Intro to Nutrition Chapter 5

By contributing to unwanted weight gain, consumption of regular soft drinks may increase the risk of type 2 diabetes. In general, Americans consume an excess of...

calories from all foods, and the higher intake contributes to the increased prevalence of obesity in the US. Therefore, Americans' overall dietary habits may be partly to blame for rising rates of overweight and obesity among the U.S. population.

It is not clear why the immune cells of some individuals malfunction, but...

genetic susceptibility and environmental factors, particularly exposure to certain viral intestinal infections, are associated with the development of type 1 diabetes.

Plants and animals use complex carbohydrates to store energy or make certain structural components such as stems and leaves. The...

most common dietary polysaccharides include digestible and nondigestible forms.

Cell membranes have carbohydrates that signal the cell's identity to other cells. Saliva, mucus, and the fluid that lubricates skeletal joints contain...

mucins, a class of carbohydrates that are chemically associated with proteins.

Although fiber is not digested, it may be metabolized (fermented) y gut microbiota. Any fiber that is..

not used by the microbes contributes to the residue that is eventually eliminated in feces.

Thus, people generally do not need to rely on...

over-the-counter laxatives or fiber supplements to treat constipation. Eating more fiber-rich foods is the natural way to become "regular"

proper blood glucose management generally involves monitoring blood glucose levels regularly and following a special diet carefully. The...

patient's diabetes meal plan should focus on whole grains, vegetables, fruits, legumes, poultry, fish, and low-fat dairy foods.

There are two types of dietary fiber, soluble fiber and insoluble fiber. Soluble types of fiber, such as...

pectins and gums, dissolve or swell in water. Insoluble forms of fiber, such as cellulose and lignin, generally do not dissolve in water.

Note that only plant foods provide dietary fiber; animal flesh contains muscle fibers, which are digestible proteins. The recommended Adequate Intakes (AIs) for fiber are..

38 and 25 g/day for young men and women, respectively, but the typical American diet supplies only about 17g of dietary fiber/day.

Classifying Diabetes according to hemoglobin A1c values:

4.5-5.7 is normal 5.7-6.4 pre diabetic 6.5 or above diabetic

In industrialized nations, people tend to eat more highly refined starches and added sugars. The diet of the typical American ( 2 years of age and older) supplies about...

48% of kcal from carbohydrates . Nutritionally adequate diets provide 45 to 65% of total energy from carbohydrates, preferably from foods that are rich sources of unrefined carbohydrates.

Sugars are nutritive sweeteners because they contribute energy to foods. Each gram of mono-or disaccharide supplies...

4kcal.

Blood glucose level (fasting)

70-99 mg/dl is normal 100-125 mg/dL pre-diabetes 126 mg/dL or more is diabetes

Millions of Americans

Millions of Americans suffer from lactose intolerance (also lactose maldigestion) the inability to digest lactose completely.

Is there a connection between regular consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages and excess body weight?

The role that sugar-sweetened beverage consumption plays in the development of obesity is controversial. Findings from some scientific studies suggest that people who drink sugar-sweetened beverages do not reduce their energy intake from solid food accordingly.

In this case, the individual may grab an apple or a cheese sandwich to eat, and...

as the carbohydrates in these foods are digested, the glucose from these foods is absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to the liver.

Consumption of foods and beverages sweetened with either high fructose corn syrup or table sugar is....

associated with excess caloric intake. These excess calories can contribute to an increased risk for diabetes and heart disease

Added sugars, such as sucrose and and high fructose corn syrup, which is...

chemically similar to sucrose, are widely incorporated into foods during processing or preparation. In baked cereal products, added sugars contribute to the flavor as well as the browning and tenderness of the food.

The pleasant and sometimes irresistible taste of sugar is a...

clue that the food contains carbohydrates, a major source of energy for cells.

Despite the concern, most of the scientific evidence indicates that saccharin is safe when...

consumed in amounts that are less than nine packets of saccharin-containing sweetener per day.

Improving one's dietary practices may be prevent type 2 diabetes. An analysis of the eating practices of over 40,000 American men identified two major patterns:

Western and prudent diets. The western diet contained high amounts of red meat, processed meats, French fries, high-fat dairy foods, and refined sugars and starches.

Under these conditions, there is not enough glucose available for cells to metabolize the fat efficiently...

excessive amounts of ketone bodies ("ketones") form as a result.

After giving birth, 5 to 10% of women who had gestational diabetes continue to have diabetes, most often type 2 diabetes. The remaining new mothers are...

healthy, but about half of the women who had gestational diabetes will develop type 2 diabetes later in life.

Hemoglobin is the compound in red blood cells that carries oxygen. A1c is a component of...

hemoglobin that attracts some glucose that is in blood. About 5% of a healthy person's hemoglobin is HbA1c.

Thus, pregnant women who have diabetes are encouraged to...

monitor blood glucose levels carefully to minimize risks to both themselves and their fetuses.

Some mothers-to-be will also need to...

monitor their blood glucose levels and give insulin injections to themselves regularly.

Milk, blood, and DNA, the genetic material in cells, contain specific kinds of sugars. The simplest type of sugar, the...

monosaccharide, is the basic chemical unit of carbs.

Under normal conditions, red blood cells as well as brain and other...

nervous system cells burn mostly glucose for energy.

High-fiber diets, particularly those containing cereal fiber and whole grains, may...

protect against diabetes. Dietary factors seem to have the greatest impact on type 2 diabetes risk in persons who have a genetic predisposition for this form of diabetes, that is, a family history of disease.

Food manufacturers are interested in making new products that contain resistant starch to...

provide health benefits that are similar to those of dietary fiber

The glycemic index and glycemic load (GL) are standards that...

reflect the body's insulin response to a carbohydrate-containing food.

In the small intestine, an amylase secreted by the pancreas (pancreatic amylase) breaks down the...

remaining polysaccharides in oat starch into maltose molecules

Most Americans are familiar with sugar as the sweet , white, granulated crystals often sprinkled on cereal or into iced tea, but...

table sugar is only one type of sugar. There are many different types of sugars, or simple carbohydrates.

Because both beverages contain simple sugars, should a person drink instead of fruit juices? Unlike colas and other soft drinks...

100% fruit juices, such as orange, grapefruit, and cranberry juice, contribute micronutrients and antioxidant phytochemicals to diets.

