Introduction to Sociology- Soci 1301

Research Design

A detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically.

Sample

A selection from a population that is statistically representative of that population.

Functional Perspective

A society that exhibits living organisms in each part that contribute to the society's survival as a whole. The functional perspective emphasizes the way in which parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability.

Survey

A study, generally in the form of an interview, that provides researchers with information on how people think and act.

Dramaturgical Approach

A view of social interaction in which people are seen as theatrical performers.

Ideal Type Bureaucracy

Construct or model for evaluating specific cases. Characterized by a division of labor, hierarchy of authority written rules and regulations, impersonality, employment based on technical qualifications.

Secondary Group

Formal, impersonal groups with little social intimacy or mutual understanding.

Symbols

Gestures, objects, and words that form the basis of human communication.

Generalized Others

Attitudes, viewpoints, and expectations of society as a whole that a child takes into account.

Organic Solidarity

Collective consciousness that hinges on the need society's members have for one another.

Cultural Universals

Common practices and beliefs developed in societies.

George Herbert Mead

American sociologist who is regarded as the founder of Interactionist Perspective. The Interactionist Perspective encourages more effort to the micro level of society as opposed to the macro level.

Auguste Comte

19th century French philosopher who coined the term "sociology". He believed a systematic study of society and human behavior was necessary to improve society.

Conflict Perspective

Social behavior is best understood in terms of tension between two groups over power or the allocation of resources, including housing, money, and access to services as well as political representation. This principle suggests that the social world is characterized by continual struggle between opposing groups.

Interactionist Perspective

Generalizations about everyday forms of interaction that serve to explain society as a whole.

Informal Norms

Generally understood norms that aren't precisely recorded.

Karl Marx

German sociologist who believed that society was fundamentally divided into two groups, the rich and the poor, each with their own special interest of self benefit. Marx believed that the working class should overthrow the class system, a dramatic philosophy that eventually gave birth to communism.

Max Weber

German sociologist who believed that to fully comprehend behavior, we must learn the subjective meanings people attach to their actions. How they themselves explain their behavior.

Formal Organization

Group designed for a special-purpose and structured for maximum efficiency.

Networking

Involvement in a social network.

Rites Of Passage

Means of dramatizing and validating changes in a person's status.

Random Sample

Members of an entire population being studied have the same probability of selection.

Culture Lag

The period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is struggling to new material conditions.

Innovation

The process of introducing a new idea or object to a culture.

Role Taking

The process of mentally assuming the perspective of another and responding from that imagined viewpoint.

Sociology

The scientific study of the roles of society and how society changes.

Play Stage

The second of Mead's three stages of development. In the play stage, children develop skills in communication through symbols and role taking occurs. The self is slowly beginning to form at this stage. For example, a child begins to act like a doctor, then decides to act like the patient.

Interactionism

The sociological framework in which human beings are viewed as living in a world full of meaningful objects.

Robert Merton

The son of Slavic immigrants in Philadelphia, Merton studied sociology at Harvard University. He is most widely accredited for producing a theory of sociology that is one of the most frequently cited explanations of deviant behavior. Merton believed that many people tried to achieve success in life via different goals, whether materialistic or not. Merton's theory is applied frequently to describe crime rates, or the stereotype of "model minorities" in Asians.

Game Stage

The third and final stage of Mead's three stages of development. In the game stage, children of about age eight or nine years old consider several actual tasks and relationships simultaneously.

Dependent Variable

The variable whose action depends on the independent variable.

Value Neutrality

A principle that a researcher must abide by. In essence, it means that a researcher must now allow his personal feelings or values to skew his interpretation of the data by any means.

Argot

A specialized language that distinguishes it from wider society.

Iron Law Of Oligarchy

Even a democratic organization develops into a bureaucracy ruled by a few.

Experiment

An artificially created situation that allows a researcher to manipulate variables.

Dysfunction

An element of process of society that may disrupt the social system or reduce its stability.

Life Course Approach

Looking closely at social factors that influence people throughout their lives.

Discovery

Making known or sharing the existence of an aspect of reality.

Cultural Genocide

The systematic destruction of a group's culture.

Correlation

When a change in one variable coincides with the change of another. Correlation may indicate a relationship between two variables, but does not imply causation.

Counter-Culture

When a subculture conspicuously and deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture.

Role Conflict

When incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by same person.

Goal Displacement

When rules and regulations overshadow larger goals of organization and become dysfunctional.

