Intro to policing- Exam 1 notes

Collective bargaining is defined as "the method of determining conditions of employment through bilateral negotiations One of the most important conditions of work involves disciplinary procedures. Almost all police unions have formal grievance procedures designed to protect officers against unfair discipline. Grievance procedures provide due process for employees.

(1) employees have a legal right to form unions of their own choosing, (2) employers must recognize employee unions, (3) employees have a right to participate in negotiations over working conditions, and (4) employers are required to negotiate with the union's designated representatives. The process is designed to provide a structured framework for settling differences between employers and employees

Slave Patrol

*Distinctly American *Guard against slave revolts and capture runaway slaves

Explain the basic functions of police patrol.

- Police patrol helps to deter crime because many people won't commit a crime if they know an officer is near and can arrest them. This results in the enhancement of feelings towards public safety because people feel more safe if they see officers actively patrolling. When people are asked for suggestions of improvements, they mention that they want more police/ or patrols in their neighborhood or community. The function of patrol allows officers to be available for service and close by if a crime is committed in the area. The police may be the last profession to make house calls.

Among local departments, women account for approximately ______% of sworn personnel

11.9%

Approximately, what percent of calls to the police are for service calls? The most important finding is that only 20 to 30 percent of all calls for service involve criminal law enforcement. Most calls are order maintenance calls or service calls Responds to incidents including medical emergencies, welfare checks, and general assistance.

70 percent

Private police organizations display four characteristics that differentiate them from the public police. First, private police organizations focus on more than crime. They also concern themselves with broader issues such as property, personal assets, and general consumer satisfaction. Second, private police organizations have many more alternatives at their disposal for addressing problems. For example, they can have employees fired, ban persons from establishments, fine those who do not follow policies and guidelines, and pursue prosecution in the criminal courts. As such, private police have much more discretion in how they resolve problems. Third, private police organizations place significantly more emphasis on the prevention of problems. Public police organizations have traditionally emphasized reacting to problems after they occur, whereas private police invest more of their resources in problem prevention. Fourth, private police concern themselves primarily with matters occurring on, or with, private property. For instance, private police are typically associated with large privately held spaces such as malls, housing developments, and business complexes.

A final approach to establishing minimum national standards in policing is through accreditation. Accreditation is a process of professional self-regulation, similar to those processes that exist in medicine, law, education, and other occupations.

Which of the following is an example of procedural justice?

A police officer explains to a driver why he has to search the driver's car.

service style The style of supervision affects the amount of work performed by patrol officers. The basic unit of police patrol consists of a sergeant and a crew of patrol officers. The principle of the span of control holds that a supervisor can effectively manage only a limited number of people. In policing, the general standard is a span of control of one sergeant to eight patrol officers

A style of policing that emphasizes responsiveness to community expectations and typically found in suburban communities.

Special district police agencies serve particular government agencies or special geographic boundaries. Many airports and parks, for example, have their own police forces.

About 200 police agencies in the United States have primary responsibility for providing police services to the roughly 330 reservations in Indian country.

Active officers

Active officers initiate more contacts with citizens (field interrogations, traffic stops, building checks); back up officers on other calls, even when not dispatched to those calls; assert control of situations with citizens; and make more arrests.

What is the affirmative action, and how does it related to reverse discrimination? Affirmative action originated in 1965, with presidential Executive Order 11246, which required all federal contractors to develop written affirmative action programs. Today, all private employers and government agencies receiving federal funds are required to have affirmative action plans. Opponents of quotas argue that they involve an illegal form of reverse discrimination, in which white or male applicants claim they were not hired because quotas required the hiring of African American or Hispanic applicants who had weaker credentials. Opponents of affirmative action also argue that it lowers personnel standards by forcing employers to hire people with lower qualifications

Affirmative action refers to the efforts of a police department to hire a more diverse pool of officers, in situations to better reflect the diversity of the community. Affirmative action is related to reverse discrimination because in an effort to hire a more diverse workforce, some claim that they were not hired because of the quotas that required the hiring of African American or Hispanic applicants who had weaker credentials. Increasing diversity challenges the traditional white male subculture of policing.

In the first POP experiment, officers in Newport News, Virginia, attacked crime in a deteriorated housing project by helping the residents organize to improve conditions in the project itself.

An EIS contains anywhere from five to more than 20 indicators of police officer performance. They include all uses of force, all citizen complaints, disciplinary histories, use of sick leave and overtime, and other indicators.

The standard measure for the level of police protection in a community is the police-population ratio. This is usually expressed as the number of sworn officers per thousand residents.

As a means of addressing their financial problems, A number of police agencies have examined the possibility of police consolidation. A planning document by the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) outlines the seven types of police consolidation that are possible

Who among the following is known as the father of American police professionalism?

August Vollmer

August Vollmer

August Vollmer was the father of American police professionalism. Vollmer served as chief of police in Berkeley, California, from 1905 to 1932 and, more than any other person, defined the reform agenda that continues to influence policing today. He is most famous for advocating higher education for police officers,

Write a short history of law enforcement in colonial America.