Certain people have greater risk of type 2 diabetes than others. Individuals who are...

physically inactive (sedentary), overweight and genetically related to a close family member with type 2 diabetes are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes than Americans who are not members of these racial or ethnic groups.

Some people claim that refined white sugar is...

poisonous and honey is nutritionally superior to table sugar. However, these claims are not true. Table sugar does not contain toxic substance, in fact, it is almost 100% carbohydrate.

Fructose taste much sweeter than glucose and is easily obtained from the...

processing of corn, a crop readily available in the US.

Glucagon also stimulates liver and kidney cells to...

produce glucose from certain amino acids, the basic molecules that make up proteins.

A healthy pregnancy typically lasts about 40 weeks. Women with poorly controlled diabetes or gestational diabetes are more...

likely to give birth to babies who have difficulty controlling their own blood glucose levels than mothers who do not have diabetes or develop the condition during pregnancy.

Promoters of certain weight-reduction diets claim that people can...

lose weight or control diabetes by following low glycemic index diets. However, research studies examining the effects of glycemic index and glycemic load on glycemic response and weight loss have found conflicting results.

Individuals who already have metabolic syndrome may reduce their risk of CVD by...

losing excess weight, exercising regularly, and reducing intakes of saturated fat and simple sugars, particularly fructose.

Hyperinsulinemia

occurs when the pancreas releases an excessive an excessive amount of insulin, and as a result, cells remove too much glucose from the bloodstream.

In the US, older adults, females, and Hispanics are...

at the greatest risk of developing metabolic syndrome.

Then, the person tracks his or her carbohydrate intake by recording grams of carbohydrate consumed per meal and for the day. Most...

health care professionals who treat people with diabetes recommend having meals that supply 45 to 60 grams of carbohydrates. However, this amount of carbohydrate may need to be adjusted based on results of regular blood glucose testing.

Additionally, she will be less likely to experience serious health problems, such as...

high blood pressure, during pregnancy.

Over 20 different types of insulin are sold in the US. The forms of insulin differ in...

how quickly they act, how long they last, and the period of time during which their activity in the body is greatest.

Fruits and vegetables, especially berries, grapes, corn, and carrots, are good food sources of glucose. Glucose is the...

important monosaccharide in the human body because it is a primarily fuel for muscle and other cells.

Diets rich in fiber, particularly soluble types of fiber, can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease by...

improving blood lipid levels, lowering blood pressure, and reducing markers of inflammation. For every 7g/ day a person increases his or her dietary fiber intake, that person may experience a 9% reduced risk for cardiovascular disease.

Eating sweets can produce pleasurable sensations, but the results of scientific studies do not...

indicate that sugar increases children's physical activity levels, causes ADHD, or otherwise negatively affects their behavior

Glucose is such an important cellular fuel, the...

body relies on hormones to maintain proper blood glucose levels.

Scientists once thought fiber was a nonnutrient because it had no nutritional value. Recent scientific evidence indicates that the....

body, particularly the cells that line the large intestine, can use by-products of the bacterial metabolism of fiber for energy.

Furthermore, glucagon stimulates lipolysis, the...

breakdown of triglyceride (fat) into glycerol and fatty acids.

Additionally, the patient's simple sugar and starch consumption should be consistent and...

should be monitored to help regulate his or her blood glucose levels.

By losing even a small amount of excess body fat, people with type 2 diabetes can often reduce their insulin resistance. People with diabetes, however...

should consult their health care team before starting an exercise program

School boards in some communities are so concerned about the epidemic of childhood obesity that...

some have banned foods that are high in empty calories, including soft drinks, from school vending machines.

Alternative nutritive sweeteners include sugar alcohols:

sorbitol, xylitol, and mannitol.

Galactose also has the same formula as glucose and fructose, but the...

structure of galactose is slightly different from the structure of glucose.

Unlike sugars, sugar alcohols do not promote dental decay. Food manufacturers use sugar alcohols to replace sucrose in products such as...

sugar-free chewing gums, sugar-free breath mints, and some sugar-free candies.

According to the ADA, the amount of total carbohydrate consumed is more important than...

the glycemic intake of foods for maintaining healthy blood glucose levels.

As a result, the level of glucose in the blood stream rapidly becomes abnormally elevated...

the signs or symptoms of diabetes occur. Over the past 20 years, the number of adults and children with type 2 diabetes has reached epidemic proportions in the US.

Human digestive enzymes do not readily break down oligosaccharides, so most of these carbohydrates pass through...

the stomach and small intestine intact.

Disaccharides form as a result of condensation reactions. An alpha bond holds...

the two monosaccharides together in sucrose and maltose. A different kind of bond, a beta bond, holds together in the two monosaccharides that form lactose

"Calories do count," because people gain body fat when their intake of food energy from macronutrients and the nonnutrient alcohol consistently exceeds their output of energy for various physiological needs. Regardless of whether people consume a high- carb, high fat, or high protein diet...

they will maintain their weight as long as their energy intake matches their energy output.

A person with poorly controlled diabetes often has blood glucose levels that are much higher than normal. As a result....

this individual's hemoglobin will have a higher percentage of HbA1c. According to the ADA, people with diabetes should strive to maintain their HbA1c level below 7%

Milk and milk products are excellent sources of protein, many vitamins, and the minerals calcium and phosphorus. Lactose-intolerant people are often able...

to eat hard cheeses and yogurt without experiencing any digestive tract discomfort.

A person's diet, particularly its fiber content, affects bowel habits. The insoluble fiber in food contributes...

to the formation of a large, soft fecal mass that applies pressure to the inner muscular walls of the large intestine.

Treatment for diabetes may include diet, exercise, insulin injections, and oral medications. A...

treatment option a person receives depends on a variety of factors, including his or her type of diabetes, age, and current health status.

Hypoglycemia

is a condition that occurs when the blood glucose level is too low to provide enough energy for cells. It may be diagnosed when the blood glucose is less than 70 mg/dL. In response to rapidly declining blood glucose levels, the body responds by secreting epinephrine.

A disaccharide

is a simple sugar that has two monosaccharides linked (bonded) together.

Glucose

is a sugar containing six carbons. The chemical formula for glucose is C6H12O6.

To avoid or delay serious health complications, people who have diabetes need to achieve and...

maintain normal or near-normal blood glucose levels.

