Intro. to Research Methods Chapters 1-7 Review

Match each type of sample with the example that best fits. 1) Cluster sample 2) Stratified sample 3) Systematic sample A) A sociologist first divides registered drivers from a list of motor vehicle registrations into five-year age groups (e.g., 18-22, 23-27, 28-32, etc.), then randomly selects four age groups, and finally randomly selects individuals only from those four age groups B) A sociologist first divides registered drivers from a list of motor vehicle registrations into 5-year age groups (e.g., 18-22, 23-27, 28-32, etc.) and randomly selects 10% of the individuals from each age group C) A sociologist picks every 10th person from a list of motor vehicle registrations to create a sample of registered drivers

1) A 2) B 3) C

Match each type of research with the example that best fits. 1) Descriptive 2) Explanatory 3) Exploratory A) A research project examines the levels of opioid abuse in the United States B) A research project examines how individuals gain access to opioids in the United States C) A research project examines why certain types of individuals begin using opioids in the United States

1) A 2) C 3) B

Match each discipline with the statement about research that best fits. 1) Psychology 2) History 3) Anthropology 4) Sociology A) Often focuses on contemporary populations and uses experimental methods B) Often uses qualitative methods as well as archaeological methods C) Uses materials-based approaches to research and sometimes in-depth interviewing D) Uses both quantitative and qualitative methods and accounts for agency as well as structure

1) A 2) C 3) B 4) D

Match each time design with the example that best fits. 1) Panel study 2) Cross-sectional study 3) Repeated cross-sectional study A) A researcher surveys a group of college students during their freshman year and then surveys a different group of freshmen two years later B) A researchers surveys the same group of college students during their freshman and senior years C) A researcher surveys a group of college students only during their freshman year

1) B 2) C 3) A

Match each type of robustness test with the scenario that best fits. 1) Split-half method 2) Test-retest method 3) Pilot testing A) A sociologist has access to a random sample of 300 people to test a new survey on mental health that will go into the field next week B) A sociologist needs to test a new composite meaure of mental health C) A sociologist has access to a sample group for at least a year to test a new survey on mental health

1) B 2) C 3) A

Match each item with the correct definition. 1) Response Set 2) Order Effects 3) Priming Effects A) When the order in which questions appear biases the responses B) A type of order effects in which exposure to a particular image, word, or feeling shapes how respondents think and feel in the immediate aftermath C) The tendency to select the same answer to several sequential questions, perhaps out of boredom or with the desire to quickly finish the survey

1) C 2) A 3) B

Match each of the three ethics principles outlined in the Belmont Report with the correct definition. 1) Justice 2) Respect 3) Beneficence A) People are to be treated as autonomous agents B) Researchers have a responsibility to do good C) The risks and potential benefits of the research be distributed equally among potential subjects

1) C 2) A 3) B

Match each purpose of theory with the example that best fits. 1) To explore 2) To explain 3) To describe A) Christine Williams's study of race in the workforce at toy stores B) William Corsaro's study of children's play C) Research using the life course perspective to examine the transition from middle to high school

1) C 2) A 3) B

Match each response category set with the type that best fits. 1) Non-ordered categories (nominal) 2) Frequency (ordinal) 3) Binary or dichotomous (nominal) 4) Degree (ordinal) A) 0 times, 1-3 times, 4 or more times B) Not at all, a little, somewhat, very much C) None, baseball, dancing, basketball, other D) Yes/no

1) C 2) A 3) D 4) B

Match each type of survey with the correct definition. 1) Longitudinal 2) Panel 3) Repeated Cross-Sectional 4) Cross-Sectional A) A type of longitudinal survey in which data are collected on the same subjects at multiple time points B) A survey in which data are collected at only one time point C) A study in which data are collected at multiple time points D) A type of longitudinal survey in which data are collected at multiple time points but from different subjects at each time point

1) C 2) A 3) D 4) B

Match each category of relations with the example that best fits. 1) Spuriousness 2) Mediation 3) Moderation A) Family economic struggles are positively associated with children's socioemotional problems, but this relationship is conditioned on parental support B) Family economic struggles are positively associated with children's socioemotional problems, but harsh discipline partially explains this relationship C) Ice cream sales are positively associated with murder rates, but season (e.g., spring, summer, fall, winter) fully explains this relationship

1) C 2) B 3) A

Match each item with the correct definition. 1) Index 2) Composite Measure 3) Scale 4) Ranking Items A) A type of closed-ended question that asks respondents to rank-order their priorities or preferences B) A measure that combines multiple items, whether as a scale or an index, to create a single value that captures a multifaceted concept C) A composite measure that sums responses to survey items capturing key elements of a particular concept being measured D) A composite measure that averages responses to a series of related items that capture a single concept or trait, such as depressive symptoms or self-esteem

1) C 2) B 3) D 4) A

Match each sociological paradigm with the theory that best fits. 1) Conflict 2) Symbolic interactionism 3) Rational choice 4) Structural functionalism A) Time allocation B) Functional role theory C) Critical race theory D) Looking-glass self

1) C 2) D 3) A 4) B

Match each type of variable with the example that best fits. 1) Ordinal 2) Nominal 3) Ratio 4) Interval A) Income in dollars B) Temperature in Celsius C) The height of four brothers (expressed as Johnny is taller than Matt, etc) D) Gender (male or female)

1) C 2) D 3) A 4) B

Match each of type of survey with the correct definition. 1) Longitudinal 2) Panel 3) Repeated cross-sectional 4) Cross-sectional A) A survey in which data are collected at only one time point B) A type of longitudinal survey in which data are collected on the same subjects at multiple time points C) A type of longitudinal survey in which data are collected at multiple time points but from different subjects at each time point D) A study in which data are collected at multiple time points

1) D 2) B 3) C 4) A

Match each dimension of internal validity of measures with the key question that best fits. 1) Does it seem appropriate and sensible? 2) Does it correlate with a measure that is should predict? 3) Does it cover all of the different meanings of a concept? 4) Do the items in a measure connect to the underlying concept? A) Construct B) Content C) Criterion D) Face

1) D 2) C 3) B 4) A

Match each term with the scenario that best fits. 1) Anonymity 2) Informed consent 3) Privacy 4) Confidentiality A) When participants' identifying information is only accessible to the research team B) Control over the extent, timing, and circumstances of sharing oneself with others C) The freedom to say yes or no to participating in a research study once all the possible risks and benefits have been properly explained D) When no identifying can be linked to respondents and even the researcher cannot identify them

1) D 2) C 3) B 4) A

A survey based on a high-quality random sample can provide accurate estimates of the characteristics, behaviors, and attitudes of an entire population, even if the survey sample includes only ____ people.

1,000 to 2,000 *When a proper random sample is collected, surveys can have excellent external validity or generalizability.*

A recent Pew poll suggests that Pew is 95% confident that between 65% and 73% of millennials feel negatively about the direction of the U.S. The sample size for this survey was 3,000 millennials. What sample size would Pew need to decrease the margin of error to 1.5%?

12,000 *In probability samples, increasing sample size decreases the margin of error, but there are diminishing returns, meaning that the improvement gained by adding another person to the sample decreases as our sample size gets larger. Margin of error is proportional to the square root of sample size. If Pew wanted to decrease the margin of error from 3 percentage points to 1.5 percentage point (that is, by a factor of 2), they would need to interview four times as many people (because 4 is the square of 2).*

Which of the following is a possible indicator of an ordinal measurement of the variable age?

35-39 *Indicators are the values assigned to a variable. If age is measured as ordinal, it must be some form of categorical measurement with ranked categories, such as 0-19, 20-24, 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, etc.*

How many levels are there to conceptualization?

4 *The conceptualization process moves from the abstract and general to the concrete and specific in four steps: concept in hypothesis, dimension, variable, and indicator. The last step of this process marks the transition into operationalization (measurement).*

A recent Pew poll suggests that Pew is 95% confident that between 65% and 73% of millennials feel negatively about the direction of the U.S. The sample size for this survey was 3,000 millennials. What is the margin of error?

4% *The margin of error is the amount of uncertainty in an estimate; equal to the distance between the estimate and the boundary of the confidence interval. In this case, the estimate was 69% with a margin of error of 4% with a 95% confidence level.*

A survey presents respondents with a series of statements and asks them to circle their level of agreement for each statement: "strongly agree; agree; neutral; disagree; strongly disagree" This series of questions uses which of the following?

A Likert scale *A Likert scale is a type of rating scale that captures the respondent's level of agreement or disagreement with a particular statement.*

Alejandro just gained access to a new nationally representative survey of retired people in the United States. He is unsure whether certain questions were asked in the survey and the raw data is a bit confusing and brief. What should he consult to examine this issue?