Interview

Where the researcher obtains information via face-to-face or telephoning questioning.

Group

any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact on a regular basis.

Social inequality

A condition in which members of society have different amounts of wealth, prestige, or power. For example, the price you pay per cup of coffee, and the wages coffee bean pickers in developing countries earn is an example of social inequality.

Control Variable

A factor that is held constant to test the relative impact of an independent variable.

Society

A fairly large number of people who live in the same territory, are relatively independent of people outside their area, and participate in common culture.

Experimental Group

A group that is exposed to an independent variable.

Control Group

A group that is not exposed to an independent variable.

Ideal Type

A model for evaluating specific cases.

Subculture

A segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of customs, rules, and traditions that differs from the pattern of the larger society.

Scientific Method

A systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem.

Theory

A theory is a set of statements that seek to explain problems, actions, or behavior. An effective theory must have both explanatory and predictive power.

Looking Self-Glass Theory

A theory of development theorized by Charles Horton Cooley, an American sociologist. Cooley theorized that the stages of development were not distinct, and that feelings towards ourselves developed through interaction with others.

Impression Management

A theory of development theorized by Erving Goffman, an American sociologist. Impression Management says that the self develops through the impressions we convey to others and to groups.

The Self Generalized Other

A theory of development theorized by George Herbert Mead, an American sociologist. Mead theorized that the self develops as children grasp the roles of others in their lives.

Cognitive Theory Of Development

A theory of development theorized by Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist. The Cognitive Theory of Development states that moral development is linked to socialization, and that socialization is key to development.

Psychoanalysis

A theory of development theorized by Sigmund Freud, an Austrian psychologist. Freud believed that the self was influenced by parents and by inborn drives, such as sexual gratification. Freud also believed that the self has components that work against each other, such as the id or the superego.

W.E.B Dubois

American sociologist galvanized by Karl Marx's theory that society should be viewed from the perspective of those in a population who rarely make decisive choices in society. Dubois believed that knowledge was the key to ending racial tolerance and prejudice, and bringing about justice in the United States.

Charles Horton Cooley

American sociologist who saw the need to understand society from the microscopic level of association, that sociological perspective should best be viewed in smaller, intimate face-to-face units. He saw these groups as the seedbeds of society, in the sense that they shape people's ideals, beliefs, values, and social nature.

Degradation Ceremony

An aspect of the socialization process within some total institutions, in which people are subjected to humiliating rituals.

Sociological Imagination

An awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society, both today and in the past. This awareness allows all of us (not just sociologists) to comprehend the links between our immediate, personal social settings, and the remote impersonal social world that surrounds us and helps to shape us.

Operational Definition

An explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to assess the concept.

Reference Group

Any group that individuals use as standard for evaluating their own behavior. Reference groups set and enforce standards of conduct and belief. Often two or more reference groups influence us at the same time.

In-Group

Any groups or categories to which people feel they belong.

Out-Group

Any groups or categories to which people feel they do not belong.

Culture Shock

Anyone who feels disoriented, uncertain, out of place, or even fearful when immersed in an unfamiliar culture.

Theoretical Perspectives

Approaches or views on a certain topic, usually introduced by a prominent individual knowledgeable in that field.

Science

Body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic observation.

Code Of Ethic

Certain specific standards in conducting research.

Social Capital

Collective benefit of social networks, which are built on reciprocal trust.

Mechanical Solidarity

Collective consciousness that emphasizes group solidarity, implying all individuals perform the same tasks.

Bureaucracy

Component of formal organization that uses rules and hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency.

Alienation

Condition of estrangement or dissociation from the surrounding society.

Technology

Cultural information about how to use the material resources of the environment to satisfy human needs and desires.

Quantitative Data

Data that can be expressed in a numerical fashion, such as speed, weight, velocity, etc.

Qualitative Data

Data that can be expressed via characteristics or attributes, such as round, dark, wide, etc.

Clinical Sociology

Designate to facilitate change by altering social relationships (as in family relationships) or restructuring social institutions (as in the reorganization of a medical center).

Role Strain

Difficulties that arise when same social position imposes conflicting demands and expectations.

Resocialization

Discarding former behaviors and accepting new one's during transitions in one's life.

Hierarchy of Authority

Each position under supervision of higher authority.

Postindustrial Society

Economic system engaged primarily in processing and controlling information.