Maltose

malt sugar has two glucose molecules bound together. Few foods naturally contain maltose.

Major dietary disaccharides are...

maltose, sucrose, and lactose.

Despite these claims, no scientifically reliable studies have linked aspartame to any health disorder. In 2006, results...

of a European study involving rates concluded that aspartame increased the risk of cancer in the animals.

In the large intestine, bacteria can use...

oligosaccharides as a source of energy, producing waste products (various gases) as a result. This explains why people often experience bloating and intestinal gas (flatulence) after consuming foods that contain oligosaccharides, especially legumes, whole grains, and other vegetables that are rich in raffinose and stachyose.

The American Diabetes Association (ADA) has an...

online questionnaire that people can take to assess their risk of type 2 diabetes

Although, saccharin has been in use for...

over 100 years, its safety has also been questioned.

Regular physical activity also can also help...

overweight people with type 2 diabetes lose weight.

Since the late 1960s, medical researchers have tested various surgical treatments for type 1 diabetes...

particularly pancreas transplantation. However the risks associated with a pancreas must take immunosuppressive drugs to reduce the changes that their bodies will reject the organ.

There are two major types of diabetes mellitus: type 1 and type 2 diabetes. About 5% of people with diabetes have type 1; in the...

past, this form of diabetes was called "juvenile diabetes" because it was diagnosed more often in children and young adults.

The device is programmed to deliver the hormone into the...

patient's body through a small tube that is inserted under the patient's skin. Either multiple daily insulin injections and insulin pumps enable people with type 1 diabetes to manage their condition efficiently.

Soluble fiber

pectins, gums, mucilages, some hemicelluloses. Delays stomach emptying; slows glucose absorption; can lower blood cholesterol. Apples, bananas, citrus fruits, carrots, oats, barley, psyllium seeds, beans, and thickeners added to foods.

Tooth decay and lack of adequate dental care may result in tooth loss. Tooth loss often has negative effects on a....

person's facial structure, speech, and diet. The typical diet of an individual with several missing teeth consists of liquids and soft foods that are easily swallowed.

If an infant with PKU is not treated with a special diet...

phenylalanine and its metabolic by-products accumulate in the child's bloodstream and cause severe brain damage.

Sucrose

(table sugar) consists of a molecules of glucose and one of fructose

A person's diet, including dietary fiber and fruit and vegetable intake, is thought to contribute to the...

risk for development of colorectal cancer.

A 12-ounce serving the of 100% unsweetened orange juice supplies almost the...

same amount of sugars as 12 ounces of sugar-sweetened cola.

As the blood glucose level begins to rise, the pancreas responds by...

secreting insulin into the bloodstream.

Plants store glucose as starch, particularly in their seeds, roots, and fleshy underground stems called...

tubers. Rich food sources of starch include bread and cereal products made from wheat, rice, barley, and oats; vegetables such as corn, squash, beans, and peas; and tubers such as potatoes, yams, taro, cassava, and jicama.

Thus, a person following a low-carbohydrate, high-protein, high-fat diet can lose...

weight in the short term because the diet keeps his or her appetite under control by reducing hunger.

Aspartame consists of phenylalanine and aspartic acid, two amino acids (the molecules that comprise proteins). Some people must avoid aspartame and...

certain protein-rich foods because they have phenylketonuria (PKU), a rare inherited disorder that results in abnormal phenylalanine metabolism.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is...

characterized by impulsivity and difficulty controlling behavior and/ or paying attention.

Starch and glycogen are polysaccharides that contain hundreds of glucose molecules bound together into large, chainlike structures. Starch is...

composed of amylose, a linear chain of glucose molecules, and amylopectin, a branched chain of glucose molecules.

A group of international health and safety organizations, including the FDA, have...

established Acceptable Daily Intakes (ADIs) for certain nonnutritive sweeteners are safe when consumed "within acceptable daily intakes, even during pregnancy."

Adults who are trying to lose excess body weight and body fat may...

find it helpful to add more fiber-rich foods to their diets.

If such therapeutic lifestyle changes do not help patients with metabolic syndrome....

medication may be necessary to manage blood pressure and blood lipid levels.

Thus, very small amounts of nonnutritive sweeteners are needed to...

sweeten a food, and they supply little or no energy per serving.

Although sucrose occurs naturally in honey, maple syrup, carrots, and pineapples, much of the sucrose in...

the American diet is refined from sugar cane and sugar beets.

Regardless of the type of diabetes, the primary sign of the disease is hyperglycemia...

abnormally elevate blood glucose levels. Some people with diabetes experience hyperglycemia because their beta cells do not produce any insulin or do not produce enough to meet their needs.

The Recommended Dietary allowance (RDA) for carbohydrate is 130 g/day. This...

amount of carbohydrate is enough to prevent ketosis.

The small intestine is the main site for carbohydrate digestion and absorption, but a minor...

amount of starch digestion begins in the mouth, as salivary amylase converts some of the oat starch molecules into maltose.

Oligosaccharides

are complex carbohydrates comprised of three to 10 monosaccharides. The most common oligosaccharides in foods are raffinose and stachyose.

In contrast, insoluble or fermentation-resistant fiver does not...

break down completely and, as a result, contributes to softer and easier-to-eliminate feces.

Fiber is not an essential nutrient, because the human body can live without it. People may live better, however...

by adding fiber-rich foods to their diets. Eating high fiber foods may reduce a person's risk of obesity type 2 diabetes, certain intestinal tract disorders, and cardiovascular disease, which includes heart disease and stroke.

Type 1 diabetes was called "juvenile diabetes" because it was diagnosed more often in children and young adults. Type 1 diabetes, however...

can develop at any age. The majority of Americans with diabetes have type 2, which used to be called "adult-onset diabetes." Compared to children, Americans who are 20 years of age and older are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes.

Insoluble fiber

components of cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin. Physiological effects of increase fecal bulk and speeds fecal passage through GI tract. Increases fecal bulk, may ease bowel movements. All plants, especially whole wheat, rye, brown rice, vegetables, whole grains, wheat bran

Some people with lactose intolerance discover through trial and error that they can consume small amounts of milk without experiencing intestinal discomfort. Most lactose-intolerant individuals can...

consume 12 to 15 g of lactose per day (about 1 cup of milk) without experiencing unpleasant side effects.