A codebook *A codebook lists all of the questions used in a survey along with their response categories. In some cases, the codebook also provides the number and/or proportion of persons in each response category.*

Dr. Smith has just received research funding from a foundation to examine the effects of attending a charter school on a child's learning, behavior, and future economic prospects. However, the foundation that provided her funding is a charter school advocate and spends millions in pushing a pro-charter school agenda with attempts to get federal legislation passed. What potential risk does this scenario present?

A conflict of interest *If researchers' interests or loyalties compromise the way they design, conduct, or report their research, there is a conflict of interest. Although Dr. Smith has done nothing wrong yet, she may feel compelled to appease the foundation that provided her funding. She also may feel like she needs to show that charter schools have positive effects in order to secure future funding from the foundation.*

Which of the following is a conceptualization of poverty?

A definition of individuals who cannot provide food or shelter for themselves *Conceptualization is the process of precisely defining ideas and turning them into variables.*

Which of the following is required to perform the test-retest method of examining robustness?

A longitudinal design *The test-retest method of testing robustness requires that a measure is administered to the same sample at two different times, thus a longitudinal design is absolutely necessary.*

Which of the following is an operationalization of poverty?

A measurement of individuals who make less than $12,000 per year *Operationalization is the process of linking the conceptualized variables to a set of procedures for measuring them.*

Which of the following statements about weighting is true?

A probability sample in which different people have different probabilities of being selected must be weighted for estimates to be accurate *When a sample is weighted, some observations count more than others. The basic principle is this: The more a particular group is overrepresented in the sample, the less weight each individual from that group should receive. For example, if a poll oversampled Asians at twice their proportion in the U.S. population, then each Asian person in the sample would have only half (1/2) the weight of other respondents when researchers calculated estimates for the population as a whole.*

Generalizability, or high external validity, requires which of the following?

A random sample *Surveys based on random samples have excellent external validity. As you learned in Chapter 6, some samples are randomly selected from well-defined populations, such as all high school students in the United States. Others are convenience samples, such as fellow students in your introduction to sociology class. The results from studying the former could be generalized to characterize the experiences of all U.S. high school students, while the results of studying the latter would likely be representative only of sociology students at your university.*

Which of the following is an example of deductive disclosure?

A researcher notices that she can figure out an individual's identity by combining four variables in a data set *Deductive disclosure is the use of unique combinations of variables to identify specific individuals in data sets. Researchers must take precautions to ensure deductive disclosure cannot occur with publicly available data. The danger of deductive disclosure is exacerbated by the growing movement in social science research to share data sets across researchers.*

Which of the following is an example of social desirability bias?

A respondent overreports the amount she has donated to charity *Social desirability bias is when respondents report socially desirable behaviors and attitudes in the survey setting. In this example, the respondent may be trying to impress an interviewer by overreporting the total amount she has donated to charity.*

If a researcher uses U.S. Census data to examine changes in the number of individuals in each racial group across states over time, she is using ____.

A secondary data source *The U.S. Census has already been collected by someone else, thus it is a secondary data source.*

Which of the following is an example of a deductive approach to theory?

A sociologist reads Durkheim's theories about social relationships and designs a study to test these ideas *A deductive approach to theory creates an argument to organize and guide empirical activities.*

Which of the following is an example of a split-ballot design?

A survey in which half of the respondents answer questions about one topic and half of the respondents answer questions about a different topic *For instance, a randomly chosen subset of 1,500 GSS participants (50% of the 3,000 respondents) may be asked a series of questions about their attitudes toward physician-assisted suicide, while the other 1,500 are asked about their attitudes toward gun control. This design cuts down on total survey time by sparing respondents from answering both modules yet also provides researchers with information on two important and controversial issues.*

Most basic research takes place in ____.

Academia *Basic research seeks to answer theoretically rich questions or to resolve a fundamental intellectual puzzle about social behavior. For this reason, most basic research takes place in academia, conducted by professors who are interested in the pursuit of knowledge. By stimulating new ways of thinking about a social issue, these pursuits may ultimately revolutionize how practitioners think about--and confront--a social problem.*

Which group passed a resolution against the Human Terrain System, arguing that the program violated its code of ethics because the U.S. military could use the information gathered on local people against them?

American Anthropological Association *A debate in the pages of the American Anthropologist was heated, with some arguing that the Human Terrain System represented the militarization of anthropology and put all anthropologists at risk because people would suspect them of being spies or of working for the U.S. government.*

If Dr. Lintz tried to make inferences about the outcomes of individuals based on her data of state legislatures, what mistake would she be making?

An ecological fallacy *Researchers must be mindful of mismatches between units of analysis, or using data from one type of unit to draw conclusions about another type of unit. Most often, a researcher will incorrectly conclude that "ecological" or contextual factors directly influence individual-level experiences, where group-level data are used to make claims about individual-level processes. To avoid making this mistake, called the ecological fallacy, researchers should follow a simple rule: Data or observations from one level of analysis should be used to draw conclusions about that level of analysis only.*

It is unrealistic and impractical for survey researchers to promise ____ to respondents.

Anonymity *Anonymity means that no identifying information can be linked to respondents or their survey answers. Anonymity may not be desirable from the researcher's perspective: If a respondent's survey record has no identifying information, then researchers cannot conduct follow-up interviews as part of a panel survey or as part of a mixed-mode approach. For these reasons, it is much more realistic for survey researchers to promise their respondents confidentiality rather than anonymity. It is exceedingly rare today that a survey respondent's identity is betrayed, given the many rules and constraints in place.*

Dr. Jackson wants to evaluate whether the Big Brothers Big Sisters mentoring program increases the likelihood that low-income youth attend college. What type of research is Dr. Jackson conducting?

Applied *Applied research is a form of research that seeks to answer a question or concrete problem in the real world or to evaluate a policy or program.*

One of the most challenging parts of the IRB review process is ____.

Assessing possible risks *Very rarely will social science research lead to physical harm of the subject. The possible harms are much more likely to be emotional or psychological turmoil; economic or social harm resulting from loss of privacy if the confidentiality of data is compromised; or legal risk if research uncovers or documents illegal activities. Emotional upset can occur in interview studies or surveys that ask about traumatic or sad events.*

Justin conducted a panel survey with 3,000 initial respondents two years ago. After designing a follow-up survey and sending it to the initial respondents, he finds that only 2,130 responded the second time. What problem has Justin experienced?

Attrition *The main limitation of panel studies is sample attrition, which occurs when people drop out of the study. Attrition tends not to occur at random, so it may bias study results. Because the people who participate and continue in panel studies tend to have more education and better health than those who do not, panel studies run the risk of providing an overly positive view of their sample members' lives.*

Which of the following is the most serious drawback to panel studies?

Attrition *The most serious drawback is that some panel members may drop out between the waves of the study. This is referred to as attrition. The first time point of a panel study is typically referred to as Time 1. If the people who drop out between Time 1 and Time 2 are different from those who remain in the study, then our results may be misleading.*

Which social theorist is most closely associated with positivism?

Auguste Comte *Positivism holds that all knowledge can be confirmed or refuted through empirical observations. Auguste Comte, a nineteenth century French philosopher, viewed social science as a positivist endeavor akin to natural science.*

When conducting a literature review, which of the following is an appropriate strategy?

Begin with review pieces, such as those in Annual Reviews, that synthesize the state of the field *Some journals, such as the Annual Reviews (for example, Annual Review of Sociology), feature articles that synthesize the state of the field on some topic. Such articles, which do not report the results of a single study but try to draw general statements about patterns of results across studies, provide an excellent first read on a topic as well as a guide to other key sources.*

Three ethical principles were described in the ____ Report of 1979, which forms the foundation of our national system designed to protect humans who take part in medical or social science research.

Belmont *The report was issued by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1979), which was established by Congress when it passed the National Research Act of 1974.*

Which ethical guideline was violated in Philip Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment?

Benefits clearly outweighed harm *Zimbardo later admitted that the research was "unethical because people suffered and others were allowed to inflict pain and humiliation" and that he had become so involved in the experiment that he did not recognize the harm happening to the students. He concluded that he made a mistake and should have stopped the experiment earlier.*

Censuses are likely to become more common due to the rise of what?

Big data *Modern technology, the Internet, and big data have created patterns of data "footprints" everywhere. Rather than using samples, researchers can often gain access to entire databases of transactions, interactions, and other pieces of data.*

Sociologist Jack Katz claims that in reaction to harms that occurred in ____ research in the 1990s, IRBs have needlessly tightened their control over social science research, which has not seen severe ethical breaches in recent years.

Biomedical *In recent years, there has been a growing debate over IRBs overstepping their bounds and suppressing social science research. Jack Katz (2007) argues that IRBs are "nationwide instruments for implementing censorship," and since the 1970s, they have expanded their reach into areas that do not need oversight, such as the humanities and even the arts.*

Which sociologist is credited with recognizing and defining the sociological imagination?