Borrowed from the English heritage First American officer received very little training, patrolling on foot, and carrying no weapons. Sheriff, Constable, Watch, Slave Patrol Slave patrol was first modern police force in America Very ill equipped at maintaining order People bribed law enforcement officials to overlook violation of the law

What are the major criticisms of the bureaucratic form of organization? The bureaucratic form of organization exists because it is the most efficient means developed for organizing and directing many different activities in the pursuit of a common goal. This does not mean that the bureaucratic form is completely efficient, only that no other organizational form has been found that is better able to carry out multiple tasks simultaneously in the pursuit of a common goal

Bureaucracies have been found to be rigid, inflexible, and unable to adapt to external changes Communication within large bureaucratic organizations often breaks down Encourages the idea of a "war on crime" Authoritarian style is contrary to democratic principles and produces low morale Rigid structure leaves room for job dissatisfaction Inward looking and self-serving causes for isolation from the community Bureaucracies do not use talents of employees nor stifle creativity

Police training begins with the police academy, where new recruits receive their introduction to policing and to the department. Large police departments today maintain their own academies. Smaller departments send their officers to a state police training academy or to state-certified regional academies.

By the early 1980s, every state had some form of state-mandated training. Academy classroom training is followed by field training, where officers are on the street under the supervision of a field training officer.

Police unions spread rapidly in the 1960s and by the 1970s were a powerful force in American policing. Officers were angry and alienated over Supreme Court rulings, criticisms by civil rights groups, poor salaries and benefits, and arbitrary disciplinary practices by police chiefs.

Citizen oversight of the police spread beginning in the 1980s, and by 2015, it was estimated that there were between 100 and 200 oversight agencies. By 1995, there were enough agencies that a professional association was established, the National Association for Civilian Oversight of Law Enforcement (NACOLE)

The total number of employees includes clerical staff and civilian specialists in computers, criminalistics, and so on. The number of sworn officers refers to those employees who are legally recognized as police officers, with full arrest power and the like.

Civilianization is the process of replacing sworn officers with nonsworn personnel for certain positions. Today, about 30 percent of all local police department employees are civilians. This represents an increase from 11.1 percent in 1960 and 18.4 percent in 1980. Nonsworn personnel have been increasingly used as dispatchers, research and planning specialists, crime-data analysts, and computer technicians. There are several reasons for utilizing civilians in police work. First, they free up sworn officers for critical police work that requires a trained and experienced officer. Second, they possess needed expertise in such areas as computers or data analysis. Third, in many cases they are less expensive than sworn officers, thereby representing a cost saving.

Newark Foot Patrol Experiment Increased foot patrol had other positive effects. Reduced fear of crime was also associated with more positive attitudes toward the police, including other police activities unrelated to foot patrol. At the same time, foot-patrol officers reported more positive attitudes about citizens, believing them to be more supportive of the police

Conducted from 1978 to 1979 to test the effect of foot patrol on crime and public perception; the Newark experiment concluded that added foot patrol did not affect serious crime, but did have a positive impact on public perception of the police.

Robert Peel

Considered the father of modern policing, he fought to improve the basic structure of law enforcement and persuaded the English Parliament to establish the London Metropolitan Police in 1829. American law enforcement agencies are organized along quasi-military lines. That is, they resemble the military in some but not all respects. This style of organization originated with Robert Peel's plan for the London Metropolitan Police in 1829 and was adopted by American police departments. Third, the authoritarian command style is contrary to democratic principles of participation. Fourth, the authoritarian style produces low morale, and the rigid rank structure fails to provide sufficient job satisfaction for police officers.

London Metropolitan Police

Created in 1829, it represents the first example of an efficient, proactive police force. Introduced three important elements of policing: the mission of crime prevention, the strategy of preventative patrol, and an organizational structure similar to the military.

The role of each federal agency is specified by federal statute. In important respects, federal agencies have a far less complex role than that of municipal agencies. Federal agents do not have the ambiguous and difficult responsibility for order maintenance, do not maintain 911 emergency telephone services, and are not asked to handle vague "disturbance" calls.

Customs and Border Protection: The agency works to prevent illegal immigration and the smuggling of controlled substances, weapons of mass destruction (WMD), and illegal and diseased plants and animals into the country

What are some reasons for using civilians in police work?

Decentralizes decision making (territorial and administrative) Less expensive Lessen the workload from officers Provided areas of expertise such as computer work and databases

What was the agenda of the police professionalization movement? What did they wish to accomplish? Because of the history of the American police, police professionalism acquired a special meaning. Professionalism meant the same thing as bureaucratization. Thus, the professional departments were the ones that adopted O. W. Wilson's principles of police administration: specialization, hierarchy, clear lines of authority, written rules and policies, and so on. Professional departments were the ones in which officers did their jobs "by the book," meaning that they followed written departmental rules

Defined policing as a profession Sought to eliminate the influence of politics on policing Argued for hiring qualified chief executives Tried to raise personal standards for rank and file officers Rank-and-file officers cover up each other's mistakes. Sergeants cover up mistakes by officers under their command because it would reflect poorly on their own performance. This allows them to publicly deny that such things exist when questioned by the news media or members of the public. Many observers have found serious morale problems among rank-and-file police officers and argue that departments need to provide officers with greater opportunities at work and more flexibility to perform their duties. Applied modern management principles Created the first specialized unit devoted to traffic, juveniles, and vices They wished to make the profession a respectable one, that could not be easily corrupted.