Herbert Spencer

English sociologist who unlike Martineau, did not seek to improve society, just to understand it better. He coined the term, "social Darwinism", which implied that the smarter individuals in society were more prone to survive, and that rich and poor individuals were perfectly normal in society. Spencer also suggested that if society was going to change in a couple of years, that change shouldn't be stressed in the present by revolutionaries or social innovators. Spencer was a more passive sociologist than his peers.

Norms

Established standards of behavior maintained by a society.

Peter Principle

Every employee within a hierarchy tends to rise to his or her level of incompetence.

Gender Roles

Expectations regarding proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females.

Jane Addams

Female sociologist who emphasized the need to better society via urban areas, especially for immigrants not indigenous to American lifestyle. Addams goal, as were the goals of many other female sociologists, were to help the underprivileged to create a more "balanced" society.

Erving Goffman

Founder of the dramaturgical approach to interactionism that suggests that humans act like theatrical performers in life. The dramatrugical approach compares everyday life to the setting of the theatre and stage. Just as actors project certain images, all of us seek to present particular features depending on our social environment. For example, one may act serious in a business meeting, but relaxed and casual at a party as both of those behaviors are appropriate for their respective environments as seen by the majority of society and suggested by the dramaturgical approach.

Emile Durkheim

French sociologist who emphasized the notion that behavior must be understood within a large social context, not just individualistic terms. This approach later helped him develop a theory on the characteristics of suicidal individuals in a society.

Pierre Bourdieu

French sociologist who wrote about how capital in its many forms sustained individuals and families from one generation to the next. To Bourdieu, capital was not only limited to material goods, but included cultural and social assets.

Talcott Parsons

Harvard University sociologist who came to theorize the functional perspective. Parsons viewed society as an interconnected network with many aspects, and if an aspect of social life served no functional value to society in terms of maintenence, survival, or stability, it would not be carried on to the next generation.

Gesellschaft

Large community in which people are strangers and feel little in common with other community residents.

Feminist Approach

The feminist view sees inequality in gender as central to all behavior and organization. Because it focuses clearly on one aspect of inequality, the feminist approach is often coupled with the conflict perspective. Proponents of the feminist view often focus on the macro level, just as conflict theorists do. Drawing on the works of Marks and Engels, contemporary feminist theorists often view women's subordination as inherent to capitalist societies.

Classical Theory

The idea that workers are motivated almost entirely by economic rewards. Also commonly referred to as the scientific management approach.

Anomie

The loss of direction felt in a society when when social control of an individual behavior has gone ineffective. Anomie usually occurs during a state of profound social change, when people have lost their sense of purpose or direction. When one undergoes anomie, one may be so confused and unable to cope with their new social environment, that they may resort to suicide.

Cultural Transmission

The passing of cultural patterns from one generation to another.

Marxist View

The perspective that society was is a struggle between classes in everyday life. Some examples are: struggle between the rich and the poor, men and women, blacks and whites, Catholics and Protestants, etc. In studying any society, sociologists want to know who benefits and who suffers, and under what expenses as well as the extensive nature of the reasoning behind it. All of this is supported by the Marxist approach to understanding the world.

Culture War

The polarization of society over controversial cultural elements.

Ethnography

The study of an entire social setting through extended systematic observation.

Basic/Pure Sociology

The study of sociology that seeks a more profound knowledge of the fundamental aspects of social phenomena. this type of research is not necessarily mean to generate specific applications, although such ideas may result once findings are analyzed.

Content Analysis

The systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale.

Sociobiology

The systematic study of how biology affects human social behavior.

Cognitive Theory Of Development

The theory that children's thought progresses through four stages of development.

Culture

The totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior.

Hawthorne Effect

The unintended influence that that observers of experiments have on their subjects,

Applied Sociology

The use of discipline of Sociology with the specific intent of yielding practical applications for human behavior and organizations.

Bilingualism

The use of two languages in a particular setting, such as the workplace or school room, treating each language as equally legitimate.

Independent Variable

The variable hypothesized to cause or influence another variable.

Nonmaterial Culture

The way of using material objects, as well as to customs, beliefs, philosophies, governments and patterns of communication.

Harriet Martineau

Translated Comte's works for global usage. She also observed British and American societies, while noting child rearing, politics, and religion in both countries. Martineau believed that sociologists should not only just observe social conditions, but they must act upon them to improve them.

True or False: Sociological Research should both be imaginative, and undergo responsible research that meets the highest scientific and ethical standards.

True.

Latent Functions

Unconscious or unintended functions of a society that my reflect hidden purposes of an institution.

Cultural Relativism

Viewing people's behavior from the perspective of their culture.