Practices that result in swallowing air, such as eating quickly; drinking carbonated beverages, especially with a straw, and chewing gum also...

contributes to flatulence

The FDA allows products made from ground, cracked or flaked cereal grains to be labeled as...

"whole grain" only if they contain the starchy endosperm, oily germ, and fiber-rich bran seed components in the same relative proportions as they exist in the intact grain.

Eating a diet rich in fiber can also contribute to weight loss because...

fiber-rich foods tend to be filling, contributing to a reduced food intake.

Most large supermarkets sell fresh lactase-treated milk in the dairy food section. Also...

lactase-containing solutions and pills are available without prescription.

Regular soft drinks, cookies, chips and many other types of processed snack foods contain...

large amounts of refined carbohydrates, including added sugars. Such foods can satisfy hunger, but they may be crowding out more nutritious items from the diet.

The pancreas, an accessory digestive system organ, contains beta cells, cluster of...

special cells that produce insulin, and groups of alpha cells that produce glucagon. These two hormones play key roles in regulating blood glucose levels.

In developing nations, millions of people rely on diets that...

supply the majority of their energy from relatively unprocessed carbohydrates, especially complex carbohydrates in whole grains, beans, potatoes, corn, and other starchy vegetables.

Sucralose is made from a molecule of sucrose that has been chemically to become nondigestible. As a result...

sweetens foods and beverages without increasing their caloric value. Because the sweetener is not digested or absorbed by the intestinal tract, it is excreted unchanged in feces.

Soon after their success in treating diabetic dogs, Banting and his team of scientists began producing larger quantities of the extract from cattle pancreases. By January 1922 the...

team had prepared a highly refined version of the antidiabetic extract, which they named "insulin", for human testing.

Because many Americans consume low-fiber diets, the...

Dietary Guidelines refer to fiber as a "nutrient of public health concern"

The healthful benefits of soluble fiber in oats are so important, the...

FDA permits manufacturers of oat cereals to use the American Heart Association's heart-healthy symbol .

Lactose-intolerant people do not produce enough lactase, the...

enzyme that breaks lactose into glucose and galactose. Lactose intolerance is not the same of milk allergy, which is an immune system response to cow's milk proteins. Milk allergy is most likely to occur during infancy, whereas lactose intolerance is more likely to occur in adulthood.

Some people with type 2 diabetes can take oral medication to stimulate their bodies' insulin production. Oral medications are most...

effective for people who have had type 2 diabetes for less than 10 years.

Signs and symptoms of diabetes mellitus

elevated blood glucose levels, impotence (male), excessive thirst, sores that do not heal, frequent urination, increased appetite with weight loss, blurry vision, breath that smells like fruit, vaginal yeast infections (adult women), fatigues easily, foot pain, abdominal pain, confusion, numbness.

Nonnutritive sweeteners can help people control their...

energy intake. Consumers, however, need to recognize that most "sugar-free" or "diabetic" foods are not calorie free.

These sweeteners contain a small amount of molasses, which contributes to their.....

flavor, color, and nutritional value.

Additionally, the enzyme lactase breaks down the lactose from the milk into glucose and galactose molecules. At this point, the disaccharides and complex carbohydrates (except fiber) in the meal...

have been broken down into the monosaccharides glucose, fructose, and galactose.

This pressure stimulates the muscles to push the residue through the colon and into the rectum. People who often eat foods that contain insoluble fiber...

have more regular bowel movements, and are less likely to strain while having a bowel movements that people whose diets lack fiber.

In 2015, the average American consumed about 22 teaspoons of added sugars per day, which...

is about 18% of the energy is a diet that supplies 2000 kcal/day. According to the Dietary Guidelines, people should limit their added sugar-sweetened soft drink contains 33g of refined added sugars, primarily high fructose corn syrup.

Rebiana

is the common name for the chemical in stevia leaves (rebaudioside A) that is responsible for their intense sweetness.

Signs of metabolic syndrome

large waist circumference, chronically elevated blood pressure (hypertension), chronically elevated fasted blood fats, low fasting high density lipoprotein cholesterol, high fasting blood glucose

With proper management of their disease, athletes with diabetes can excel in their sport. Athletes with type 1 diabetes...

must monitor blood glucose levels before, during, and after exercise, and follow a diet that maximizes their physical performance while minimizing the likelihood of fatigue

The refining process strips away the small amounts of vitamins and minerals in sugar cane and sugar beets. "Raw sugar," turbinado sugar, and...

some form of brown sugar are not as fully processed from sugar cane as white sugar.

When oat cereal is consumed, the soluble fiber in oats interferes with the bile recycling process because it binds to...

the bile components are eliminated in feces. As a result, blood cholesterol levels drop as the liver removes cholesterol from the blood to make new bile.

The reasons are unclear, but the fructose in these beverages may not reduce the urge to eat as does solid food. As a result,

consumers of sugar-sweetened beverages are more likely to overeat and have excessive energy intakes that contribute to weight gain.

A 2011 report of the World Cancer Research Fund provides evidence that there is a "convincing" body of research that...

consumption of dietary fiber is associated with a reduced risk of colorectal cancer.

The three most important dietary monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose. Glucose, fructose, and galactose all...

contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the ratio of 1 carbon; 2 hydrogen; oxygen.

In addition to storing energy as starch, plants use complex carbohydrates to make supportive structures and protective seed coats that...

contribute to the fiber content of the diet. Most forms of dietary fiber are complex carbohydrates comprised of monosaccharides connected by bonds that humans cannot digest.

As a result, a lactose-intolerant person usually experiences intestinal....

cramps bloating, flatulence, and diarrhea within a couple of hours after consuming milk or other lactose-containing products.

Several years ago, popular books and magazine articles warned Americans about the...

dangers of hypoglycemia and its signs and symptoms. Many people became convinced that they suffered from the condition. Although hypoglycemia is a serious disorder that can affect people with diabetes mellitus and certain tumors of the pancreas, it rarely affects otherwise healthy persons.

The European Food Safety Authority challenged the findings of this study when it...

determined the conclusions were not supported by the data. The safety of aspartame has been studied extensively, and at the present time, no links to cancer have been found.

During pregnancy, a women with poorly controlled diabetes and her developing offspring(embryo or fetus) can...

develop serious health problems. IF a woman with diabetes lacks good control of her blood glucose level, her embryo can develop birth defects as a result.