In the context of hiring police officers, what are the basic elements in the recruitment process?

Establishing the minimum qualifications for the job The recruitment effort The applicant's decision to apply for a position The screening of applicants and selection of new recruits College requirements have been rising, with the most dramatic change being the increase from about 5 to 23 percent of all departments requiring a two-year college degree Residency requirements are intended to heighten officers' familiarity with the community and their commitment to its well-being. Once a police department has a pool of applicants, a series of tests is used to select a group of new recruits. These tests include written and medical exams, a background check, and interviews of finalists. About 26 percent of departments use a polygraph or lie detector. The background investigation of applicants is perhaps the most important part of the selection process. The only factor that correlated with good on-the-job performance (as indicated by performance records), however, was the recruit training score. The study concluded that it is not possible to predict which individuals will become good officers on the basis of background characteristics he Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies (CALEA) adopted Standard 31.2.1, stating that departments should have "a ratio of minority group employees in approximate proportion to the makeup of the agency's law enforcement service community

Municipal or city police are the most important component of American law enforcement. They represent 70 percent of all law enforcement agencies and employ 60 percent of all sworn officers.

Even more important, municipal police play a more complex role than any other type of law enforcement agency. Among all municipal police departments, a few very large departments play a disproportionately important role. A Police Foundation report on the big six police departments—New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, Philadelphia, Detroit—found that they are responsible for 7.5 percent of the U.S. population but face 23 percent of all violent crime, including 34 percent of all robberies.35 Although these six represent a tiny fraction of all departments, they employ almost 13 percent of all sworn officers. The New York City police department towers over all others, with 34,454 sworn officers. Chicago is second with about 12,042 officers.

The first mission of the new London Metropolitan Police in 1829 was criminal investigation.

False

U.S. Coast Guard.

For example, it is responsible for security missions such as port, waterway, and coastal security; drug interdiction; migrant interdiction; and defense readiness As such, the U.S. Coast Guard is unique in that it has been granted authority and responsibilities that are similar to both the military and the police.

Vertical Cliques

Formed between lower and higher ranking officers. These cliques oftentimes have a shared understanding of situations and problems and work together to address them in an agreeable manner.

Horizontal Cliques

Formed between similarly ranked officers. Most horizontal cliques are created to protect line officers from supervisory oversight and accountability.

group solidarity

Group solidarity, of course, exists in all professions and workplaces. Policing is somewhat different, however. The very nature of police work—working closely together, often spending long hours together in a patrol car, facing the same uncertainties and danger—fosters a very strong sense of group solidarity

State police (sometimes called Departments of Public Safety) are defined as agencies "having statewide police powers for both traffic regulation and criminal investigations."

Highway patrols are defined as agencies having "statewide authority to enforce traffic regulations and arrest non-traffic violators under their jurisdiction.

Institutional theory holds that police organizations are social institutions that operate in relation to their external social and political environment.

Institutional environment, here, refers to powerful actors, called sovereigns, who have the capacity to influence the policies and decisions of police organizations.58 Sovereigns in a given community might include the mayor, the city council, special interest groups, citizens, and other criminal justice agencies.

Explain the impact of women police officers on the police subculture.

It has been found that within the police subculture women officers are less likely to use excessive or hands on force when dealing with suspects. Rather they use their communication skills to apprehend suspects which can give male officers a different perspective when they police. Relatively, the police subculture can have a direct effect on how women are treated within their departments which directly relates to sexism and sexual harassment. Women officers can also provide a new perspective on certain kinds of crimes in the community.

The majority of law enforcement agencies in America are:

Local

The latest statistics regarding the number of law enforcement officers in the United States may be obtained from the

National Institute of Justice

equal employment opportunity (EEO) index The federal Pregnancy Discrimination Act prohibits employment discrimination on the basis of pregnancy, childbirth, or any pregnancy-related medical condition The increase in the numbers of African American and Hispanic officers, together with the assignment of women officers to patrol duty in the 1970s, and more recently the presence of openly gay and lesbian officers, has had a significant although complex impact on policing. These changes have challenged the traditional white male subculture of policing.

National data on the employment of officers of color are misleading, however, because different racial and ethnic groups are not evenly distributed across the country. African Americans are concentrated in the South and many big cities (but not all). Hispanic Americans are concentrated in particular cities in the Southwest, on the East Coast, and in the South. The best way to determine whether a department complies with the recommendation that departments reflect the diversity of the communities they serve is with the equal employment opportunity (EEO) index, which compares a police department's workforce with the racial and ethnic composition of the community it serves.

In all law enforcement agencies, rank-and-file officers regard certain assignments as highly desirable. These are sometimes referred to as "coveted" assignments

Officers prefer these assignments for two reasons. First, they are usually challenging assignments that are more interesting than basic patrol. Second, experience in these assignments often helps gain promotion to higher rank.

Why are bureaucracies often accused of being too self-serving and inward looking?