C. Wright Mills *The sociological imagination is a distinctive viewpoint, originated by C. Wright Mills, recognizing that our personal experiences are powerfully shaped by macrosocial and historical forces.*

Dr. Ortiz wants to carefully follow a select group of college students who are interested in careers with high-profile finance firms. She selects nine students who are currently juniors and seniors and will follow them for a few years to collect rich data on their choices and careers. Which type of approach is this?

Case-oriented * In case-oriented research researchers immerse themselves in an enormous amount of detail about a small number of cases (maybe even only one case). Importantly, choosing a single case to study intensely is still sampling. The researchers need a rationale for why they are studying that case instead of something or someone else and why insights from that case contribute to our understanding of social life. Also, focusing on a single case does not mean that a researcher can learn everything there is to know or talk to everyone who might have something worthwhile to say about it. Even in case-oriented studies, researchers still need to make strategic decisions about what to observe.*

Which of the following is an advantage of panel surveys over cross-sectional surveys?

Causal inference *The main advantage of panel surveys is that researchers can determine cause and effect better than with cross-sectional surveys. In cross-sectional surveys, all measures are obtained at a single point in time, so we can document associations but not causation. However, in panel surveys, measures at one wave can be used to predict outcomes at subsequent waves.*

Which of the following statements about censuses is true?

Censuses are more common in social research when the population in question is not composed of people *A census is a study that includes data on every member of a population. Censuses are more common in social research when the population in question is not composed of people. For example, sociologist Edwin Amenta and his colleagues were interested in why some social movements received more coverage in the New York Times than others. To conduct their study, they searched for mentions of an extensive list of social movement organizations in all the issues of the New York Times published in the twentieth century.*

If a question has an ordinal outcome as the possible response, it must be which type of question?

Close-ended *A question that provides an ordinal outcome category, meaning that a few ordered options are available, such as "never," "sometimes," or "always," is close-ended because subjects can only respond in pre-set ways.*

If a question has a dichotomous outcome as the possible response, it must be which type of question?

Closed-ended *The most basic closed-ended question provides a dichotomous outcome category, meaning that only two options are available, such as "yes" or "no."*

To keep expenses down from having to travel to every state to conduct a survey, a researcher could instead implement which type of sampling strategy in which they would only survey randomly selected individuals in randomly selected states?

Cluster sample *In cluster sampling, the target population is first divided into groups, called clusters. Some of these clusters are selected at random. Then, some individuals are selected at random from within each selected cluster. This sample is still a probability sample because everyone in the population has some probability of being selected.*

If you want to study changing experiences and opinions over the lifetimes of people who were teenagers when 9/11 occurred, which type of design would you use?

Cohort *A cohort design allows a researcher to focus on one clearly defined group, such as a group of people all born in a single year or who entered college in a particular year.*

Dr. Jackson has designed a survey to examine the effects of mental health resources on the stigma climate on college campuses. He sends his surveys to college administrators and support staff. He finds that greater mental health outreach on college campuses leads to lower levels of stigma on campuses. What is Dr. Jackson's target population?

College campuses *Dr. Jackson is attempting to make generalizations about college campuses using college campus level data (think back to what you learned about units of analysis).*

The split-half measure could only be used to evaluate robustness with which type of measure?

Composite variable *The split-half method is appropriate when dealing with a measure consisting of multiple items, as in the CBCL and CES-D. The researcher randomly splits the set of items for a measure into two sets to create two separate measures instead of one. These two measures are then tested in a sample of individuals--the same people respond to each of the items in the first measure and then respond to each of the items in the second. Comparing how the same people respond to the two measures gives some idea of how reliable the overall measure would be. A reliable measure would mean that the average scores for each measure were similar.*

The two dimensions of criterion-related validity are predictive validity and ____.

Concurrent validity *Criterion-related validity can be broken down into two different but closely connected subsets: concurrent validity and predictive validity. A measure with concurrent validity will correlate strongly with some preexisting measure of the construct that has already been deemed valid. When a measure has predictive validity, it will correlate strongly with a measure that it should predict.*

What is the second step in the scientific method?

Construct a hypothesis, or prediction, about the answer to this question *The scientific method is the systematic process of asking questions and carrying out rigorous research to answer those questions. The process generally follows five steps.*

Dr. White has discovered that one of his indicators of popularity--how often you speak on the phone with your friends--is not highly correlated with other indicators of popularity. Which type of validity is Dr. White concerned with?

Construct validity *Construct validity, refers to how well multiple indicators are connected to some underlying factor. This type of validity is important because some phenomena are not directly observable and can only be identified by cataloging their observable symptoms. An indicator that is not highly correlated with other indicators would reduce the construct validity of the overall measure.*

Artifact counts/assessments are most closely associated with which type of method?

Content analysis *Artifact counts/assessments are tied to content analysis and similar materials-based methodologies. An artifact count involves the cataloging of social artifacts and objects, qualitatively or quantitatively.*

Dr. Gonzales is concerned that including income, education, and occupational status, but not wealth, into a measure of socioeconomic status is problematic. Which type of validity is Dr. Gonzales concerned with?

Content validity *Content validity is all about coverage, or how well a measure is encompassing the many different meanings of a single concept. Does the measure represent all of the facets of the concept? A multidimensional concept is a major challenge to valid measurement. A measure may capture one or several dimensions well but not tap into all dimensions and, therefore, be less valid than one that captures all dimensions. Extremely rich people may not have an income (or even an occupation!) if they have inherited wealth. Thus, they may score low on dimensions of socioeconomic status that would be explained if we included wealth in our measure.*

Why did Eric Klinenberg choose two neighborhoods during the 1995 heat wave in Chicago as his focus for the book Heat Wave?

Contrasting outcomes *Eric Klinenberg wanted to better understand why 750 adults died during the sweltering heat wave that struck Chicago in 1995. He was particularly interested in two adjacent lower-income neighborhoods, North and South Lawndale, that had striking differences in death rates. North Lawndale had 10 times more deaths per capita than South Lawndale, even though both neighborhoods were equally poor.*

Research in which respondents are asked questions when they walk by the corner of an intersection is based on which type of sample?

Convenience *Because the population of people walking at any given intersection is not random, this would be a nonprobability sample, in particular a convenience sample.*

Dr. Jackson has designed a survey to examine the mental health of college students. One measure he includes in the survey is a composite measure of happiness. Which would be appropriate to examine in order to address Dr. Jackson's concern?

Cronbach's alpha *Cronbach's alpha (α) is a straightforward calculation that measures a specific kind of reliability for a composite variable; that is, a variable that averages a set of items (typically from a survey) to measure some concept. Internal reliability concerns the degree to which the various items lead to a consistent response and, therefore, are tapping into the same concept. The higher the alpha, the more internally reliable the composite is, meaning that people respond to the various items in a consistent way.*

A ____ design is the only type of time design that collects data at one time point.

Cross-sectional *A cross-sectional design is a study in which data are collected at only one time point. This approach provides a snapshot of a particular population at a particular historical moment.*

Dr. Silva is doing extensive ethnography work of an immigrant community and sees a number of things that might be upsetting to a traditional middle-class white American. She decides to adopt the viewpoint of her subjects and continue her work without judgment. This is an example of which research concept?

Cultural relativism *Cultural relativism is the principle whereby scholars refrain from making judgments about practices they observe and instead adopt the viewpoint of the communities being studied.*

To achieve reliable results, researchers make sure that their measures are capturing a concept in ways that allow for comparison across ____.

Data collections *To know how dependable a single measure is, researchers much make comparisons and the broadest comparison they can make is across data collections.*

Which activity did Sudhir Venkatesh engage in to conduct his research?

Deception *Venkatesh deceived the people he studied. Even though he told his subjects that he was studying them as a student, he led the gang leader, J.T., to believe that he was writing a biography about him. By playing on J.T.'s sense of self-importance, Venkatesh gained entry into a world of criminal behavior.*

Observational measurement generally focuses on two dimensions: ____ and ____.

Degree; Amount/frequency *Observation, commonly used in qualitative studies, is the process of seeing, recording, and assessing social phenomena. Observational measurement generally focuses on two dimensions: degree and amount/frequency.*

A single concept can be studied with ____ unit(s) of analysis, in part because individual-level data can be ____.

Different; Aggregated *Conceptualization at different levels of analysis is not difficult, but measuring at different levels of analysis can be tricky because individual-level data are often added together (aggregated) to capture individual concepts at the group level.*

The concept "socioeconomic status" often incorporates income, education, and employment characteristics. What is this an example of?

Dimensions of conceptualization * General concepts often encompass multiple dimensions, or components that represent different manifestations, angles, or units of the concept. Dimensions are about conceptualization. A discussion of dimensions touches on different ways to slice a concept, different ways of conceptually defining it.*

Which of the following is not a characteristic of a high-quality survey question?

Does not ask "why" *Questions can ask the "why" of things but must do so using open-ended responses rather than closed-ended responses. High-quality survey questions must use clear and simple language, be precise, be cautious with sensitive topics, and must avoid leading questions.*

One ____ a bad or evil person to perform unethical research. Many instances of unethical research occur when researchers ____.

