ISAS

6. Characteristics of the Moon

*Covered with a dusty regolith *Center of mass is off by 2 km from the Geometric center of mass *Covered with old highlands and Maria *Controls the Earth's tides with its gravitational pull on the earth *Crust is thinner on the near side than the far side.

8. Suggested ways to terraform Mars

*In the 1970's, astronomer Carl Sagan suggested covering the polar caps with dark material - such as carbon black from a pulverized asteroid - to a depth of 1 millimeter. Sagan estimated that over 100 million tons (or a 600-meter asteroid) would be necessary to cover the ice caps. This cover would have to be replaced each year due to frequent dust storms. Since this would be a very arduous task, Sagan also proposed using plants that are capable of growing on ice. *In the 1980's, Planetary scientist Chris McKay suggested that we could seed the Martian polar caps with green plants or genetically engineered microbes that extract the liquid water they need from ice. These organisms would be dark and, thus, would absorb more sunlight that would warm up the ice and increase the overall rate of evaporation. If the surface temperature was high enough, more carbon dioxide might be released from the Martian soil, permafrost, and polar ice and would flood the lowlands. This process could take from 100 to 10,000 years *In 1989, scientist Martyn Fogg suggested carbon dioxide might be located in its carbonate rocks. He suggested using 10 million fusion bombs to vaporize the rocks and free the carbon dioxide. In 1992, scientist Paul Birch suggested building large mirrors and lenses in space to reflect sunlight onto the Martian ice caps melting them. Releasing large amounts of chlorofluorocarbons (greenhouse gases) by the use of factories on the surface of Mars is another possibility. Some scientists suggest this process could take 100,000 years. *The introduction of green plants would remove some of the carbon dioxide and they would give off oxygen, but it would take many thousands of years to build up enough oxygen to make the atmosphere on Mars breathable for humans and animals. The oxygen would produce an ozone layer protecting the surface from solar ultraviolet rays. Animals and insects could then be introduced to the environment. *Once most of the atmosphere of Mars was restored, the air pressure would be high enough to allow people to walk around without space suits. We still might need oxygen tanks and respirators (similar to scuba gear), however, because we can't breathe carbon dioxide. The thick atmosphere would shield the surface from cosmic radiation. We also would still need to protect our skin and eyes against ultraviolet rays from the Sun because the atmosphere would not have any ozone layer to shield us such as ours on Earth does.

4. Kepler's three laws of planetary motion

1.The path of the planets about the sun is elliptical in shape, with the center of the sun being located at one focus. (The Law of Ellipses) 2.An imaginary line drawn from the center of the sun to the center of the planet will sweep out equal areas in equal intervals of time. (The Law of Equal Areas) 3.The ratio of the squares of the periods of any two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of their average distances from the sun. (The Law of Harmonies)

number of partners in the ISS

16

9. When and how do we plan to travel to Mars

2030's. The workshop group's plan hinges partially upon the availability of NASA's heavy-lifting rocket, the Space Launch System, and the space agency's deep space crew capsule, the Orion spacecraft. SLS and Orion are both in development now, with Orion's first unmanned test flight slated for later this year.

Completion of the ISS

23 May 2010

length of a Martian day

24 hours 37 minutes and 22 seconds.