Organizational self-protection and survival are seen to take precedence over the goals of the organization.

passive officers

Passive officers, by contrast, initiate few contacts with citizens; respond only to calls to which they are dispatched; and make few traffic stops, field interrogations, and arrests Data on arrests, traffic stops, and field interrogations consistently indicate that a few officers are very productive, while some other officers engage in little activity

Which of the following statements is true about totalitarian societies?

Police primarily follow the dictates of the supreme ruler.

Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment

Police study that found that changes to police presence did not have a significant effect on crime or change citizen satisfaction levels with the police. The Police Foundation, a private and independent organization, funded the experiment, provided the expertise in research design, and ensured that the evaluation was independent and objective

3 important areas of american policing:

Political Era: (1830's- 1900's) Politics influenced every aspect of American policing in the nineteenth century Officers were selected entirely on the basis of their political connections. Men with no formal education, those in bad health, and those with criminal records were hired. There were a few female matrons for the jail In most departments, recruits received no formal preservice training. They were handed a badge, a baton, and a copy of the department rules (if one even existed), and then sent out on patrol duty. Professional Era: (1900-1960's) developed agenda The era of conflicting pressures (1960s-present) modern era, community era due to urbanization and immigration

Police officers cannot legally stop someone on the street without reasonable suspicion that the individual is committing or is about to commit a crime, and they cannot legally arrest someone without probable cause. The Fourth Amendment prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures. The Supreme Court in Terry v. Ohio has allowed frisks, a pat down of a person who has been stopped, but only to locate weapons so as to protect officer safety

Quotas are a serious problem because they put pressure on police officers to stop or arrest people they otherwise would not. Understandably, officers deeply resent quotas because stops made without reasonable suspicion are illegal

The Baltimore Police Department pioneered an experimental 311 system in 1996. Only those calls that require the immediate presence of a police officer are routed to a 911 system dispatcher. Others are routed to the 311 system and either are referred to other agencies or receive a delayed police response. According to the city's 311 website, calls routed to the 311 system include calls about crimes not in progress, removing a dead animal, rodent problems, problems with traffic signs or signals, graffiti removal, sanitation problems, and other nonemergency situations

Reverse 911: New communications and crime mapping technology has created reverse 911 systems. Instead of citizens calling the police, a reverse 911 system allows the police to call citizens If a police department has important information about an event in a particular neighborhood, the system can identify telephone numbers in that area and call the residents A reverse 911 system can be activated within five minutes following a reported incident and can flood the affected area with hundreds of calls an hour.

Who among the following is known as the father of modern policing?

Robert Peel

Patrol is the backbone of policing, the central feature of police operations.

Robert Peel, creator of the modern police, defined the functions of police patrol. The three basic functions of patrol are as follows: To deter crime. To enhance feelings of public safety. To make officers available for service.

code of silence

Secrecy is maintained by the code of silence, which involves not testifying against other officers accused of misconduct, for example, in a citizen complaint. The code of silence is perhaps the most serious obstacle to police accountability and the reduction of both corruption and police use of excessive force

A survey of gay and lesbian officers found that they chose law enforcement as a career for the same reasons other people have traditionally chosen it: 41 percent cited job security, career opportunity, and civic duty as the three top reasons they chose policing. Many, however, experienced discrimination on the job. Two-thirds (67 percent) reported hearing homophobic talk on the job, and 51 percent reported being treated like an outsider. Nearly a quarter (22 percent) cited barriers to promotion, and 17 percent saw barriers in assignment because of their sexual orientation.79 There are, however, no studies of the performance of gay and lesbian officers.80 In the end, with little open conflict, gay and lesbian police officers have become integrated into the departments in which they work.

Social scientists refer to these as cohort effects. That is, the officers hired in one decade will have different ideas and lifestyles from officers hired in later decades.

English Heritage

The English colonists brought a criminal justice system as part of their cultural baggage, including the English common law, emphasis on individual rights, the court systems and forms of punishment, and different law enforcement agencies. American policing is a product of English heritage. Colonial law enforcement was inefficient, corrupt, and affected by political interference. Contrary to popular myth, there was never a "golden age" of efficiency, effectiveness, and integrity in American policing.

Every year, about 5 percent of all police officers leave their jobs. This turnover, or attrition, rate appears to have been steady since the 1960s. Officers leave police work because of retirement, death, dismissal, voluntary resignation, or layoffs resulting from financial constraints.

The Memphis study identified several key "turning points" leading to the decision to resign. These include, in order of importance, (1) the feeling that one's career had stagnated (for example, "I just can't see any future in being a police officer"); (2) a particularly intense experience that brought accumulated frustrations to a head; (3) lack of a sense of fulfillment on the job; (4) family considerations; (5) the conduct of coworkers; (6) a particular department policy or policies; and (7) new employment opportunities.

U.S. Marshals Service

The U.S. Marshals Service, established in 1789, is the nation's oldest federal law enforcement agency. The U.S. Marshals Service is responsible for providing security to the federal courts, housing federal detainees, and conducting fugitive investigations.

U.S. Secret Service.

The U.S. Secret Service is currently responsible for investigating "crimes that involve financial institution fraud, computer and telecommunication fraud, false identification documents, access device fraud, advance fee fraud, electronic funds transfer, and money laundering."