Does not have to be; Have not fully thought through the ways in which their research could harm people *Whenever research is conducted with human subjects, one must consider whether or not the research is ethical. Ethics refers to the moral system that determines whether actions are right or wrong, good or bad. One does not have to be a bad or evil person to perform unethical research. On the contrary, many instances of unethical research are the result of well-meaning researchers who have not fully thought through the ways in which their research could harm people.*

Dr. Jordan has been collecting data on sporting events for his entire career. Some of his variables include the total score, the location, and the total attendance of football games. While running an analysis, Dr. Jordan finds that Big State University football games have a larger total attendance than Small State University football games. He concludes that Big State U. fans love football more than Small State U. fans. What mistake has Dr. Jordan made?

Ecological fallacy *The unit of analysis in Dr. Jordan's study is sporting events, or more specifically football games. He does not have data on football fans or individuals, but he made conclusions on individuals (a micro level) on the basis of an analysis of games (a more macro-level analysis).*

Dr. Pedulla applies to jobs with hypothetical candidates by sending résumés to employers and waiting to see if they respond and ask the candidate to come in for an interview. He does this to see how employers respond to different employment histories (e.g., stretches of unemployment, work history) listed on each résumé. What is Dr. Pedulla's manipulation in this field experiment?

Employment histories listed on each résumé *A manipulation is something that is done to some subjects of an experiment but no others so that the outcomes of the two groups can be compared.*

Sudhir Venkatesh's Gang Leader for a Day used which type of research method?

Ethnography *An ethnography is a scientific description of the customs of individual peoples and cultures.*

Manipulation is most closely associated with which type of method?

Experiments *Manipulation is usually paired with other forms of measurement during experiments. Rather than independently counting or evaluating reports, observations, or artifacts, experimenters need to "do something" to subjects and observe the results.*

Definitively establishing causality is difficult outside of ____.

Experiments *Survey research and qualitative studies have more trouble clearly delineating cause and effect because of spuriousness, although researchers can take steps to improve causal inference--the degree of confidence that an observation based on the test of a hypothesis is truly causal.*

Which of the following is usually considered the most internally valid method?

Experiments *Internal validity of a study refers to the degree to which a study establishes a causal effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. Experimental designs tend to be the most internally valid method, as their primary advantage over other methods is that they can establish causality.*

Which event lead to the establishment of the Nuremberg Code?

Experiments conducted by the Nazis during World War II *During World War II, the Nazis conducted horrible experiments on prisoners in concentration camps. Denying the humanity of the prisoners, doctors deliberately inflicted pain, suffering, disease, and death on people in gruesome scientific experiments. After the war ended, many of those who conducted the experiments were prosecuted as war criminals in Nuremberg, Germany. The revelations in these trials led to the development of the Nuremberg Code in 1947. This code established the principle that experiments should never be designed to harm participants, and that people must consent to take part in experiments and have the right to withdraw whenever they choose and without penalty. It also established the principle of risk versus benefit analysis to determine whether an experiment should be allowed.*

In general, scientists use theory for three purposes: to describe, to explain, and to ____.

Explore *Theory can serve as a guide, helping researchers study social problems in a targeted way. Rather than directly generating or testing specific hypotheses, theory can point researchers to more specific questions that need answers or angles that need to be considered.*

____ is the first, and most shallow, assessment of validity that a researcher can make.

Face validity *The most basic and simple dimension of internal validity is face validity: literally, whether something looks valid on the face of it. Face validity is the first, and most shallow, assessment of validity that a researcher can make. It works best when it leads to more rigorous assessments of more complex dimensions of validity.*

In 2006, researchers at Harvard University used which social media platform to collect data on students without informing them?

Facebook *Although the researchers had permission from Facebook and Harvard University, the students were not told about the study nor asked if they wanted to participate.*

Three general conditions guide a social scientist's formulation of his or her question: its social importance, scientific relevance, and ____.

Feasibility *Social importance refers to whether answering the research question will make a difference in the world. Scientific relevance refers to whether the study will resolve an important puzzle in sociology, whether practical or theoretical. Finally, feasibility refers to whether the researcher can effectively carry out a rigorous and well-designed study that answers the research question in a timely and cost-effective way.*

Which steps in the scientific method fall into the general category of theory?

First and second *The first two steps in the scientific method, (1) identify an important question that needs an answer and (2) construct a hypothesis, or prediction, about the answer to this question, fall into the general category of theory. In practice, theory and empiricism cannot be separated. Social research cannot stand on one or the other.*

Which of the following is an example of agency?

From a set of eight colleges, I decide which one I will ultimately attend *Agency is our capacity to make our own choices and act independently. We may believe that we freely choose where to attend college, whom to fall in love with, what career path to pursue, and whether to live a healthy or unhealthy lifestyle. Yet sociologists recognize that these personal choices are influenced by social structures, the patterned social arrangements that may constrain (or facilitate) our choices and opportunities. For instance, your decision of where to go to college was likely influenced by your (or your parents') ability to pay tuition.*

Which of the following is a possible variable of the concept "academic achievement"?

GPA *Variables are representations that capture the presence or absence of a concept as well as the level of a concept. By definition, variables have to vary. Of the four listed options, only information on a student's GPA really tells us anything about a student's academic achievement.*

What is the third step in the scientific method?

Gather data that allow the researcher to assess the accuracy of this prediction *The scientific method is the systematic process of asking questions and carrying out rigorous research to answer those questions. The process generally follows five steps: (1) Identify an important question that needs an answer. (2) Construct a hypothesis, or prediction, about the answer to this question. (3) Gather data that allow the researcher to assess the accuracy of this prediction. (4) Analyze the data to determine whether the prediction is accurate. (5) Draw and report conclusions.*

Which of the following is a concept?

Happiness *A concept is an idea that can be named, defined, and eventually measured in some way but is not concrete or unambiguously observable, like a car or a baby. It is abstract--existing in the mind and in the world of symbols more than in the natural world.*

External validity involves two basic questions: (1) How representative is the group being studied? and (2) which of the following questions?

How "real" is the study *This question is most commonly asked about experiments, which tend to maximize the internal validity of the study (establishing cause and effect) but are vulnerable to issues of external validity. Some experiments might seem contrived to subjects--would people act in the lab the same way that they do in the real world? People might be self-conscious knowing that they are being observed or simply think that the whole situation seems artificial. In these cases, experiments lose external validity because we do not know if the same results would emerge outside the lab.*

Why did Jerome Karabel choose Harvard, Yale, and Princeton as his focus for the book The Chosen?

Importance *Karabel did not make a list of all elite universities and choose three at random, nor did he choose three schools because he regarded them as most typical. Instead, he selected the "Big Three"--the three schools conventionally regarded as the most elite and most important for developing the political and economic leaders of the next generation: Harvard, Yale, and Princeton.*

Which of the following statements about a research protocol is true?

In some cases, the research protocol can be approved without a complete committee discussion *Researchers submit a research protocol to the IRB, which includes the intended research methods and procedures; a description of the people who will be asked to take part in the research and how they will be recruited; an explanation of all the possible risks and benefits to participants, and the steps that will be taken to minimize risk; available support to subjects if there are any adverse consequences; and the major research questions addressed by the study. The protocol also must describe the method that the researchers will use to obtain informed consent. In some cases, the research protocol can be approved without a complete committee discussion.*

The median age at first marriage in the United States ____ for men and ____ for women between 1956 and 2016.

Increased; Increased *https://services.wwnorton.com/aws/image?u=0&file=/wwnorton.college.public/coursepacks/soc/tassr/imgs/ARTSCISOC_FIG01.01.jpg* *As Figure 1.1 shows, the median age at which Americans marry has risen steadily over the past 50 years. In 1960, the median age at which women and men married for the first time was 20 and 23, respectively. By 2016, these ages had climbed steadily up to 27 and nearly 30.*

Which approach to theory observes patterns and builds to an explanation?

Inductive *An inductive approach to theory is the process by which scientists draw a general understanding of some social phenomenon through specific empirical observations.*

Unlike the process for quantitative work, qualitative research does not necessarily flow from abstract concepts into definition and measurement. Qualitative research is more ____, drawing general understanding from specific empirical observations.

Inductive *Quantitative research is largely deductive, meaning it involves the translation of general theory into specific empirical analysis. Qualitative research, in contrast, is more inductive, drawing general understanding from specific empirical observations.*

Which ethical concern should be addressed at the beginning of a survey, often alongside an introduction to the survey?

Informed consent *Regardless of the mode you choose, the initial contact with the respondent should briefly introduce the survey's purpose and convey respect and gratitude to the respondent. The survey researcher will also obtain informed consent from the respondent at this point, informing the respondent of the potential benefits and risks of participation. The researcher also informs respondents that they are free to skip any questions or cease participation if they wish.*

Which of the following statements about informed consent is true?