speed of light

299 792 458 m / s

height of ISS orbit

330 and 435 km

pressurization of the space suits

4.7 psi ISS 3.75 psi on MARS and MOON

days in one year on Mars

686.98

value of acceleration due to gravity

9.81m/s^2

2. Be familiar with the flights and experiments done on the space shuttle.

Biology and Biotechnology In microgravity, controls on the directionality and geometry of cell and tissue growth can be dramatically different to those on Earth. Various experiments have used the culture of cells, tissues and small organisms on orbit as a tool to increase our understanding of biological processes in microgravity. Earth and Space Science The presence of the space station in low-Earth orbit provides a unique vantage point for collecting Earth and space science data. From an average altitude of about 400 km, details in such features as glaciers, agricultural fields, cities, and coral reefs taken from the ISS can be layered with other sources of data, such as orbiting satellites, to compile the most comprehensive information available. Educational Activities The space station provides a unique platform for inspiring students to excel in mathematics and science. Station educational activities have had a positive impact on thousands of students by involving them in station research, and by using the station to teach them the science and engineering that are behind space exploration. Human Research The space station is being used to study the risks to human health that are inherent in space exploration. Focal research questions address the mechanisms of the risks and develop test countermeasures to reduce these risks. Research on space station addresses the major risks to human health from residence in a long-duration microgravity environment. Results from this research are key enablers for future long-duration missions beyond low Earth orbit. Physical Sciences The space station provides the only place to study long-term physical effects in the absence of gravity. This unique microgravity environment allows different physical properties to dominate systems, and these have been harnessed for a wide variety of physical sciences. Technology Studies on the space station can test a variety of technologies, systems, and materials that will be needed for future long-duration exploration missions. Materials Science seek to understand the the formation, structure, and properties of materials on various scales, ranging from atomic to microscopic to macroscopic levels. Astronaut John Blaha Fundamental to the study of materials is establishing quantitative and predictive relationships between the way a material is produced (processing), its structure (how the atoms are arranged), and its properties. Materials science research in microgravity may lead to better understanding of the processes used to produce these materials on Earth. Microgravity experimentation may eventually allow the production of limited sample quantities of high-quality materials or of samples exhibiting unique properties for use as theoretical benchmarks. Combustion Science The Microgravity Combustion Science Program supports research in how flames ignite, spread, and extinguish under microgravity conditions. Combustion, or burning, is a rapid, self-sustaining chemical reaction that releases a significant amount of heat. The Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio, is the Microgravity Center of Excellence for combustion science. Fundamental Physics Fundamental physics is the study of the basic laws that govern the properties of the physical world on all scales, from microscopic to cosmic. The study of fundamental physics in the microgravity environment can yield entirely new or substantially improved results when the obscuring effects of Earth's gravity are not present.

carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas vital to plant life on earth. This naturally occurring chemical compound is composed of two oxygen atoms each covalently double bonded to a single carbon atom

radiation dosages

Commander Eileen Collins aboard STS-93 Astronauts who flew the Space Shuttle for between seven and 14 days get the equivalent of about 50 chest x-rays, but it takes the equivalent of over 5,000 chest x-rays to get radiation sickness. The Skylab astronauts, who lived for 87 days in space, received about three times the maximum allowable dosage for one year. Click here for information on radiation experiments on Shuttle and station.. According to U.S. government standards, the maximum dosage per year is the equivalent of about ten chest x-rays.

DPS

Data Processing System

5. Reactions of the human body to long periods in microgravity.

Decreases in bone density and strength are more pronounced in some skeletal regions. There is loss of muscle mass, strength and endurance, especially in the lower extremities. Changes in muscle performance, coupled with the effects of microgravity on connective tissues and the demands of activities of varying intensities, place astronauts at risk of fatigue and injury. The heart is a unique muscle, and diminished cardiac function and the possible occurrence of heart rhythm disturbances are concerns faced during space flight. The details of these cardiovascular changes and risks are not yet completely known, however. Space Sickness. Similarly, microgravity also impacts the neurovestibular system--an integrated set of neural sensory, motor and brain circuits that allows humans to maintain balance, stabilize vision and understand body orientation in terms of location and direction. Exposure to microgravity often leads to disorientation and decreased neuromuscular coordination upon return from prolonged missions. Immediately after landing, astronauts may have problems standing up, stabilizing their gaze, walking and turning. In space, circadian rhythms are disrupted because the 24-hour day/night cycle is absent. Sleep loss, stress related to workload, high performance expectations, and psychosocial factors all affect the body on long-duration missions. The body also suffers loss of blood volume, immunodeficiency, and transient post-flight anemia (low red blood cell levels), despite adequate nutritional intake.