Felicia Shpritzer made history in breaking down the barriers against women in policing. She joined the New York City police department in 1942 and, following the model established by Alice Stebbins Wells and the other pioneer policewomen, served almost 20 years in the juvenile unit. In 1961, she and five other female officers applied for promotion to sergeant. Their applications were rejected, and in fact they were not even allowed to take the promotional exam. They sued, and in 1963 the courts declared the NYPD policy illegal and ordered the department to allow them to take the exam. The following year, 126 policewomen took the exam; Shpritzer and one other woman passed. The other woman, Gertrude Schimmel, became the first female captain in the NYPD in 1971 and was deputy chief when she retired in 1981. Shpritzer had retired as a lieutenant in 1976.

The control of deadly force was one of the most important reforms. James Fyfe's research, discussed earlier, found that a written policy restricting the use of firearms, and also requiring a report of each weapons discharge, effectively reduced the overall number of weapons discharges and the number of people shot by the police. The administrative rulemaking model for controlling police discretion, which was the basis for the new rules on the use of deadly force, was soon applied to other aspects of policing. The model called for a written policy providing clear guidance on when to shoot or not shoot, and the factors officers should take into account when exercising their discretion.

Chief William Parker of the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) illustrated the commission's point about how aggressive crime-fighting aggravated police-community relations Some of the most important research undermined traditional assumptions about policing. The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment (1972-1973), perhaps the most important experiment in the history of policing, tested the effect of different levels of patrol on crime. The researchers found that increased patrol did not reduce crime and that reduced patrol did not lead to an increase in crime or public fear of crime.

The crime rate in America increased sharply around 1963, Few crime calls involve crimes in progress, and many crime victims do not call the police immediately. In these situations, no offender is present when the police arrive.94 The Rand Corporation study of criminal investigation, meanwhile, shattered traditional myths about detective work. Most crimes are solved through information obtained by the first officer on the scene, using information from victims or witnesses. Follow-up detective work, of the kind portrayed in the movies and on television, is relatively unproductive and involves routine paperwork.

Job Satisfaction and Job Stress Nevertheless, threatening incidents, such as physical assaults in the form of being attacked with a weapon, are statistically infrequent. Similarly, as mentioned earlier, the number of police officers feloniously killed in the line of duty is low, and the on-the-job fatality rate is lower than in many other industries.

The factors associated with job satisfaction in policing fall into five general categories: The nature of police work, including working with people, serving the community, and the excitement of the work. Organizational factors, including recognition for good performance, opportunities for advancement, and support from organization leaders. Relations with the community, including cooperation from citizens in encounters, the presence or absence of overt conflict with citizens, and positive feedback for good performance. Relations with the media and political leaders, including positive or negative coverage in the news media, positive support from political leaders, and the presence or absence of direct political interference from political leaders. Personal or family factors, including a family environment that understands police work, the presence or absence of conflict between job and family responsibilities, and the presence or absence of family problems (divorce, problems with children, and so on).

Along the same lines, Elizabeth Reuss-Ianni found two cultures among police officers in the department she studied. One group identified with the old street cop culture that values street experience and a tough, personalized way of dealing with people on the street. The other group identified with the new bureaucratic style of written rules and formal procedures for dealing with both police work on the street and departmental governance.

The graduate students observing police work in Boston, Chicago, and Washington, D.C., in Reiss's pioneering study for the President's Crime Commission observed more than 75 percent of the officers making racially prejudiced statements. They did not, however, observe a pattern of systematic mistreatment of African Americans, in terms of either use of force or discriminatory arrests. The contradictions in this study illustrate the complex relationship between the attitudes and behavior of police officers.

Law enforcement in the United States is a large and extremely complex enterprise. There are almost 18,000 federal, state, and local agencies, along with a private security industry that employs more than a million additional people.

The home secretary has the power to issue administrative regulations on personnel and police operations. Additionally, each of the 43 police departments receives 51 percent of its annual budget from the home secretary's office, giving it the power to enforce regulations.5

Job security has always been important in policing. Because of civil service rules and police union contracts, it is extremely difficult to fire an officer, except for criminal conduct. It is almost impossible to fire an officer simply for doing little work.

The lack of opportunities for career development is recognized as a problem in American police departments. Career development involves opportunities to use one's talents and develop expertise in a particular area.

Lateral Entry

The opportunity to move to other police departments was traditionally limited in American departments. Someone transferring from another department lost all seniority and had to start as a rookie officer. This was a serious impediment to career development. In other professions, someone can move to a different organization without losing seniority and often to a higher position with better pay.

capacity to use force is the defining feature of the police, distinguishing them from other occupations. Perhaps most important, the dangers of police work are fundamentally different from the risks in other occupations. In construction, coal mining, and firefighting, three dangerous occupations, injuries and deaths are the result of accidents. In policing, a large percentage of deaths and injuries are the result of felonious assaults.

The power to arrest, to deprive people of their liberty, is also a form of coercive force. These powers are inherent in the police role and apply to every sworn officer. The uniform, the badge, and an officer's weapon are the convenient symbols of these unique powers.

What are some of the reasons why citizens delay calling the police?