Informed consent can be given by signing a form or by agreeing orally *Individuals must have the freedom to say yes or no to being part of a research project, and made aware of all the possible benefits and risks of participation before they consent to participate. In the majority of social science research, the risks are most likely to be social or psychological rather than physical. Social harms include embarrassment, shame, negative self-knowledge, emotional upset, and loss of privacy. Informed consent can be given by signing a form or by agreeing orally.*

In the United States, ____ boards ensure that research adheres to all ethical principles.

Institutional review *Institutional review boards (IRBs) are committees located at institutions where research is conducted, such as universities and colleges, hospitals, and survey research firms. Any institution that receives research money from the federal government, through organizations such as the National Science Foundation (NSF) or National Institutes of Health (NIH), must have an institutional review board. This board is responsible for a thorough review of all research conducted at the institution, not just federally funded research. Researchers must receive approval from these boards before they can begin their research.*

Dr. Larsen has employed multiple observers to record the race of people portrayed in different pictures. Which type of reliability should Dr. Larsen be concerned about with this measure?

Intercoder reliability *When multiple observers or coders are used in data collection, it is important to report measures of intercoder reliability. Intercoder reliability, which can be calculated in several ways, reveals how much different coders or observers agree with one another when looking at the same data. The more agreement among coders, the more reliable the coding protocol is, making comparison and contrasts easier.*

Dr. Jackson has designed a survey to examine the mental health of college students. One measure he includes in the survey is a composite measure of happiness. Which type of reliability should Dr. Jackson be concerned about with this measure?

Internal reliability *Internal reliability is the degree to which the various items in a composite variable lead to a consistent response and, therefore, are tapping into the same concept.*

In recent years, academic and government researchers have increasingly used which type of survey?

Internet-based surveys *Web-based and e-mail-based surveys have long been used in market research, often for very short surveys. In recent years, however, academic and government researchers are increasingly using these platforms. The research organization typically e-mails a unique link to a potential respondent, who then clicks on the link and completes the survey online. The respondent proceeds through a series of questions, either typing in the correct answer, clicking on the appropriate response category, or using a dropdown menu and selecting the preferred response option.*

Figure 1.2 shows that at every increasing age group, women are less likely to be never married. However, racial disparities in marriage rates continue across each age group as well. This is an example of which sociological concept? https://services.wwnorton.com/aws/image?u=0&file=/wwnorton.college.public/coursepacks/soc/tassr/imgs/ARTSCISOC_FIG01.02.jpg

Intersectionality *Intersectionality is a theoretical tradition emphasizing that our overlapping identities and group memberships are critical to our life experiences. In this case, women have specific experiences of marriage throughout the life course but an individual woman's race influences that in a different way.*

A survey presents respondents with the following question: "Do you think the government should raise income taxes and use it to pay for universal health care costs?" Which problem does this question suffer from?

It is a double-barreled question *A double-barreled question is one that asks about two or more ideas or concepts in a single question. In this question, the respondent might think that the government should raise income taxes for some other reason, or the respondent might think that the government should institute universal health care without raising income taxes.*

A survey presents respondents with the following question: "In the past 24 hours, how many text messages have you sent? (circle one) None; 1 to 2 texts; 3 to 5 texts; 6 to 10 texts" Which problem does this question suffer from?

It is not exhaustive *In order for a response set to be exhaustive, respondents must have at least one accurate response available to them. In this case, if you sent more than 10 texts in the past 24 hours, no possible response is accurate.*

A survey presents respondents with the following question: "In the past 24 hours, how many times have you interacted with your friends? (circle one) None; 1 to 2 times; 3 to 5 times; 6 to 10 times, 10 or more times" Which problem does this question suffer from?

It is not mutually exclusive *In order for a response set to be mutually exclusive, respondents must have only one accurate response available to them. In this case, if you interacted with your friends exactly 10 times in the past 24 hours, two possible responses are accurate.*

Which of the following statements about sampling is true?

It is possible to survey millions of people and get misleading results *Interviewing a sample, or subset, of all Americans will yield accurate results only if we use an appropriate method of selecting people to contact. If we use an inappropriate method, we can ask millions of people and get dramatically misleading results.*

Census data was used to find ____ Americans during ____.

Japanese; World War II *During World War II, more than 100,000 Japanese Americans were rounded up and interned in prison camps. The Census Bureau played a role in that internment, providing the War Department with data on where Japanese Americans lived. Using the results of the 1930 and 1940 censuses, the bureau provided the War Department with detailed counts of Japanese American families by neighborhood in a number of states so that they could be rounded up and sent to internment camps. In 1943, the bureau provided the Treasury Department with lists of Japanese Americans, including name, address, age, sex, occupation, and citizenship status (Minkel, 2007). While the actions were legal as a result of the War Powers Act in effect at that time, they violated the long-standing Census Bureau rules in effect before and after the war of never sharing private information about people, even with law enforcement or other government agencies.*

Which social theorist is most closely associated with the conflict perspective?

Karl Marx *The macro-level conflict perspective associated with Karl Marx contends that the struggle between the powerful and the less powerful is the key element in understanding society. If society is a collection of competing interests, then understanding how social groups coerce and dominate one another to serve their own interests is essential.*

Which method of selection provides random selection into a sample? Selecting based on

Last digit of social security number *Although you might be tempted to say last digit of driver's license, there is still non-random selection into who has a driver's license--poor people and those in urban areas with good public transportation systems are less likely to have a driver's license.*

Some believe that IRB review ____ ethical behavior in a way that may trick researchers and subjects into thinking that ethical behavior is "taken care of" before the research begins.

Legalizes and bureaucratizes *While getting consent from study participants is important at the outset, consent is actually an ongoing process. Ethnographers, for instance, become accepted in the field and develop real relationships with the people they study. It is important that researchers constantly make sure that people are still willing to be part of a study, even years into the fieldwork, when the people may forget that everything they say and do is fodder for a research project. In this sense, then, "consent" is not completed by an agreement at the beginning of the research but is an ongoing process that must constantly be renegotiated.*

Which group of respondents is susceptible to acquiescence bias?

Less educated people *Some survey research experts believe that agree-disagree categories are subject to acquiescence bias, in which some respondents answer "agree" to attitudinal questions. Some researchers have found that respondents who have lower levels of education and who are less informed on a particular topic are particularly susceptible to acquiescence bias and are more likely to agree with any statement read to them. As a result, some researchers encourage the use of forced-choice questions instead of agree-disagree type questions.*

Dr. Charles conducts a panel study but finds that respondents seem to answer a particular question quite differently over time. He thinks this may be an issue with their memories rather than the fact that their true answers actually change. What concept captures Dr. Charles's problem?

Low reliability *Reliability refers to how dependable a measure is. When a measure is reliable, it will consistently yield the same results no matter how many times it is given to the same samples. For example, in representative samples of families, a reliable measure of parental monitoring will show a similar minority of parents in the low-monitoring category every time it is administered.*

Dr. Washington conducts a panel study and finds that although respondents answer a particular question about poverty consistently over time, other data on the respondents suggest they may be lying about their answers. He think this may be an issue because respondents are embarrassed to report their true poverty status. What concept captures Dr. Washington's problem?

Low validity *Validity refers to how accurate a measure is. When a measure is accurate, it will give us the "true" answer.*

Institutional theory attempts to describe and explain variations among nations, states, or other large political entities, arguing that these entities change over time because they are striving to gain legitimacy among other entities, less so because of the actual value of the change. Which level of social life does this theory apply to?

Macro *The macro level is the "big picture"--the structure, composition, and processes of society. Thus, macro-oriented theory focuses on the largest collective units that make up society (for instance, societal institutions such as the educational system) or on societies and cultures as a whole.*

What is one of the major limitations of mail surveys?

Mail surveys often have very low response rates *Perhaps the most significant limitation of mail surveys is low response rate, often ranging from only 20% to 40%. It is easy to toss a printed questionnaire into the recycling bin, especially when no interviewer is present to urge the respondent to complete the survey. This low response rate is a potential threat to the survey's generalizability because those who complete their mail surveys tend to be significantly different from those who do not. They tend to be literate and well educated, with the free time necessary to fill out the survey, or they may feel a greater sense of social obligation than those who do not complete their surveys. If those who complete and return their surveys differ from those who do not, the results of the survey may be biased accordingly.*

Which of the following statements about national population-based censuses is true?

Many social scientists believe that the U.S. Census achieves lower-quality results than it would if it were based on sampling *The U.S. Census does not succeed in including everyone in the country. Poor people, urban residents, and people who move frequently--and especially the homeless--are often missed or undercounted. For this reason, many social scientists believe that the U.S. Census achieves lower-quality results than it would if it relied on estimates calculated with a highly sophisticated probability sampling technique.*

Which famous American anthropologist helped the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), a precursor of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), develop psychological warfare units during World War II?