"g"

Earth's gravity

Kennedy

Expanded NASA and made decision to go to the moon

10. Benefits of robot vs manned landing on Mars

Exploration *Although early expeditions often ended in failure, robotic explorations of Mars have improved. Robots can be sent where humans cannot yet go because they are more expendable and run on less physical support and supplies. Continued gains and achievements in technology will allow robots to further explore Mars and answer key scientific questions. *Direct human experience of space has altered our perspective and added greatly to our scientific knowledge. Robots are limited in function and need human guidance (which is very slow to transmit over the vast distances between the planets). Humans could explore the terrain of Mars much faster, could react and follow up on discoveries, and obtain more scientific samples. Science Precise and highly accurate, robots are extremely effective when accomplishing specific and pre-programmed tasks. Unless provided with poor instructions from a human, robots eliminate the risks of human error. Humans can make important decisions and use ingenuity to perform functions on the fly. They can gather more data and respond better to the information in real time, thereby greatly advancing new discoveries. Operations *The flight to Mars will be long and mostly automated. A human crew may get bored or experience psychosocial problems. Robots don't need heavy and large supply stocks of oxygen, water, food or conflict resolution. On a long mission things will break down. Humans can problem solve and respond quickly to the unexpected. Problems similar to those faced by the failed Mars Climate Orbiter and other missions might have been solved by a trained human crew on-location. Communication *Because of the distance to Mars, communication delays of up to 44 minutes make it difficult and slow to control robots. Robots must wait for further instructions before performing additional tasks. *Loss of communication would have serious consequences on a robot mission. *Humans are autonomous first responders and don't need to wait for instructions. Humans can still perform the tasks required and effectively continue the mission even if contact with the ground is lost. Mission Plan and Goals Robots are good at completing specific tasks and gathering specific information to be sent back to Earth for interpretation. Creating and executing a mission plan is relatively straightforward. Return is not required, which is an immense savings on supplies, food, fuel and mission complexity. A human crew could answer larger questions, instantly interpret results and make revolutionary discoveries. However, creating and executing a mission plan to get humans successfully to Mars and back is the biggest challenge NASA has ever faced. Cost *Robot missions are relatively economical, as supplies and return trips are not required. *Humans are bulky, fragile and expensive to maintain. The cost for a human mission would be in the billions—some estimate in the hundreds of billions. But some argue the scientific gains of one human mission would be worth that of 10 robot only missions. Risk *Mars missions have a historically high failure rate. If a robotic probe is lost, it can be rebuilt, but human lives would be lost forever. Robots can exist on the hostile planet, weathering radiation and dust storms better than humans. If astronauts do come back alive, they may face long-term health problems. Human safety cannot be guaranteed, but this did not stop the Apollo mission, or Earth's early explorers. Humans also have the ability to quickly recognize and take steps to avoid dangerous situations. Robots can only react to situations predicted at the time of their design/programming. Publicity *The Challenger and Columbia space shuttle disasters were tragedies and public relations disasters for NASA. A failed human mission to Mars would damage the program's credibility and could mean a loss of funding. We've long dreamed of a human mission to Mars. Apollo was the beginning of making that dream real. The spirit of adventure drives interest in the space program. People may lose interest in a slow and steady exploration of Mars by robots alone. Broad public enthusiasm is important to consistent, long-term funding. Overall *Recent robotic missions have been relatively successful. Robots are capable of doing science in a precise way. Technology continues to improve. *The history of Mars exploration has been leading up to a human mission. Even though it is risky, this will be the greatest adventure of our lifetime.

Zarya

First ISS module. The first on-orbit component, the Zarya control module, provided the attitude control and propulsion for the early assembly operations plus solar power and berthing ports for additional modules. The Zarya control module, also known as the functional cargo block and FGB, was the first component launched for the International Space Station. This module was designed to provide the station's initial propulsion and power. The 42,600-pound pressurized module was launched on a Russian Proton rocket in November 1998 on flight 1a/r . The U.S.-funded and Russian-built Zarya, which means 'sunrise', is considered a U.S. component of the station although it was built and launched by Russia. Only weeks after the Zarya reached orbit, the Space Shuttle Endeavour made a rendezvous and attached a U.S.-built connecting module to it called Node 1 on flight 2a . The Zarya module is 41.2 feet long and 13.5 feet wide at its widest point. It has an operational lifetime of at least 15 years. Its solar arrays and six nickel-cadmium batteries can provide an average of three kilowatts of electrical power. Zvezda Service Module Zarya was launched by a three-stage Proton rocket into a 137 by 211 statute mile orbit. After Zarya reached the initial elliptical orbit and separated from the Proton's third stage, a set of preprogrammed commands automatically activated the module's systems and deployed the solar arrays and communications antennas. The Zarya module provided orientation control, communications and electrical power attached to the passive Node 1 for several months while the station awaited launch of the third component, a Russian-provided crew living quarters and early station core known as the service module or Zvezda. The Zvezda enhanced and replaced many functions of the Zarya. Later in the station's assembly sequence, the Zarya module will be used primarily for its storage capacity and external fuel tanks. The Zvezda service module is the first fully Russian contribution to the International Space Station, and it serves as the early cornerstone for the first human habitation of the station. The module provided the early station living quarters, electrical power distribution and life support, data processing, flight control and propulsion systems. By using the Russian Kurs system, the Zarya performed an automated and remotely piloted rendezvous and docking with Zvezda in orbit. The module's 16 fuel tanks can hold more than six tons of propellant. The attitude control system for the module includes 24 large steering jets and 12 small steering jets. Two large engines are available for reboosting the spacecraft and for making major orbital changes.