The response time of police officers may be affected due to the cooperation of citizens who are in need of help. Citizens delay calling police for various reasons. These reasons consist of citizens wanting to be able to verify that a crime has been committed. For example, determining if something has been stolen or just misplaced. Some citizens may be deprived of immediate access to a telephone due to them being homeless or poor. Another reason is having distrust for police officers which may impact their decision on involving them. The phone call can be delayed if the citizen needs to regain their composure. With that, they will call a friend and/or family member for reassurance before calling the police.

Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act The 1972 Equal Employment Opportunity Act extended the coverage of the 1964 law to state and local governments, which include police and sheriff's departments.

The underrepresentation of African Americans, Hispanics, and women in policing was a historic problem in American policing, and it continues to be an issue today. Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act makes it unlawful for an employer "to fail or refuse to hire or to discharge any individual, or otherwise to discriminate against any individual ... because of such individual's race, color, religion, sex, or national origin"

Under COMPSTAT, the police department continuously collects arrest, calls for service, and complaint data from each precinct or beat within the agency and analyzes those data for reporting purposes at that level.

They found six key elements or features associated with COMPSTAT:31 COMPSTAT clarifies the department's mission, goals, and values. COMPSTAT holds managers within the organization accountable. Organizational power and authority are transferred to commanders who are responsible for geographic areas. Resources are transferred to commanders who are responsible for geographic areas. Data are used to identify problems and to evaluate success and failure. Middle managers are expected to use innovative problem-solving tactics.

Which of the following statements is true about active supervisors?

They like to be heavily involved in the field alongside subordinates while controlling patrol officer behavior.

The legislation that prohibits employment discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity, religion, nationality, or sex is known as

Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act.

Most police work can be described as order maintenance or peacekeeping.

True

Traditional barriers to women in policing collapsed under the impact of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, which barred discrimination on the basis of sex, and the women's movement.

True

seniority system Officers with greater seniority who do not get a preferred special assignment (for example, criminal investigation, traffic) typically request day-shift patrol in a low-crime precinct.

When new officers first take to the streets, they are typically assigned to patrol duty, usually in high-crime areas and on the evening shift. Officers with greater seniority who do not get a preferred special assignment (for example, criminal investigation, traffic) typically request day-shift patrol in a low-crime precinct.

A few areas are served by county police departments. They are essentially municipal police that operate on a countywide basis but do not have any of the non-law-enforcement roles of the county sheriff

about 1 percent of local departments are county.

The recommended number of officers for a sergeant to supervise is

about 8.

Sheriff

appointed by the colonial governor Roles: enforce law, collect taxes, supervise elections, maintain bridges and roads The legal status of the sheriff is unique because in 37 states it is a constitutional office, whose responsibilities are defined in the state constitution. Also, sheriffs are elected in all but two states. In Rhode Island, they are appointed by the governor; in Hawaii, they are appointed by the chief justice of the state supreme court. As elected officials, sheriffs are directly involved in partisan politics in ways that municipal police chiefs are not. Historically, in rural areas the sheriff was the most powerful politician in the county Lee Brown identified four different models of sheriff's departments, according to their responsibilities: (1) full-service model sheriff's departments carry out law enforcement, judicial, and correctional duties; (2) law enforcement model agencies carry out only law enforcement duties, with other responsibilities assumed by separate agencies; (3) civil-judicial model agencies handle only court-related duties (e.g., counties in Connecticut and Rhode Island); and (4) correctional-judicial model agencies (e.g., San Francisco County) handle all responsibilities except law enforcement.co

President's Task Force on 21st Century Policing

as a useful framework for understanding the basic principles of good policing. In a series of public, created by president obama in 2014 to address problems between the police and the public recommended training on the use of force should emphasize de-escalation and alternatives to arrest or summons in situations where appropriate" Officers use force in only about 1 to 2 percent of all encounters with citizens. Citizens generally comply with officers' requests that they stop doing something or leave the premises, and communication skills and good judgment are considered more important for police work than physical strength The President's Task Force made a strong recommendation against quotas (Recommendation 2.9) Task forces: An interagency task force allows the police chief to select particular officers from different ranks, based on their talents rather than just their rank.

The typical police department has a complex hierarchical structure and an authoritarian management style, which is also known as a American police departments are remarkably similar in terms of organizational structure and administrative style. The typical police department is a complex bureaucracy, with a hierarchical structure and an authoritarian management style. The only exceptions to this rule are found in very small departments, which have simple organizational structures and more informal management styles.

bureaucracy.

The guide that ensures that personnel decisions are based on objective criteria and not on favoritism, bias, or political influence is called the

civil service system. Civil service procedures are a major feature of American police organizations. Civil service represents a set of formal and legally binding procedures governing personnel decisions. Civil service is nearly universal. exception for some small departments Rewards Hierarchy- This hierarchy typically corresponds with an officer's rank and seniority within the department. It does not, however, typically correspond with individual skill or performance. Civil service creates a number of problems for police organizations. It limits the power of police chiefs, for instance, in making personnel decisions. A chief cannot hire, fire, or promote personnel at will. Nor can a chief change existing personnel standards at will (for example, imposing a college education requirement for all new recruits).