Thus, a healthy body maintains its blood glucose level carefully. Glucose is also called...

dextrose and may be referred to as "blood sugar."

The Exchange System and carbohydrate counting are tools that people with...

diabetes can use to plan their diets. Carbohydrate counting involves determining a maximum daily carbohydrate intake that is appropriate for the individual.

The fiber in oats is not digested by the human small intestine, so the...

fiber eventually enters the large intestine. Then "friendly" intestinal bacteria that reside in the large intestine can break down (ferment) the soluble fiber and metabolize the fermentation products for energy.

Refined grain products are generally low in fiber because such foods lack the...

fiber-rich bran seed component. To determine whether a product contains whole grains, review the ingredient list on the package label and look for "whole grain...." in the name of major ingredient.

Starch digestion, however, stops soon after the...

food enters the acidic environment of the stomach. The fiber in the oats slows the rate at which chyme empties from the stomach, and this delay promotes fullness and satiety.

In the US, the safety of nonnutritive sweeteners has been under public and scientific scrutiny for decades. In 1970, the FDA banned the...

nonnutritive sweetener cyclamate after research indicated that the substance caused bladder cancer in mice.

Women who have adequate prenatal medical care during pregnancy usually undergo...

screening to detect gestational diabetes at 20 to 24 weeks of pregnancy.

By exercising regularly, high-risk people may reduce their risk of metabolic syndrome. Furthermore, people may....

lower their likelihood of developing metabolic syndrome by increasing their intake of fruits and vegetables and fiber-rich foods, such as whole-grain cereals.

If a person is healthy and has not eaten for a while, his or her...

blood glucose levels decline, and the individual becomes hungry. Eating a meal or snack raises this person's blood glucose.

Some of the energy from the sun is transferred to the bonds that hold the carbon and...

hydrogen atoms together. Human cells can release that energy and use it to power various forms of cellular work, including muscle contraction, bone formation, and hormone synthesis.

Eventually, this condition may overtax the beta cells' ability to produce adequate amounts of insulin. Thus...

hyperinsulinemia may contribute to the development of type 2 diabetes, particularly in people who are genetically prone to develop the disease. Tumors of the pancreas, the organ that produces insulin, may also cause hyperinsulinemia.

Although fiber is not digested by humans, soluble and insoluble fiber provide...

important health benefits. Soluble fiber can help reduce blood cholesterol levels, and insoluble fiber may ease bowel movements.

In 2016, the FDA advised food manufacturers to identify the sweetener as....

"cane sugar" or "sugar" instead of "evaporated cane sugar".

Many Americans think consuming sugary foods causes depression and hyperactive behavior. On the other hand....

"carbs" are welcomed by athletes as an inexpensive and efficient source of energy.

In addition to being a source of energy, carbohydrates play other important roles in the body. Certain carbohydrates serve as the...

"glue" that holds cells together in tissues.

Lactose

(milk sugar) forms when a galactose molecule bonds to a glucose molecule

The chemical names of carbs, particularly sugars, often end in...

-ose. Glucose, fructose, and galactose are sugars commonly found in foods such as table sugar, fruit, and cow's milk.

People who are too fat often have excess abdominal fat, which can be dangerous, especially when it is accompanied by hypertension and elevated blood lipid levels. An estimated one in three...

Americans has metabolic syndrome, a condition characterized by three or more signs.

Regular soft drinks and energy drinks are major sources of added sugars in...

Americans' diets. While energy drink consumption has increased in the US over the past few years, soft drink consumption declined from 2010 to 2014.

Some of the newest nonnutritive sweeteners are made from the leaves of the South American shrub...

Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni. For hundreds of years, people have used extracts of stevia leaves, called stevioside, as sweeteners.

Many experts believe that pancreatic islet transplantation is...

a better option for those with type 1 diabetes. In this procedure, healthy islet cells are taken islet cells are taken from a donor pancreas and transferred into a person with type 1 diabetes. The healthy islet cells begin to produce and secrete insulin, thus reducing the need for daily injections of insulin

Throughout the world, colon or colorectal cancer (cancer of the last portion of large intestine) is...

a common type of cancer. In 2013, colorectal cancer was the third most common cancer in men and women and the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the US.

Cells metabolize glucose to release the energy stored in the molecule. Carbon dioxide and water form as a result of this process. Cells need...

a small amount of glucose to properly metabolize fat for energy. When a person has poorly controlled diabetes, is fasting or starving, or follows a very low-carbohydrate/high-protein diet (e.g. the Atkins diet), his or her cells must use greater-than-normal amounts of fat for energy.

Treatment for woman who are diagnosed with gestational diabetes generally includes...

a special, carbohydrate-controlled diet to help manage blood glucose levels and regular physical activity.

Because of Banting and Best's pioneering efforts to find...

a useful treatment for diabetes, millions of people with the disease are able to live productive lives.

A lactose-intolerant person simply adds a small amount of the solution to fresh milk...

before drinking the beverage or takes one of the pills with lactose-containing food. Lactose-intolerant people can substitute soy milk for cows' milk because soy milk does not contain lactose.

Tooth decay is clearly associated with....

consuming carbohydrates, particular simple sugars that stick to teeth.

A gram of fiber is estimated to add fewer than 3 kcal to human diets. Fiber, however...

contributes relatively little to a typical person's energy intake.

A related value, the glycemic load, is the grams of carbohydrate in a serving of...

food multiplied by the food's GI; this figure is the divided by 100. Compared to the GI, the GL may be a more realistic wat of rating foods because the value indicates the relative rise in blood glucose levels after eating a typical serving of a carbohydrate-containing food.

Sugar alcohols are not...

fully absorbed by the intestinal tract, and as a result, they supply an average of 2 kcal/g. Because sugar alcohols are incompletely absorbed, the alternative sweeteners may cause diarrhea when consumed.

Epinephrine

is a hormone (sometimes called adrenaline) that is produced by the adrenal glands.

The fetus of a woman with gestational diabetes receives too much glucose from...

its hyperglycemic mother. As a result of obtaining the excess glucose, the fetus gains weight rapidly and can be abnormally heavy at birth, weighing 9 pounds or more. Giving birth to such as large infant is risky for the mother as well as the infant because it may prolong the birth process and cause the baby to be injured during delivery.

