intro to ethics!

The theory which says that something is morally right just in case it is commanded by God is called: a. Divine Command Theory b. Realism c. Biblical Ethics d. Euthyphro's Dilemma

A. Divine Command Theory

Mackie defends this view, which holds that there are no objective moral values and therefore all positive moral claims are mistaken: a. Error Theory b. Corrupt Objectivism c. Realism d. Consequentialism

A. Error Theory

Enoch's response to the Objection from Disagreement is that: a. Not all disagreements threaten objectivity b. People don't really disagree about ethics c. People who make this objection don't understand morality d. The Objection from Disagreement is correct

A. Not all disagreements threaten objectivity

When Euthyphro attempts to define the holy as prosecuting wrongdoers, Socrates objects that: a. There are many other things that are also holy b. Prosecuting wrongdoers is not holy c. Prosecuting wrongdoers is not loved by the gods d. Prosecuting wrongdoers is not virtuous

A. There are many other things that are also holy

The view that there is no moral rightness or wrongness, and that morality is therefore based entirely on a culture's perspective, is called: a. Moral duty b. Cultural relativism c. Objective morality d. Moral luck

B. Cultural Relativism

Psychological egoism is the view that we only have obligations of morality to: a. Others b. Ourselves c. Our friends d. We have no moral obligations

B. Ourselves

This condition says that people can't be morally assessed for what is not their fault or due to factors beyond their control: a. The Moral Luck Condition b. The Control Condition c. The Consequentialist Condition d. The Condition of Judgment

B. The Control Condition

David Enoch argues that even though you may think you are a subjectivist about ethics, you are actually: a. A cultural relativist b. An error theorist c. An objectivist d. An apologist

C. An Objectivist

This type of moral luck is luck in the type of person you are: a. Resultant Luck b. Causal Luck c. Constitutive Luck d. Circumstantial Luck

C. Constitutive Luck

_________________ luck is based on the idea that our lives are determined entirely by factors out of our control; it asks how we could ever be morally responsible if this is the case.

Circumstantial

__________________ luck, like our example of Robert Alton Harris, is luck in the type of person you are.

Constitutive

LONG ANSWER: Nagel presents four kinds of moral luck. Please pick two, define them in your own words, and provide an example of each.

Constitutive luck is defined as the kind of person you are, not specific actions but tendencies, natural impulses, and character traits. An example of constitutive luck would be a criminal who has been arrested for committing a violent crime, which could be a variable of bad home life and past. Circumstantial luck describes how an infinite number of factors play a part in scenarios we live in, leaving no one truly morally responsible because situations cannot be controlled. For example, a lottery ticket is a right place right time situation.

LONG ANSWER: What is the difference between conventional and critical morality? Please define each as part of your response. Then give one reason why it is important to study critical morality.

Conventional morality is defined as the system of widely accepted rules and principles, created by and for human beings to govern societies and assess the actions and motivations of individuals. Critical morality does not get its origins in traditions or social agreements; however, it challenges the previously popular prejudices and is untainted by mistaken beliefs and irrationality. It is important to study critical morality because it allows us to think outside of previously believed views which act as constraints to progression in society.

The _____________ argument (two words) says that different cultures have different moral codes and that therefore there is no objective truth in morality

Cultural Differences

CRITICAL RESPONSE: What is cultural relativism, according to James Rachels? Does a cultural relativist believe in subjective or objective morality? Which type of view does Rachels himself endorse? Which type of view do you endorse? Why?

Cultural Relativism is a view discussed by author James Rachels that states that there is no such thing as universal truth or objective morality in ethics. There are only various cultural codes that are unique to each culture with no real fact of the matter on what is right or wrong. A cultural relativist would be committed to moral subjectivism since it holds the truth of moral judgments is not absolute or universal, but relative to a society or culture. However, Rachels disagrees with this viewpoint and rejects subjectivism. He believes that there is a right and wrong in certain cultural practices, and it is justified to accept true moral judgments and reject false ones. Personally, I would say it's hard for me to decide whether I am objectivist vs subjectivist, but James Rachels makes a convincing argument. It was also stated that those who believe it's wrong to be intolerant of other people's beliefs are objectivists and so I believe that I would fit more into that category.