Outside employment

creates a number of potential problems. First, it may diminish an officer's commitment to his or her job with the police department. A study of arrest productivity among New York City police officers found that those officers who held outside jobs made significantly fewer arrests than officers who did not. Apparently, officers were deterred from making arrests out of fear that the resulting court appearances would interfere with their outside work

Reformers The profile of the American police officer changed significantly beginning in the 1970s.

defined policing as a profession, sought to eliminate politics on policing David Sklansky described policing as "not your father's police department."98 The employment of African American and Hispanic officers increased significantly. Underrepresentation of African American officers on big-city police departments was one of the major complaints raised by civil rights groups in the 1960s

First Modern American Police

didn't wear uniforms but had a hat and badge, didn't carry firearms, hired based on political connections

systematic bias

discrimination against members if a particular group. One study, using simulated encounters between officers and citizens, found that "[o]fficers with negative attitudes toward Black suspects and negative beliefs regarding the criminality of Black people tended to shoot unarmed Black suspects more often in the simulation than officers with more positive attitudes and beliefs toward Blacks."

legalistic style

emphasizes aggressive crime fighting and attempts to control officer behavior through a rule-bound, by-the-book administrative approach

watchman style

emphasizes peacekeeping, without aggressive law enforcement and with few controls over rank-and-file officers

Constable

enforcing laws and maintaining order There are few constables left in the United States today. Depending on the state, constables can be elected or appointed, and their role and function is defined by the state constitution. Modern constables typically work within the county court system. They are responsible for serving warrants and subpoenas, transporting prisoners, and providing security for district judges. They also work with county commissioners to post delinquent tax notices and assist attorneys in serving divorce papers

A surprising find by the National Center for Women in Policing is that female police officers are more likely to use excessive force than male officers.

false

Most officers cite the opportunity to exercise authority and power as a main reason for wanting to be a police officer.

false

Researchers found that the introduction of women into policing had no effect in the traditional solidarity of the work group. Women officers have nearly the same outside interests as male officers.

false

The U.S. Secret Service was established in 1865 for the purpose of preventing illegal immigration and the smuggling of controlled substances.

false

The crime-fighter image of police officers encourages police officers to adopt de-escalation tactics on a regular basis.

false

A controversial study by the National Center for Women in Policing (NCWP) asserts that police departments should hire more women officers because

female officers are less likely than male officers to use excessive force.

There is no formal, centralized system for coordinating or regulating all of the different law enforcement agencies. This decentralization is known as

fragmentation- The major problem, according to critics, is a lack of coordination between agencies in the same geographic area. Criminals do not respect political boundaries. broken down into separate decentralized parts

Directed patrol

gives patrol officers specific duties to perform during a specified time period while they are freed from normal 911 dispatches. Traditional patrol gives officers only a general mandate to patrol their beats and to respond to calls for service. A directed patrol program might, for example, involve instruction to look for specific persons or types of crimes, or to patrol certain areas intensively

According to observations made by Steve Herbert, police officers who exhibit aggression, volunteer for dangerous assignments, and enjoy high-speed pursuits are called

hard chargers

Careers in law enforcement are subject to many influences. Most popular stereotypes about police officer attitudes and behavior are not supported by the evidence.

here is no evidence that a particular type of person is attracted to law enforcement or that this explains police behavior. The evidence does suggest, however, that certain aspects of police work have a powerful influence on both attitudes and behavior. At the same time, it is evident that recent changes in police employment patterns have brought a new diversity to the rank and file. Racial and ethnic minorities and women bring different expectations to policing. Law enforcement careers are heavily influenced by factors associated with police departments, particularly the opportunities for career advancement.

In short, the amount of police work done by patrol officers depends on their work styles. Some officers initiate more activity than others. Officer-initiated activity

includes stopping, questioning, and frisking suspicious citizens; making informal contacts with law-abiding citizens; stopping vehicles for possible violations; writing traffic tickets; checking suspicious events; and making arrests.

respectful policing

includes the police introducing themselves, explaining the reason they are there (the reason for a traffic stop, for example), listening to people, and answering their questions.

A reality shock for new police officers involves learning about the criminal justice system. Police officers get to see how the system works as they are The new officer quickly encounters the unpleasant aspects of dealing with the public, the criminal justice system, and the department. But they are difficult, stressful, and dangerous events that stay in the officer's mind. Police officers are no different from other people in this regard. Recalling unpleasant or traumatic experiences is a phenomenon common to all people Police officer attitudes also change because they perform society's "dirty work," handling unpleasant tasks that no one else wants to perform or is able to handle.

insiders As a result, many become cynical about the ability of the system to be fair and effective. Generally, police officers believe that the courts are too lenient.

Foot patrol

involves a difficult trade-off between efficiency and community relations. An officer on foot cannot cover as much territory as an officer in a patrol car. This inefficiency is offset, however, by positive gains in community relations. They can have more personal contact with neighborhood residents, and this can help build trust.