When a lactose-intolerant person consumes lactose, the disaccharide is not completely digested and absorbed by the time it enters the large intestine. Bacteria that....

reside in the large intestine break down lactose and produce irritating gases and acids as metabolic by-products.

The human body stores limited amounts of glucose as glycogen. Muscles and the liver are...

the major sites for glycogen formation and storage. Although muscles contain glycogen, most animal foods (e.g. red meat or the flesh or muscle of fish an poultry) are not sources of this complex carbohydrate because muscle glycogen breaks down soon after an animal dies.

The FDA has approved the use of the nonnutritive sweeteners as...

well as other products that may be swallowed, such as mouthwash and toothpaste.

If muscles and other cells that use glucose need energy, glucose enters the cells and is metabolized for energy. When an individual is...

well fed and resting ("fed state"), the body stores the extra glucose as glycogen. When glycogen storage reaches maximum capacity, the liver can convert excess glucose into fat.

Regular physical activity improves diabetes control as well as overall health and well-being. Physical activity increases glucose...

uptake muscles, reducing blood glucose levels and improving the body's insulin response.

In 2012, 29.1 million Americans, 9.3 % of the U.S. population, had diabetes. Of these Americans...

21.0 million had been diagnosed with diabetes, but an estimated 8,1 had the disease but had bot been diagnosed.

Nonnutritive sweeteners, also called "high-intensity sweeteners," are...

a group of compounds that elicit an intensely sweet taste when compared to the same amount of sugar.

Food manufacturers use large amounts of...

a high-fructose corn syrup as a food additive. Despite the name, it contains approximately the same amount of fructose as is found in sucrose. American's high intake of HFCS has been blamed for causing poor health and disease, there is no conclusive scientific evidence that consuming it is more detrimental to health than consuming regular table sugar.

Like glucagon, epinephrine increases the supply of glucose and fatty acids in the blood stream, but the hormone can also make...

a person with hypoglycemia feel irritable, restless, shaky, and sweaty. If the blood glucose level drops too low, the affected person can become confused, and he or she may lose consciousness and die.

Although genetic factors play a major role in the development of metabolic syndrome, excess...

abdominal fat and insulin resistance are the primary risk factors for the condition. Poor diet, cigarette smoking, and lack of physical activity also contribute to the development of the syndrome.

Excess fiber above the AI of 25g for adult females and 38 g for adult males is not...

advised and has not been found to provide added benefits to heart health.

Polysaccharides

are complex carbohydrates comprised of more than 10 monosaccharides bonded together.

Cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, gums, and mucilages are...

carbohydrate forms of fiber; lignin is the only type of fiber that is not carbohydrate.

If a person does not follow good dental hygiene practices, the...

debris becomes food for bacteria that live on teeth. As bacteria metabolize carbohydrate for their energy needs, they produce acid that damages tooth enamel and results in decay.

People with reactive hypoglycemia may feel better if they avoid eating large amounts of sugary foods and...

eat smaller, more frequent meals that contain a mixture of macronutrients.

Some people may be "carbohydrate-sensitive" because they develop hyperinsulinemia after...

eating foods that have GIs of 70 or more, such as some of the foods.

The gallbladder stores bile and releases it into the small intestine during meals. Instead of eliminating bile along with...

fecal matter in bowel movements, the intestinal tract breaks down the bile and absorbs its components, which eventually enter the liver. The liver recycles bile components to make new bile.

Both galactose and some fructose are converted into...

glucose in the liver.

Complex carbohydrates

have three or more monosaccharides bonded together.

Americans are fatter than they were 30 years ago. In their efforts to lose weight,

millions of americans follow fad low-carbohydrate diets, such as the Atkins, Sugar Busters!, Zone diet. A fad is a practice that gains widespread popularity rapidly and then loses its appeal quickly when people tire of the behavior or follow a newer trend.

To reduce flatulence, people can take a product, such as Beano, immediately before a metal that contains oligosaccharides. Beano contains...

alpha-galactosidase, the enzyme that breaks down oligosaccharides, so fewer of them reach the colon to be metabolized by bacteria.

Absorption of monosaccharides occurs almost exclusively in the small intestine. Intestinal cells absorb glucose and galactose by active transport; fructose is...

absorbed by facilitated diffusion. The monosaccharides enter the capillary network of the villus.

Different carbohydrates undergo different rates of digestion and absorption, which...

affect the body's insulin response.

Note that none of the sweeteners is a good source of protein, fat, vitamins or minerals. The monosaccharides in honey...

are not superior to the monosaccharides that comprise sucrose.

At this time, there is no way to prevent type 1 diabetes. However, people may reduce their risk of type 2 diabetes by...

avoiding excess body fat, exercising daily, and improving their diets. Dietitians and other medical practitioners refer to these actions as therapeutic lifestyle changes (TLC)

During normal cooking storage conditions, sucralose resists destruction by heat, a feature that makes it better for sweetening....

baked products than aspartame, which breaks down when heated.

As many as 9.2% of pregnant American women develop a form of diabetes called...

gestational diabetes, usually after the 24th week of pregnancy. Pregnant women who have a family history of type 2 diabetes, are overweight, or have high blood pressure are more likely to experience gestational diabetes than pregnant women who do not have these characteristics.

Many people with diabetes rely on daily blood testing to monitor their blood...

glucose levels. Additionally, physicians can measure glycated hemoglobin, also called glycosylated hemoglobin or hemoglobin A1c to determine their patient's average blood glucose levels over longer periods. This can provide information about a patient's long-term management of the condition.

Results from three large cohort studies in the US indicated that...

high red meat consumption over time may increase the risk of type 2 diabetes in both men and women.

In the US, adults who are normal weight or overweight generally have...

higher fiber intakes than those who are obese. High-fiber food generally has a lower energy content than the same volume of a low-fiber food.

A tablespoon of white table sugar is almost 100% sucrose; a tablespoon of..

honey has free glucose, free fructose, water, and a small amount of sucrose.

Insulin helps reduce blood glucose to normal levels because the...

hormone enables glucose to enter most cells. The hormone also enhances energy by promoting cellular fat, glycogen, and protein production.