Trained Incapacity

Workers become so specialized that they develop blind spots and fail to notice obvious problems.

Globalization

Worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas.

Formal Norms

Written down norms that specify strict punishments for violators. A law is a formal norm enacted by the state.

Written Rules Of Regulation

Written rules and regulations ensure uniform performance of every task and offer continuity.

Macrosociology

The concentration of large scale phenomena in society.

Microsociology

The concentration of small groups in society.

Validity

The degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study.

Genocide

The deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation.

Preparatory Stage

The first of Mead's three stages of development. In the preparatory stage, children imitate people around them. An example of which is when a child sees an adult smiles, and therefore mimics them and smiles as well.

Horticultural Societies

People plant seeds and crops.

Face-Work

Need to maintain proper image of self to continue social interaction.

Diffusion

Process by which a cultural item spreads from group to group or society to society.

Nonverbal Communication

Body language gestures that hold connotative meanings in social interaction.

Natural Science

Natural science is the study of the physical feature of nature and the ways in which they interact and change. Chemistry, Physics, Astronomy, Biology, and Geology are all natural sciences.

Cultural Capital

Noneconomic goods, such as family background and education, which are reflected in knowledge of language and the arts. Not necessarily book knowledge, cultural capital refers to knowledge that is valued by the socially elite.

Mores

Norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of society, often because they embody the most cherished principles of a people.

Folkways

Norms governing everyday behavior. Folkways play an important role in shaping the daily behavior of members of a culture. Society is less likely to formalize folkways than mores, and their violation raises comparatively little concern.

What does Observation allow Sociologists to do?

Observation allows sociologists to study certain behaviors and communities that cannot be investigated through other research methods.

Manifest Functions

Open, stated, and conscious functions of an institution. They involve the intended recognized aspect of society.

Social Institution

Organized pattern of beliefs and behavior centered on basic social needs. The social institution runs on the doctrines of the functionalist view.

Labor Unions

Organized workers sharing either the same skill or the same employer.

Sanctions

Penalties and rewards for conduct concerning a social norm. Note the concept of a reward is included in this definition.

Agrarian Societies

Peopel are primarily engaged in the production of food.

Hunting-And-Gathering Societies

People rely on whatever foods and fibers are readily available.

Anticipatory Socialization

Person "rehearses" future occupations and social relationships.

Material Culture

Physical or technological aspects of our daily lives, including food, houses, factories, and raw materials.

Bureaucratization

Process by which group, organization, or social movement becomes increasingly bureaucratic Can take place within small group settings.

Role Exit

Process of disengagement from a role that is central to one's identity to establish a new role. Some examples of role exit are doubt, the search for new alternatives, and the creation of a new identity.

Anticipatory Socialization

Process of socialization in which a person rehearses for future positions, occupations, and relationships.

Reliability

Refers to the extend to which a measure produces consistent results.

Total Institution

Regulates all aspects of a person's life under a single authority.

Questionnaire

Researchers use a printed or written form to obtain information from a respondent.

Invention

Results in existing cultural items are combined into a form that did not exist before.

Human Relations Approach

Role of people, communication, and participation within a bureaucracy emphasized.

Social Network

Series of social relationships that link a person directly to others, and indirectly links him or her to still more people.

Social Role

Set of expectations for people who occupy a given status.

Gemeinschaft

Small community in which people have similar backgrounds and life experiences.

Primary Group

Small group with intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation.

Social Science

Social Science is the study of social features of humans and they ways in which they interact and change. Economics, History, Psychology, Sociology, and Government are all social sciences.

Status

Socially defined positions within a large group or society.

Industrial Societies

Societies that depend on mechanization to produce its goods and services.

Division of Labor

Specialized experts perform specific tasks.

Hypothesis

Speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors known as variables.

Postmodern Society

Technologically sophisticated society preoccupied with consumer goods and media images

Coalitions

Temporary or permanent alliances geared toward common goal.

Ethnocentrism

Tendency to assume one's culture and way of life represent the norm or are superior to all others.

Double Consciousness

Term coined by W.E.B. Dubois to describe the division of an individual's identity into two or more social realities. He used the term to describe the feeling of being black in "White America".

Verstehen

The German word for understanding or insight. Word emphasized by German sociologist Max Weber to his students when stressing the notion that one must be knowledgeable in their field of intellect.

Values

The collective conceptions of what is considered good, desirable, and proper- or bad, undesirable, and improper- in a culture.