Reasons for crime fighter image

is not accurate, for entertainment media, news media, and the police themselves Most important, the crime-fighter image does not represent an accurate picture of the reality of police work. Studies of 911 calls and direct observations of police patrol work have established that the vast majority of police work involves order maintenance and peacekeeping

procedural justice

is now recognized as an essential guiding principle for good policing. In policing, this means the difference between getting a traffic ticket (the substantive outcome) and how the officer acted

crime fighter myth

patrol neighborhoods to deter crime, investigate crimes, arrest criminals

Watch

patrolled the city to guard against fires, crime, disorder

Most of a police agency's budget goes toward

personnel costs.

effective strategies for controlling crime and disorder

problem oriented: A model of policing that stresses increased police response to identified crime problems. In the first POP experiment, officers in Newport News, Virginia, attacked crime in a deteriorated housing project by helping the residents organize to improve conditions in the project itself. community policing: A model of policing that stresses a two-way working relationship between the community and the police, in which the police become more integrated into the local community and citizens assume an active role in crime control and prevention. law enforcement: Community policing represents an alternative to the traditional form of police organizations. deformalize, eliminating many of the rules and policies that often stifle creativity and do not encourage problem-solving. decentralize decision making both territorially and administratively. This requires the police to place greater responsibility on rank-and-file officers at the neighborhood level and to become more responsive to neighborhood residents. despecialize functions. This means replacing specialized units with neighborhood officers, who are more knowledgeable about the problems that face their neighborhood. delayerize, decreasing the amount of social and administrative distance between the beat officer and the chief of police. Many advocates of community-oriented policing (COP) argue that it leads to greater job satisfaction for officers than traditional policing does. According to this view, under COP, officers will be less isolated from the communities they serve, will have greater autonomy in their work, will not be subject to as many rigid rules, will have the opportunity for greater personal development, and will be able to see the results of their work. zero tolerance: calls for the police to focus primarily on disorder, minor crime, and the appearance of crime through interventions that vigorously enforce criminal and civil laws and are conducted for the purpose of restoring order to communities.

citizen oversight

provides citizen input to be filed against the police As we discussed in the section on legitimacy, the use of quotas on the number of arrests or traffic tickets is an issue of great concern to the public. It is also an important accountability issue, since quotas result in tickets or arrests that would not otherwise be made.

The size and quality of the applicant pool in a police department depend on the department's

recruitment effort.

The interval between discovery of a crime and when a citizen calls the police is known as The total amount of time between the commission of a crime and the moment a police officer arrives on the scene includes separate parts: Discovery time: The interval between the commission of the crime and its discovery. Reporting time: The interval between discovery and when the citizen calls the police. Processing time: The interval between the call and the dispatch of a patrol car. Travel time: The length of time it takes patrol officers to reach the scene.

reporting time.

The agency having statewide police powers for traffic regulation and criminal investigation is known as

state police

Resource dependency theory

suggests that organizations must obtain resources to survive and that to obtain these resources they must engage in exchanges with other organizations in their environment.

One of the most important factors shaping the police role is

the authority to use force.

Contingency theory

the dominant theoretical framework for understanding the structures and practices of police organizations based on the underlying premise that these organizations are created and structured to achieve specific goals, such as crime control, and will ultimately fail if unable to adjust to environmental contingencies. The underlying premise of contingency theory is the belief that organizations are created and structured to achieve specific goals, such as crime control

The communications center is the real nerve center of the modern police department. Patrol work, in fact, is dominated by modern communications technology: The 911 call workload has certain peak periods. To cope with this, the Communications Section in Seattle has two extra shifts of operators. In addition to the three basic shifts—First Watch (11:45 p.m.-7:45 a.m.), Second Watch (7:45 a.m.-3:45 p.m.), and Third Watch (3:45 p.m.-11:45 p.m.)—there are two overlapping watches—Fourth Watch (7:45 p.m.-3:45 a.m.) and Fifth Watch (11:45 a.m.-7:45 p.m.) during peak hours

the telephone, the two-way radio, and the patrol car. Contemporary 911-driven police work is citizen dominated, reactive, and incident based. Critics call this system "dial a cop" and argue that the 911 system runs the police department, preventing any rational planning and proactive police response to problems The 911 emergency number was introduced by the American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) Company in 1968. The first system went into operation in Haleyville, Alabama. Today, almost all police departments participate in a 911 system

"Split-second decision" in policing occurs when a threat appears suddenly and a police officer feels he or she has no choice about what to do.

true

Community-policing officers spend less time in general patrol, but they also spend less time than regular patrol officers in encounters with citizens.

true

Fringe benefits and job security are major attractions for police recruits.

true

Many of the problems in policing are related to organizational features.

true

The majority of sworn police officers in the United States are members of police unions.

true

Suspicious death investigations are usually conducted by a coroner or a medical examiner. The office of the coroner, or medical examiner, is often considered a law enforcement agency because it has the responsibility to investigate crimes. Medical examiners and coroners' offices are responsible for a wide range of activities, including investigating death scenes, conducting autopsies, and determining the cause of violent or unexpected deaths. A Bureau of Justice Statistics special report found a total of 1,998 coroners or medical examiners in the United States First, coroners are not typically trained as physicians and have received little, if any, medical training; whereas medical examiners are physicians and often have received special training in death investigation. Second, coroners are typically elected to their positions; medical examiners are usually appointed by an elected official. Third, although both are responsible for the investigation of deaths, medical examiners are expected to rely heavily on their medical expertise to understand the cause of death

true The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reports that about 20 percent of deaths in the United States are investigated by a coroner or medical examiner

openness and transparency

what they do and how they handle it