Type I diabetes

is an autoimmune disease that occurs when certain immune system cells malfunction and do not recognize the body's own beta cells. As a result, the immune system cells attach and destroy the beta cells, and the affected person must obtain in exogenous (outside the body) source of insulin regularly.

Galactose

is not commonly found in foods. Is needed as a component of lactose, the form of carbohydrate in milk.

What happens to the carbohydrates in the body when a person eats a bowel of cooked oatmeal made with...

milk and sweetened with a little brown sugar for breakfeast. The carbohydrates in oats are primarily starch and fiber; mixing milk and brown sugar with the cereal adds lactose and sucrose. All of these carbohydrates must be broken down into monosaccharides, primarily glucose, before they are absorbed in the small intestine.

Sports drinks and sports or energy bars often include...

modified starches such as maltodextrin and dextrin. Regardless of its source, each gram of starch supplies 4 kcal, the same as other digestible carbohydrate sources.

The enzyme maltase digests maltose into glucose molecules. The small intestinal enzyme sucrase splits each sucrose....

molecule from the brown sugar, forming one glucose and one fructose molecule in the process.

In the US, 10.2% of children ages 5 to 17 years have ever been diagnosed with ADHD; boys (14.1%) are...

more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than girls. Although the causes of ADHD is not certain, they probably involve genetic and environmental factors.

In 1921, Canadian physician Dr. Frederick Banting and his assistant Charles Best conducted laboratory experiments on dogs to find a treatment for diabetes. The two...

researchers removed the pancreas of a dog and made an extract from the tissue. When the extract was injected into a diabetic dog, the animal's signs and symptoms of diabetes quickly disappeared.

In other cases, the affected person produces some insulin, but his or her body does not...

respond properly to the hormone, and hyperglycemia results. Major signs and symptoms of hyperglycemia include excessive thirst, frequent urination, blurred vision, and poor wound healing.

If not treated, severe ketosis can disrupt the body's ability to maintain normal blood chemistry...

resulting in loss of consciousness and even death.

Oat bran and oatmeal, beans, apples, carrots, oranges, and other citrus fruits, and psyllium seeds are...

rich sources of soluble fiber; whole-grain products, including brown rice, contain high amounts of insoluble fiber.

In 1980s, panels of experts at the FDA and the National Academy of Sciences reviewed the...

scientific evidence and determined that cyclamate did not increase the risk of cancer in humans. Nevertheless, the ban on this food additive continues in the US.

Some nutrition scientists think Americans' love of foods and beverages sweetened with high fructose corn syrup is...

largely responsible for the population's rising rate of obesity. The prevalence of obesity among children is a major public health concern; sugar-sweetened beverages, including regular soft drinks, are a primary source of added sugar in the diets of American children

Some people develop reactive hypoglycemia, also called postprandial hypoglycemia, which is...

low blood glucose that occurs within 4 hours of eating. Typically, the individual consumed too much highly refined carbohydrates, and his or her pancreas responded by releasing too much insulin. However, these individuals generally have normal fasting blood glucose levels.

Although honey contains phytochemicals, substances in plant foods that may provide health benefits, the...

amounts are too small to make this sticky sweetener a valuable source of these compounds.

Soluble fiber is sometimes referred to as viscous fiber because it usually forms...

a semisolid mass in the intestinal tract that is rapidly fermented by bacterial action.

Some people choose to control their caloric intake by reducing their consumption of foods and beverages sweetened with nutritive sweeteners such as sugar. Alternative sweeteners...

also referred to as sugar substitutes or "artificial" sweeteners. Are substances added to food that sweeten the item while providing few or no kcal.

Ketone bodies

are chemicals that result from the incomplete breakdown of fat. Muscle and brain cells can use ketone bodies for energy, but a condition commonly called ketosis occurs when these compounds accumulate in the blood.

Milk loses most of its lactose content when it is processed to make aged chees, such as cheddar and Swiss. The....

bacteria used to make yogurt convert much of the lactose in milk to lactic acid, and the microbes assist with the digestion of the remaining lactose even after the yogurt is eaten.

In a healthy person, the body maintains fasting blood glucose levels at...

between 70 and 99 milligrams per deciliter of blood (mg/dL). If a person has not eaten for a while, blood glucose levels begin to fall, the person starts to feel hungry, and the stomach likely growls.

Carbohydrates, especially sugar and white flour, get a lot of "bad press" Promoters of low-carbohydrate/high-protein diets often...

blame sugars and starches for causing obesity and diabetes.

Without a steady supply of energy, cells cannot function and they die. Plants are rich sources of...

carbohydrates; they make these substances by using the sun's energy to combine carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms from carbon dioxide and water.

Still, the average American drank about 41.4 gallons of...

carbonated soft drinks in 2014, or about 15 fluid ounces of these beverages daily, most of which were sweetened with refined sugars

Since its approval for use as a food additive in 1981, aspartame has been blamed for...

causing a variety of health problems, including cancer, certain immune system diseases, and chronic headaches.

In 2014, over 76,000 Americans died from diabetes; the...

chronic disease was the seventh leading cause of death in the US. Public health officials are very concerned about the increasing number of Americans who have diabetes.

In general, such medications help patients control their blood glucose levels when they are...

combined with a healthy lifestyle that includes monitoring carbohydrate intake and engaging in regular physical activity

Intestinal bacteria produce gases when they metabolize fiber, therefore...

dietitians recommend that people gradually increase their fiber intake to reduce the likelihood of having uncomfortable and embarrassing flatulence.

When a person eats a food that contains the simple sugars in honey and table sugar, his or her body does not...

distinguish whether the end-products of digestion-glucose and fructose-came from table sugar or honey.

Foods that contain large amounts of refined carbohydrates, however...

do not satisfy hunger as well as those that contain more protein or fat. As a result, hunger occurs sooner after eating a meal or snack that contains high amounts of added sugars and refined starches than after a high-protein, high-fat meal or snack.

The ADA promotes counting carbohydrates rather than using the...

glycemic index for choosing foods.

As a result, glycerol and fatty acids rapidly enter into the bloodstream. The liver use...

glycerol to produce glucose, and most cells, including muscle cells, can metabolize fatty acids for energy. Although the body can convert certain amino acids into glucose, it cannot use fatty acids to make glucose.

Nutrition experts recommend consuming dietary fiber from a variety of food sources, including...

grains, fruits, and vegetables. Regular consumption of legumes may also protect against development of colorectal cancer, but intake in the US is low compared to much of the rest of the world. More research to determine the role of fiber in cancer development is needed.