While conventional morality is descriptive, critical morality is: a. Negative b. Positive c. Descriptive d. Normative

D. Normative

LONG ANSWER: Pick a contemporary practice about which different cultures disagree. How would a cultural relativist explain this disagreement? How would an objectivist like Rachels respond?

Different countries disagree about the practice of free healthcare. A cultural relativist would explain this disagreement as different cultures having different moral codes, and there is no objective truth of what should be right. An objectivist would say that one culture is right in their practice, and one might say that free healthcare should be given to citizens of a country.

The Objection from ___________, to which Enoch responds, asks: "If morality is really objective, why is there so much disagreement about it?"

Disagreement

The Euthyphro Dilemma illustrates a contemporary doctrine called ______________ Theory (two words), according to which morality is derived from God.

Divine Command

CRITICAL RESPONSE: Use the Euthyphro Dilemma to respond to Divine Command Theory. Can Divine Command Theory escape the problems posed by the Dilemma? Give at least one argument to either support or reject Divine Command Theory.

Divine Command Theory states that an act is morally required just because it is commanded by God, and immoral just because God forbids it. Euthyphro questions this when considering morality because he wonders if something is holy just because it is loved by the gods or if the gods love something because it is truly and undeniably holy. This is his dilemma, and Divine Command Theory struggles to escape the problems posed by this argument. The significance of Euthyphro's Dilemma states that what is classified as moral is either moral because God commands it, or it is not. This ultimately means that morality is either arbitrary and vacuous, or god is superfluous to morality. Divine Command Theory is rejected because of this and God does not create or have any influence on morality.

The ___________ version of the Argument from Queerness notes that if we were going to know objective moral values, we would need some sort of special morality-sensing power (which we don't have).

Epistemological

Mackie's overall view is a type of __________ Theory, which holds that all objective moral claims are false.

Error

____________ (two words) is the view that morality is a sham, and that no moral judgments are capable of being true or false.

Error Theory

LONG ANSWER: An error theorist seems to make the following claim: "Error theory is the correct moral view." Why is making this claim a potential problem for an error theorist? Make sure to include a definition of error theory in your response.

Error Theory defines that morality is a sham, no moral judgments are true or false. An error theorist would be contradicting themselves when defending this theory because if there is no real knowledge of morality, one could not prove themselves right.

LONG ANSWER: What is the Euthyphro Dilemma? With which "horn" of the dilemma do you find yourself agreeing? Briefly explain.

Euthyphro's Dilemma asks, "is pious being loved by the gods because it's pious, or is it pious because it is being loved by the gods?" When looking at the dilemma's horns, I find myself agreeing with the first horn, "Morality is arbitrary and vacuous." I believe this because God does not dictate morality.

LONG ANSWER: Why is it important to differentiate law from morality even though both are normative systems that tell us how we ought to behave? Provide an example that demonstrates the importance of this differentiation.

Law and morality often conflict because of differences in people's beliefs and values. While morality can be defined as what people themselves consider to be right or wrong, laws are formed by regulating a population and making rules that are strictly enforced and punishable by law. Many people have different opinions of controversial laws, such as gun regulations, abortion, or the death penalty.

LONG ANSWER: Pick one of Mackie's two arguments and explain it in your own words. How does it pose a challenge to objective morality?

Mackie's argument on relativity says that there is a difference in moral codes from one country to another and no country can be completely right or true. This poses a challenge to objectivity because objectivists believe that there is a right and wrong and that ultimately one culture's practice is correct.

LONG ANSWER: Explain the difference between subjective and objective morality. Which type of morality does the cultural relativist endorse? Which type does Rachels endorse? Explain your answer.

Objective morality states that moral judgments are true in an absolute or universal sense, while subjective morality states that moral judgments are not universally true and they lack truth in an absolute/universal sense. A cultural relativist would endorse subjective morality because they believe that the truth of moral judgments is not absolute or universal, but only relative to a society or culture. James Rachels is an objectivist because he rejects cultural relativism, which also rejects moral subjectivism.

LONG ANSWER: Why might a psychological egoist be skeptical about morality? Explain the view called psychological egoism and then explain why it poses a skeptical challenge to morality.

Psychological egoism is the idea that our sole motivation is to benefit only ourselves. Psychological egoists do not believe in altruism, which is the idea that it's possible to help others for the sake of others. This would pose a skeptical challenge to morality by conflicting with the moral concept of altruism.