Margaret Mead *Other social scientists, including Ruth Benedict, have also contributed to U.S. warfare, experiments, and other government activities in the name of patriotism. We must consider whether it is ethical for social scientists to study civilians in wartime and provide that information to the military.*

Laud Humphreys's Tearoom Trade study focused on which population?

Men engaging in sex with other men *The study began as an inquiry into homosexual behaviors in public spaces. Some public bathrooms—called "tearooms"—were known as places where men could go to engage in sexual encounters with other men. Humphreys spent time observing these encounters by assuming the role of "watchqueen," a man who looks out for the police while enjoying watching the men in the tearoom.*

Vincent Roscigno's work on age discrimination used which type of method(s)?

Mixed-methods approach *Dr. Roscigno and colleagues used both quantitative and qualitative methods for a mixed-methods approach. This research shows that quantitative analyses can tell us what is happening and why, whereas qualitative data can reveal the complex interactions and dynamic processes that underlie such statistical patterns.*

Congressional hearings on the ethical concerns of medical and social science studies culminated in the ____, which established the modern IRB system.

National Research Act of 1974 *The IRB reviews and approves all research involving human subjects before the research begins, with the goal of protecting the human subjects and preventing ethical violations in the research. Any institution that receives federal money for research must have an IRB, and it is not unusual for large universities to have IRB offices that employ 10 or more people.*

In general, there is (are) usually ____ correct way(s) to define or measure a concept.

No single * The range of possibilities for conceptualizing and operationalizing poverty seems infinite, which may be frustrating for scholars or policy makers seeking concrete answers. In general, there is usually no single correct way to define or measure a concept.*

When the goal of sampling is to describe a population, there should be ____ between the people who are selected for the sample and the people who are not selected for the sample.

No systematic differences *When the goal of sampling is to describe a population, there should be no systematic differences between the people who are selected for the sample and the people who are not selected for the sample.*

____ and ____ variables are always categorical.

Nominal; Ordinal *Nominal and ordinal variables are always categorical. They have a finite set of possible values that are fixed and distinct from one another. Differences between categories in categorical variables can never be known.*

If you use an ordinary least squares (OLS) regression and find that gender, where female=1 (the independent variable) has a coefficient of -0.15 in an equation with income as the dependent variable, which of the following statements is true?

On average, women make 85 cents for every dollar men make *The regression results suggest that being female (from the binary independent variable gender) is associated with a reduction of 15 cents for every dollar of income associated with being male. Thus, on average, women make 85 cents for every dollar men make.*

Identify the following question type: "What are the goals you would like to accomplish in college?"

Open-ended *An open-ended question is a broad interview question to which subjects are allowed to respond in their own words.*

What type of question is the following: "What are your main goals in life?"

Open-ended *An open-ended question is a broad interview question to which subjects are allowed to respond in their own words.*

If researchers are interested in the question of "why," which type of question should they use?

Open-ended *If researchers are interested in the question of "why," such as why an individual might be opposed to medical marijuana, they should use an open-ended question. Open-ended questions also are useful if the respondent is unfamiliar with the topic, doesn't have an opinion, or simply hasn't thought about the topic.*

Which type of research typically does not count as human subjects research because it does not contribute to generalizable knowledge?

Oral histories *In 2003, the Oral History Association issued a policy statement that oral histories are not designed to contribute to generalizable knowledge. Rather, they describe individual lives and thus should be exempt from review. Oral histories are quite similar to in-depth interviews (discussed in Chapter 11). The key distinction for the IRB is whether the interviews are done for research (designed to result in generalizable knowledge) or for preservation of an individual history (defined as not constituting research). The federal Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP) has stated that some oral history projects probably do need review and that local IRBs should make the decision on a case-by-case basis.*

If an interviewer records information about the environment in which an interview is conducted, it is a type of ____.

Paradata *Paradata is information about the process by which the survey data were collected. Data analysts may find these observations useful when trying to understand the ways that people answer survey questions.*

Why did Matthew Desmond choose to study firefighting as his focus for the book On the Fireline?

Past experience and intuition *Matthew Desmond begins his ethnographic study of wildland firefighters by saying, "I began fighting fire because someone asked me to." As a college student, he had taken a summer job as a firefighter. He did not know he would become a sociologist, would return to the firefighting job after starting graduate school, and ended up writing a book about firefighting.*

Dr. Ortiz is currently working on a research project that examines the effect of on-campus mental health resources on student persistence in college. She finds that mental health outreach programs and longer clinic hours greatly improve the likelihood that first generation college students will stay in college. What is Dr. Ortiz's dependent variable?

Persistence in college *The dependent variable is one that is acted upon or the outcome we are seeking to understand.*

____ testing is a key feature of many large-scale data collections.

Pilot *Pilot testing is a key feature of many large-scale data collections. For example, when large-scale projects are proposed to the National Institutes of Health for funding, the proposal includes a section on preliminary studies in which researchers describe the pilot testing they have done to ensure reliability.*

Dr. Thomas has collected data on poor households including variables on the number of children in each household, the weekly expenditures of each household, and the total income of each household. What is the unit of analysis?

Poor households *A unit of analysis is simply the entity being studied. This is usually individuals but in the case of Dr. Thomas's research, it's households. The variables capture information about the actual households, not the individuals comprising those households.*

The goals of applied research are entirely ____.

Practical *Applied research seeks to answer a question in the real world or to address a concrete problem. Whereas the goals of basic research may be theoretical development and testing, the goals of applied research are entirely practical, such as evaluating the effectiveness of a particular program, policy, or intervention.*

Traditionally, researchers collect data on educational attainment by highest level achieved. For example, categories might include: high school degree or less, some college, bachelor's degree, greater than a bachelor's degree. If a research project instead collected data on educational attainment and asked where individuals went to college to create more refined rankings (e.g. bachelor's degree from flagship state university, bachelor's degree from elite private university), what concept does this highlight?

Precision *Precision is a key element of measurement that supports reliability. The more detailed and precise the measures are, the more reliable they tend to be. In this case, having more precise data on educational attainment, such as where someone went to school, would likely be useful.*

Most theories are testable and falsifiable as well as generalizable. But theories should also be ____.

Probabilistic *Theories should be probabilistic. They describe, predict, or point to what is likely to happen rather than what will certainly happen. Researchers look for or create data that help them assess the odds.*

What are the two advantages of probability samples over nonprobability samples?

Probability samples are unbiased and any difference between the estimates and the true parameter is due to chance *Estimates based on a probability sample are unbiased. That is, to whatever extent estimates differ from the true population parameter, they are equally likely to overestimate it as they are to underestimate it. In a probability sample, the only difference between the estimates and the true parameter is due to chance. This difference is called sampling error. When sampling error alone is responsible for differences between sample estimates and population parameters, we can make precise statements about our uncertainty.*

Which type of sampling strategy is best for case-oriented research?

Purposive sample *Researchers may invest months or years in a case and hence are able to study very few of them. Consequently, case selection is too important to leave to chance. Instead, for the type of research for which case studies work best, purposive sampling will almost always be more informative than choosing cases randomly. In purposive sampling, cases are deliberately selected on the basis of features that distinguish them from other cases. The researchers choose the case on the basis of the features that they believe make the case especially informative.*

Which type of research is usually useful for gaining breadth but not detail on a particular topic?

Quantitative *Qualitative methods are well suited to gaining an in-depth understanding of a relatively small number of cases, whereas quantitative methods offer less detail on a particular case but more breadth because they typically focus on a much larger number of cases.*

____ researchers typically view operationalization as an end result of the conceptualization process; ____ researchers do not follow this same linear path.

Quantitative; Qualitative *Quantitative researchers typically view operationalization as an end result of the conceptualization process. Qualitative researchers do not follow this same linear path. Rather, they start with a more open conceptualization process and use observation to refine the process and come up with conceptual definitions. As a result, data collection procedures are established and followed (operationalized) earlier.*

If you think that as one spouse's career becomes more lucrative the other spouse should increase their share of the household work like dishes and laundry, which type of sociological paradigm are you using?

Rational Choice *According to the rational choice-based perspective of Gary Becker (1965) on the household division of labor, an increase in one spouse's relative market efficiency should result in a decrease in that spouse's share of housework.*

Dr. Smith is currently working on a research project that examines the effect of reduced subway fares for low-income individuals on employment and depression. He finds that reduced subway fares increase employment rates and reduce depression rates among low-income individuals. What is Dr. Smith's independent variable?

Reduced subway fares *The independent variable is one that is purported to be the cause, or the variable on which values of the dependent variable may depend.*

A sociologist who suggests that local context of cost of living matters in calculating poverty would probably argue for which type of definition?

Relative *We can define poverty with a relative standard, identifying the poor by how deprived they are relative to the rest of a society. In this approach, someone is labeled poor if she has much less than those around her, regardless of how much she has overall.*

Which statement about reliability and validity is true?

