a language they had developed on their own

Explain how reconsolidation works in the brain.

Whenever we retrieve a memory, the brain rewrites it a bit - it is slightly altered chemically by a new protein synthesis that links it to our present concerns and understanding (reconsolidation)

What does Fodor's theory of modular and non modular processing deal with?

Whether the mind is organized in terms of faculties such as memory and attention that can process any type of information OR that the mind is organized into special modules (audio, color perception, shape analysis, etc)

How do apps that can administer Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) for disorders like depression or social anxiety work? Give examples.

Woebot and Ellie (virtual therapist) - Analyze tone of speech, breathing pattern, smartphone keystrokes and communication, and/or physical movements in making diagnoses and generating responses

Who tends to perform better on the RMET?

Women

How do polygraph lie detectors work?

Work by measuring several of the physiological responses accompanying emotional arousal (perspiration, heart rate, blood pressure, breathing), with the assumption being that lying is stressful

Quantify the popularity of social robots.

Worldwide sales of robots has reached $20 billion and involves more than 200,000 robotic units

MODULES OPERATE AT X AND WORK QUICKLY TO PROVIDE Y.

X >> A LOW LEVEL Y >> RAPID SOLUTIONS TO HIGHLY DETERMINATE PROBLEMS

What do the poverty of stimulus arguments state?

Young children are simply not exposed to enough information to allow them to learn a language - Much of the speech that children hear is actually ungrammatical, but not flagged as such - Children are typically only exposed to positive information, i.e., they are not told what counts as ungrammatical (e.g., the bell ringed)