People who cannot tolerate even limited amounts of fresh fluid milk can often drink milk that...

has been pretreated with lactase to reduce its lactose content.

Fructose

has the same chemical formula as glucose, but the monosaccharide has a slightly different structure. Is naturally found in fruit, honey, and a few vegetables, particularly cabbage, green beans, and asparagus. The body has little need for this, but certain cells can fructose into glucose or into fat.

High blood levels of cholesterol are associated with....

increased risk of cardiovascular disease. The liver uses cholesterol to make bile, a substance that helps digest fats.

Banting's first human subject was Leonard Thompson's blood glucose level returned to near normal within a 1-day period. Regular insulin...

injections enabled Leonard Thompson to live until the age of 27, when he died of complications of diabetes. The discovery of insulin was one of the most significant medical advances of the 20th century.

The most common form of diabetes is type 2 diabetes. Beta cells of people with type 2 diabetes usually produce...

insulin, but the hormone's target cells are insulin-resistant, which means they do not respond properly to the hormone and do not allow glucose to enter them.

Food sources of raffinose and stachyose include onions, brussel sprouts, cabbage, broccoli, legumes, and whole grains. Other oligosaccharides include...

inulin and oligofructose. Chicory root, onions, garlic, leeks, legumes, asparagus, and wheat are among the richest natural sources of inulin and oligofructose.

A syndrome

is a group of signs and symptoms that occur together and indicate a specific health problem. Compared to people who do not have metabolic syndrome, individuals with this condition have about 5 times the risk of type 2 diabetes and almost twice the risk of certain diseases of the heart and blood vessels (CVD)

Since refined sucrose has the reputation of being a "junk food", some...

manufacturers have used creative names, such as "evaporated cane juice," to disguise the presence of table sugar in their product's ingredient list.

Scientists have not determined a Tolerable Upper Intake Level for fiber. However, eating excessive amounts of fiber...

may produce severe intestinal gas and interfere with the intestinal absorption of certain minerals. In rare instances, consuming too much dietary fiber results in intestinal blockage, especially if fluid intake is low.

The prudent diet had more poultry, fish, and fiber-rich whole grains, fruits, and vegetables than the western diet. The results of this study indicated that...

men who ate Western diets had almost twice the risk of developing type 2 diabetes compared with those who followed prudent diets.

Over time, untreated or poorly controlled hyperglycemia damages nerves, organs, and blood vessels. In fact...

poorly controlled diabetes is a major cause of heart disease; kidney failure; blindness; and poor blood circulation, particularly of the lower limbs, which can require amputation.

If an individual ignores the hunger signals and does not eat, the alpha cells in the pancreas secrete glucagon. Glucagon opposes insulin's effects by....

promoting the breakdown of glycogen. This process, called glycogenolysis releases glucose into the bloodstream and, as a result, keeps blood glucose from dropping too low.

Names for sugars:

raw sugar, cultured corn syrup, fructose (levulose), brown sugar, high-maltose corn syrup, invert sugar, table sugar, agave nectar, lactose, turbinado sugar, maple syrup, maltose, confectioners' or powered sugar, molasses, maltodextrin, coconut sugar, honey, sorbitol, date sugar, fruit juice concentrate, mannitol, evaporated cane juice, fruit juice sweetener, Xylitol, corn sweeteners, glucose, erythritol, corn syrup, dextrose, high-fructose corn syrup, polydextrose

Glycemic index is a way of classifying foods by comparing the...

rise in blood glucose that occurs after eating a sample of food that supplies 5 g of 30 grams of digestible carbohydrate to the rise that occurs after eating a standard source of carbohydrate, such as 50 g of glucose or white bread.

Resistant starches are not broken down in the human GI tract. Some resistant starches occur naturally in foods, such as...

seeds, legumes, unripened bananas, and raw potatoes, whereas other form by chemical changes that take place during cooking or processing.

Carbohydrates are often classified into two general categories:

simple and complex carbohydrates and complex carbohydrates, which include most forms of dietary fiber. Each class of carbohydrates has effects on health.

The hepatic portal vein transports the monosaccharides to the liver. The liver can use the...

simple sugars to make glycogen or fat, but if the body needs energy, the organ releases glucose into the bloodstream.

Normally infants produce lactase, but by the time children are 2 years old, their...

small intestine begins to produce less of the enzyme. Many older children and adults, particularly those with African, Asian, Eastern European, and Native American ancestry, are lactose intolerant and experience some degree of abdominal discomfort after drinking milk.

All infants born in the US and Canada are test for PKU soon after birth. To alert people with PKU about the presence of aspartame in foods...

the FDA requires manufacturers of products containing the nonnutritive sweetener to include a warning on the label.

Although the tablespoon of honey contains more protein and micronutrients than the...

the tablespoon of white sugar, the amounts are insignificant. For example, a person would have to eat a cup of honey to obtain 1g of protein, 2 mg of vitamin C, and 1.4 mg of iron. That amount of honey supplies over 1000 kcal.

If you have ever been in charge of a 7 year old child's birthday party or observed third graders preparing for...

their Halloween celebration, you can understand why people often blame sugary foods for causing unruly and "hyperactive" behavior.

Over the past 40 years, the percentage of overweight and obese Americans rose dramatically. During this same period, Americans substantially increased...

their consumption of fructose in high fructose corn syrup.

Diabetes mellitus (diabetes)

us a group of serious chronic diseases characterized by abnormal glucose, fat, and protein metabolism. Before the early 1920s, there was no effective treatment for diabetes. People with the disease often died soon after they were diagnosed with the condition.

People with type 1 diabetes rely on daily insulin injections, either by the...

use of multiple daily insulin shots or an insulin pump. The insulin pump, which is usually worn on a waistband or belt, has a container for insulin.

Sugar also serves as a preservative by inhibiting the growth of molds and bacteria that...

would otherwise cause food spoilage. If one of the nutritive sweeteners is the first or second ingredient listed on a product's label, the food probably contains high amount of added sugar.

Birthday and school parties are exciting and happy occasions that typically involve a radical change from a child's usual routine. In these situations, a...

youngster's excitement and higher-than-usual activity level are more likely to result from the occasion than from a particular food.