Reliability and validity are independently important standards for evaluating the link between conceptualization and operationalization *Reliability and validity are not mutually exclusive, nor parts of a zero-sum game in which gains in one always come with losses in the other. It is important to remember that reliability and validity are independently important standards for evaluating the link between conceptualization and operationalization.*

Which concept(s) does the following example of a bull's-eye target capture? https://services.wwnorton.com/aws/image?u=0&file=/wwnorton.college.public/coursepacks/soc/tassr/imgs/ARTSCISOC_FIG05un1.jpg

Reliable but not valid *The classic way to illustrate the differences between reliability and validity is to use a bullseye. This target sheet shows someone who is reliable but not valid. All of his shots cluster tightly together (dependable) but are not near the bull's-eye (inaccurate).*

The discussion of the changing poverty rate from 1973 to 2010 at the beginning of Chapter 5 highlights how the poverty rates calculated from the federal poverty line are ____, but not ____.

Reliable; Valid *More accurate estimates show that the federal rates are inaccurate, or have low validity, but are dependable, or have high reliability.*

A ____ design is one type of longitudinal time design.

Repeated cross-sectional *Both repeated cross-sectional and panel designs are longitudinal designs in which data are collected at multiple time points.*

Which aspect of external validity is easiest to address?

Representativeness *Scientists can take specific, concrete steps to ensure that the participants are representative of the population being studied. Questions about the reality of studies are much more challenging. Within the realm of ethical treatment, there is likely no experiment or study that is as real as real life, and, therefore, we always give up some external validity when we conduct research, experimental or not.*

Which of the following is a challenge that researchers face in keeping data private?

Researchers do not have a legal right to refuse to cooperate with law enforcement in order to protect research subjects *First, in some instances the ethical requirement, and often the legal requirement, is not to maintain confidentiality. Second, unlike priests and lawyers, researchers do not have the legal right to refuse to cooperate with law enforcement in order to protect their research subjects. Third, social scientists can be called to testify in criminal or civil cases. So, if researchers learn about the sale or use of illegal drugs, a person's status as an undocumented immigrant, or other illegal activities and behaviors, and refuse the legal system's request for data, they risk contempt of court and jail time.*

Which of the following is not a strength of survey research?

Response rates *One of the most serious challenges in survey research is achieving a high response rate. Response rates may range from 20% to 80% depending on the survey and mode of administration.*

A key question is the main spark of a research project, but from where does this question come? The first step in asking a question is ____.

Selecting a topic *The first step in asking a question is selecting a topic. The most powerful factor in selecting a topic is simply what researchers find interesting. Another consideration is what researchers deem important to study--as evidenced by major public debates (such as the debate about immigration), or by controversial policy agendas (such as welfare reform), or by other issues in the public eye.*

Experiments on college students typically allow researchers to detect effects with a ____ than a representative sample of the U.S. population, but require that we test a hypothesis across the range of subgroups.

Smaller sample size *Experiments on college students typically allow researchers to detect effects with a sample size smaller than a representative sample of the U.S. population. If a hypothesis holds true throughout all subgroups of a target population, then we would expect any finding we observe in a representative sample to also hold in whatever nonrepresentative sample we might use. However, we cannot conclude that a hypothesis holds true in the same way throughout all subgroups of a population until we test that hypothesis across the range of subgroups.*

Which of the following is a type of nonprobability sequential sampling strategy?

Snowball sample *A snowball sample is a type of sequential sample in which researchers ask participants in a study to use their social networks to help recruit new participants. If each participant introduces the researcher to a few new participants, the size of the sample can grow--that is, "snowball"--quickly.*

Moving from the stages of conceptualization to operationalization requires increasing levels of ____.

Specificity *https://services.wwnorton.com/aws/image?u=0&file=/wwnorton.college.public/coursepacks/soc/tassr/imgs/ARTSCISOC_FIG04.01.jpg* *Figure 4.1 shows the process of conceptualization and operationalization for quantitative research. Researchers must define (conceptualize) these issues in some meaningful way so that they and their audiences are thinking and talking about the same things. Once a definition is in place, the challenge is to come up with a systematic plan for observing or measuring that issue as it has been defined.*

If a relation between concepts is ____, it cannot possibly be a causal relationship.

Spurious *Spurious relationships are fully explained by a third concept or variable. Thus, there is no actual association between the two concepts, meaning the relationship between them cannot possibly be causal.*

There are five general forms of relations among concepts: positive, negative, mediation, moderation, and ____.

Spuriousness *In spuriousness, the relation between two concepts is complicated by a confound, or a third fact that is linked to two concepts in a way that makes them appear to be related even when they are not. In other words, the relation between two variables seems to exist but actually does not; it is a mirage.*

In the obedience experiment, subjects were led to believe that they were administering shocks of higher and higher voltage each time a different person answered a question incorrectly. This experiment was conducted by whom?

Stanley Milgram *There is a great deal of debate about whether Milgram's study crossed ethical boundaries. Subjects who participated may have had to live with the knowledge that they could have harmed or even killed people. Milgram conducted a 12-month follow-up study of participants, and less than 1% reported that they regretted taking part in the study (Milgram, 1977). Nevertheless, most scholars agree that no IRB would approve Milgram's study today.*

Dr. Lintz has collected data on state legislatures including variables on the number of women and minorities in each state legislature, the number of bills passed, and the total budget of each. What is the unit of analysis?

State legislatures *A unit of analysis is simply the entity being studied. This is usually individuals but in the case of Dr. Lintz, it's state legislatures. The variables capture information about the actual legislative bodies, not the individuals comprising those bodies.*

Hypotheses are always written as ____, not ____.

Statements; Questions *A hypothesis is a testable statement of a relationship--always written as a statement not a question.*

If a researcher reaches a conclusion that he or she later realizes may be based on faulty statistical logic, which type of validity should he or she be concerned with?

Statistical validity *A major consideration in quantitative research, statistical validity refers to the degree to which a study's statistical operations are in line with basic statistical laws and guidelines. Assessments of statistical validity encompass many different dimensions, including questions about whether the right operational definitions were used, whether the methods designed and implemented truly follow from operational definitions, and whether the methods have been properly applied.*

To make sure that smaller groups are represented properly in a study, a researcher might implement which type of sampling strategy to avoid pure chance from causing their sample to be nonrepresentative?

Stratified sample *Stratifying can prevent pure chance from causing samples to be nonrepresentative. Say researchers are drawing a sample of first-year students at a university, and they know that 10% of the students at that university are black. If the researchers want their sample to represent the population as accurately as possible, they could stratify the sample by race and select 10% of the sample from the black group. Using this sampling method, the researchers do not have to worry that they will get an unusual random sample in which the proportion of blacks differs substantially from the proportion of blacks in the university's general population.*

If you think that the education system efficiently sorts people into occupations because the world needs garbage collectors, even if no one really wants to do that job, which type of sociological paradigm are you using?

Structural functionalism *With structural functionalism, the goals are the stability and survival of the social system, and so each part can be understood in terms of what it contributes to that enterprise. If something stabilizes the system, it is functional. If it destabilizes the system, it is dysfunctional.*

Justin creates a series of tables using U.S. Census data but hides cells which have fewer than 20 people. What is Justin engaging in?

Suppression *In suppression, data are simply not shown. In cases where tables created with census data would have only a few individuals or businesses in a cell, those cells are not shown; other cells might also be hidden if it would be possible to estimate information on individuals or businesses by subtracting the suppressed cells from the totals. Suppression was first used with the 1980 census results and is now used with a variety of data released from the census and other government surveys.*

Mary decides to conduct research in which she selects a sample of college students and sends them an email link to answer questions about their background, grades, and sleeping habits. Mary is using which type of research method?

Survey *Surveys provide an exciting opportunity to answer new and unexplored sociological questions. Political pollsters, market research firms, federal statistics organizations, health-care systems, and academic researchers alike use surveys to obtain detailed information on nearly all aspects of social and political life. We can learn about buying habits, political and social attitudes and identities, health behaviors, sexual activity, favorite television shows, and crime victimization, from surveys. Surveys are one of the most widely used research methods in sociology, accounting for roughly one-third of all published studies.*

Which of the following types of observations would be generalizable to a broader population?

Survey of a random selection of the population *Our casual observations of the world may be insightful, and they may pique our interest enough to explore a particular research topic more deeply. However, our casual observations typically focus on our friends, families, or the neighborhoods in which we live and work; as such, they are not typically generalizable, meaning they do not characterize the human condition far beyond our immediate social world.*

What is the most widely used quantitative method in sociology?

Survey research *Quantitative methods, by contrast, rely on data that can be represented by and summarized into numbers. Survey research is the most widely used quantitative method in sociology, but social network analysis and experimental methods also generate numerical or statistical data that researchers can analyze.*

Which sociological paradigm evokes criticism that it is too focused on individual behaviors and not focused on social structures and processes?