_______________ is the view that God commands something because it is morally good; this view disagrees with voluntarism.

Realism

Cultural ____________ says that there is no universal truth in ethics; there are only various cultural codes, and nothing more.

Relativism

_______________ is a view that denies the objectivity of ethics and views moral rules as human creations.

Relativism

Mackie's Argument from ___________ says that there is variation in moral codes from one society to another and within complex communities, and therefore morality is not objective.

Relativity

___________________ luck is a type of luck concerning the way one's actions and projects turn out.

Resultant

ARGUMENTATIVE RESPONSE: What is the difference between subjective and objective morality? Of the people we've read so far, who endorses subjective morality and who endorses objective morality? Explain why.

Subjective morality states that moral judgments are not universally true, and there is no such thing as false moral beliefs. Objective morality states that moral judgments are true in an absolute or universal sense, and people can choose to believe what is right and wrong. The author who endorses subjective morality is J.L. Mackie because he is an Error Theorist, who believes that objective moral values are not real. The authors who endorse objective morality are James Rachels and David Enoch. Rachels is an objectivist because he disagrees with the argument of cultural relativism, which is subjective to each culture. David Enoch believes that morality is objective, and most people think so, even the people who initially think they are subjectivists.

ARGUMENTATIVE RESPONSE: What is the Euthyphro Dilemma? What question gives rise to the Dilemma?

The Euthyphro Dilemma asks the question, "is something loved by the gods because it is holy, or is something holy because it is loved by the gods?" Either morality is arbitrary and vacuous, or God is superfluous to morality.

LONG ANSWER: Please pick one of the three "tests" proposed by Enoch and briefly describe it. What is it meant to show about the objectivity of morality?

The Spinach Test asks, "how is liking spinach different from thinking the earth revolves around the sun?" One is objectively true because it is a fact, and one is subjective to each person's opinion.

ARGUMENTATIVE RESPONSE: Explain two reasons why someone might be skeptical of morality. Make sure to clearly define each of the views you explain. Why does each view illustrate skepticism about morality?

The first doubt of morality is "Ethical Relativism", which describes that moral views are human creations, and denies the objectivity of morality. This point is worthy of consideration because morality is unique to humans, it's easy to explain one's moral knowledge, and relativism promotes tolerance. Another doubt of morality is Error Theory which states that morality is make-believe, moral claims are never true or false, and moral knowledge does not exist. This point of view states that morality is a sham.

If you are a psychological egoist, you believe that ___________, or the direct desire to benefit others for their own sake, is impossible.

altruism

Nagel's example of ordinary citizens in Nazi Germany is meant to illustrate ___________ luck.

causal

Nagel's ______________ condition says that people can't be morally assessed for what is not their fault, or for what is due to factors beyond their control

control

_________________ morality is the system of widely accepted rules and principles that members of a culture or society use to govern their own lives.

conventional

One benefit of ______________ morality is that it is meant to be separate from mistaken beliefs or popular prejudices.

critical

Unlike the answer to #1, ______________ morality does not have its origin in social agreements, and it is normative rather than descriptive.

critical

Ethical _______________ is the view that we have no basic obligations to others; the only moral duty we have is to ourselves.

egoism

Moral luck is a phenomenon whereby a significant aspect of what someone does depends on factors beyond their control, yet we continue to treat them as an object of moral ________________.

judgement

One normative system that we should differentiate from morality is ____________, since it is possible for a legal system to get things morally wrong.

law

Socrates and Euthyphro engage in a debate about the nature of ______________.

morality

Mackie's central claim is that there are no _________ values, including moral goodness/badness and rightness/wrongness.

objective

Rachels argues, against cultural relativism, that morality is _____________.

objective

If this view (from question 6) is true, Rachels argues that the idea of moral ___________ is called into doubt; we can say that things are different now, but we cannot say that they are better.

progress

Euthyphro's first attempted definition is that this (from question 1) is _____________ the wrongdoer.

prosecute

In his __________ Test, Enoch asks how liking a controversial vegetable is different than thinking discrimination is bad.

spinach

Enoch's central claim is that even though you may think morality is __________, you are really deep down committed to objectivism.

subjective

One benefit of the answer to #6 is that it promotes _____________, since we cannot judge other cultures for their moral beliefs.

tolerance