Symbolic interactionism *Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level paradigm focused on face-to-face interaction, including nonverbal forms of communication such as hand gestures. However, in gleaning important information about the micro level that other paradigms could overlook, symbolic interactionism might overlook other important insights about the macro level.*

Dr. Olson passes out a survey to his introductory sociology course. He would like to generalize the results of this survey to all college students. Which type of error should Dr. Olson be concerned with?

Systematic error *Systematic error occurs when there are systematic differences between our sample and the target population. In this case, there are almost certainly differences between Dr. Olson's sample (college students in his introductory sociology course) and his target population (all college students).*

In political exit polling, where no sampling frame can be made in advance, which type of sampling makes the most sense?

Systematic sample *The logic of the systematic sample is very important in political exit polls. Researchers do not have a sampling frame--after all, there is no way of knowing in advance who exactly will vote--so they cannot draw a simple random sample in advance. Yet it is extremely important that they use a probability sampling method, because the people who are most eager to tell others how they voted can be a biased sample of all voters. As a result, one common method is that interviewers are instructed to keep track of the order in which individuals leave the polling place and to approach only every nth person about the survey.*

What is one of the major limitations of telephone surveys?

Telephone surveys are more likely to have sample bias due to who chooses to answer the phone *Many people do not want to be bothered in their homes. The explosion of telemarketing and "robocalls" poses a considerable threat to legitimate survey organizations. Many people see an unfamiliar incoming number and choose not to answer. If those who choose to answer their phones differ significantly from those who do not, sample bias will result. Older adults, those with more spare time, those with a more trusting nature, or those who are lonely are more likely to answer a call from an unfamiliar phone number.*

Which of the following is a continuous variable?

Temperature in Fahrenheit *Continuous variables are those that could have an infinite set of possible values that exist on a continuum from low to high with meaningful and identifiable differences.*

Which broad topic would be covered under macrosociology?

The American education system *Macrosociology is the study of large-scale social systems and processes such as the political system or the economy, while microsociology is the study of personal concerns and interpersonal interactions.*

Which of the following examples would a meso-oriented theory apply to? A research project examining

The formation of new moms groups across neighborhoods *The meso level encompasses what happens in physical settings and organizations (such as communities, churches, and the workplace) that link individuals to the larger society. The meso level often incorporates groups, organizations, and local contexts.*

An example of clashing paradigms is the difference between Western countries and Asian countries in their identification of ____.

The fundamental units of society *In the United States, the fundamental unit is the individual. Americans view society as a collection of individuals. In contrast, the Japanese view society as a collection of groups, especially families, more than as a collection of individuals. Thus, a Japanese person and an American may define the world differently without necessarily recognizing that their definitions are socially constructed ideas, not naturally occurring facts.*

What is one of the major strengths of face-to-face interviews?

The presence of a skilled interviewer helps ensure that respondents understand the survey questions *Face-to-face interviews are considered the "gold standard" of survey research because the presence of a skilled interviewer helps ensure that respondents understand the survey questions and do not skip any questions that are sensitive or troubling. Interviewers can also help to clarify questions and response categories.*

Before starting data collection with a new survey, the most important step is ____.

The pretest *A pretest is a trial run in which researchers administer the survey to people who are similar to those in the target sample. The pretest identifies problems with the survey, including confusing questions, problematic skip patterns, or questions that might turn off potential respondents. The pretest also provides information on the survey's duration and pacing; it may reveal parts of the questionnaire that feel long and tedious to respondents.*

The best sampling strategy depends on ____.

The research question and available resources *The best sampling strategy depends on the research question and available resources, including money, time, and personnel. Researchers use a range of strategies for ensuring that their estimates are as accurate as possible.*

Which statement best describes the sampling error made by the Literary Digest in predicting the 1936 presidential election?

The sample was biased toward people who were higher income *There were two major problems. First, the magazine obtained addresses from lists of people who owned automobiles and telephones, which at that time were still luxuries for many Americans. Roosevelt's support was much stronger among poorer Americans than among wealthier Americans. Second, people who were unhappy with Roosevelt's presidency were likely more motivated to send back their postcards.*

Which of the following is an important potential benefit to nonrepresentative samples?

The similarity of people in a nonrepresentative sample can make it easier to identify a cause-and-effect relationship *The diversity of representative samples makes detecting cause-and-effect relationships more difficult. It is easier to identify a cause when the cases we study are very similar to one another. When cases differ in ways that influence an outcome, we need a larger sample to distinguish the effects of our hypothesized cause, if any, from the effects of these other influences.*

The increase in median age at first marriage in the United States shown in Figure 1.1 highlights how seemingly personal choices are deeply intertwined with larger social and historical forces. This is an example of which sociological concept? https://services.wwnorton.com/aws/image?u=0&file=/wwnorton.college.public/coursepacks/soc/tassr/imgs/ARTSCISOC_FIG01.01.jpg

The sociological imagination *The sociological imagination recognizes that our personal experiences are powerfully shaped by macrosocial and historical forces. Most people want to wait until they are "financially ready" to marry, meaning they want to have a good job and a stable place to live. But securing a good job today often requires a bachelor's or even a master's degree, which means staying in school longer than prior generations did. The urge to marry young also has faded in recent years for cultural reasons, including greater acceptance of premarital sex and nonmarital cohabitation.*

Which of the following is a reason why web-based surveys might be ethically problematic?

There is no way to verify a respondent's age *When someone agrees to take part in a web-based survey or experiment, the researcher cannot know for sure whether some participants are actually under the age of 18 (and therefore need parental consent). It is also much more difficult for researchers to know whether the subject has understood the informed consent materials when the process occurs online*

Which steps in the scientific method fall into the general category of empiricism?

Third and fourth *The third and fourth steps in the scientific method, (3) gather data that allow the researcher to assess the accuracy of this prediction and (4) analyze the data to determine whether the prediction is accurate, fall into the general category of empiricism. In practice, theory and empiricism cannot be separated. Social research cannot stand on one or the other.*

Establishing causality requires knowledge about the ____ of events, thus longitudinal studies are necessary to understanding cause and effect.

Time order *By observing people at just one point in time, a cross-sectional design cannot ascertain the presence of a cause-and-effect relationship. Establishing causality requires that the purported cause precede the purported effect. Documenting cause and effect is one of the most vexing challenges that social scientists face.*

One of the key theoretical models in demography is the demographic transition, which centers on the rapid decline of both birthrates and death rates during industrial development. Scientists use this theoretical model for which purpose?

To describe *The demographic transition model describes a major population trend in ways that speak to the effects of modernization on human life.*

What do researchers often do to make comparisons with prior studies?

Use the same exact respondent sample *Operationalization is a choice, and researchers must justify their choice so that everyone knows how to assess the study and compare the findings to the results of other studies. Often, researchers decide to use a "tried and true" operationalization from other related studies so that they can compare their results with prior studies.*

Operationalization involves two steps: (1) converting a conceptual definition into an operational definition that sets the parameters for measurement, and (2) ____.

Using the operational definition to collect data *Operationalization can be broken down into two steps: First, the conceptual definition is converted into an operational definition. Second, this operational definition is used to collect data.*

Which statement about reliability and validity is true?

Validity is much more difficult to assess than reliability *Knowing how close our method is getting to the truth is very ambitious, because truth and objective reality can be quite slippery at times--a core tenet of sociology is the social construction of shared reality. For this reason, validity is much harder to assess than reliability. There is no statistical tool for measuring validity according to some quantitative standard--no Cronbach's alpha. In addition, there are no set standards or conventions for assessing validity.*

Most experts agree it is virtually impossible for researchers to be completely ____ in their work.

Value-free *One other subtle consideration should guide a researcher's choice of a research question: the goal of being value-free, or objective, in how the question is framed. Researchers take great care to be objective when they carry out their work. As we shall soon learn, social scientists take many precautions to ensure that their research is unbiased, precise, subject to critical review, and free from any prejudices on the part of the investigator or members of the research team. But sometimes subtle biases can seep in very early in the project by the way that social scientists ask and frame their research questions. It is inevitable that our personal interests and passions may guide our choice of a research question, but sociologists need to be mindful so that their personal values do not lead them to pose their research questions in a biased manner.*

The Willowbrook hepatitis study in the early 1950s included a(n) ____, a group of people who cannot give informed consent.

Vulnerable population *The Willowbrook hepatitis study focused on children with diminished mental capacity. In the case of vulnerable populations who cannot give informed consent due to age or diminished mental capacity (for example, senility or an intellectual disability), special protections must be put in place. For instance, parents must give informed consent for their children to be part of a research study.*

Under which scenario should subjects be debriefed?

When researchers use deception *When a research study involves deception, subjects must be debriefed at the end of the experiment. In debriefing, participants are told the true nature of the study and the reason for the deception.*