FD

Flight Director

FDO

Flight Dynamics Officer/Flight Controller

Schiaparelli

Found Martian Canals

Musgrave

In 1996 he became only the second astronaut to achieve the record of six spaceflights, and he's the most formally educated astronaut with seven academic degrees.

Sagan

In the 1970's, astronomer Carl Sagan suggested covering the polar caps with dark material - such as carbon black from a pulverized asteroid - to a depth of 1 millimeter. Sagan estimated that over 100 million tons (or a 600-meter asteroid) would be necessary to cover the ice caps. This cover would have to be replaced each year due to frequent dust storms. Since this would be a very arduous task, Sagan also proposed using plants that are capable of growing on ice. Did research about Mars and the inhabitable Moon

Chris McKay

In the 1980's, Planetary scientist Chris McKay suggested that we could seed the Martian polar caps with green plants or genetically engineered microbes that extract the liquid water they need from ice. These organisms would be dark and, thus, would absorb more sunlight that would warm up the ice and increase the overall rate of evaporation. If the surface temperature was high enough, more carbon dioxide might be released from the Martian soil, permafrost, and polar ice and would flood the lowlands. This process could take from 100 to 10,000 years

Beginning of NASA

July 29, 1958

David McKay

McKay trained the first men to walk on the Moon in geology. McKay was the first author of a scientific paper postulating past life on Mars on the basis of evidence in Martian meteorite ALH 84001, which had been found in Antarctica.[2] This paper has become one of the most heavily cited papers in planetary science. The NASA Astrobiology Institute was founded partially as a result of community interest in this paper and related topics. He was a native of Titusville, Pennsylvania.[3]

1. The objectives for the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs.

Mercury *Existing technology and off-the-shelf equipment should be used wherever practical. *The simplest and most reliable design would be used. *An existing launch vehicle would be employed to place the spacecraft into orbit. *A progressive and logical test program would be conducted. Genini *Subject two humans and supporting equipment to long-duration flights. *Effect rendezvous and docking with other orbiting vehicles, and to maneuver the docked vehicles in space using the propulsion system of the target vehicle for such maneuvers. *Perfect methods of reentry and landing the spacecraft at a preselected land landing. *Gain additional information concerning the effects of weightlessness on crew members and record the physiological reactions of crew members during long-duration flights. Apollo *Establish the technology required to meet other national interests in space *Achieve preeminence in space for the United States *Carry out a program of scientific exploration of the Moon *Develop the human capability to work in the lunar environment

When ISS was first populated

Nov. 2, 2000

Phobos

Phobos is the larger and inner of the two natural satellites of Mars, the other being Deimos.

REMEMBER

REVIEW ALL MATERIALS!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Alpha Centauri

The Alpha Centauri system is located 1.34 parsecs or 4.37 light years from the Sun, making it the closest star system to our Solar System

3. The Challenger and Columbia tragedies.

The Challenger accident occurred on January 28, 1986. The explosion occurred about 73 seconds after takeoff. It was caused by a faulty O-ring that led to the weakening of the hydrogen tank and the lower strut holding the solid rocket booster. The booster then hit the lower liquid oxygen tank, and an explosion ignited the oxygen and hydrogen. The Orbiter broke into several pieces. The explosion killed all 7 of the crew. The disaster led to more modifications and the redesigning of the solid rocket booster. The Columbia mishap occurred on February 1, 2003. The Columbia orbiter, upon reentry, broke up over north central Texas. All of its seven crew members were lost. Falling foam from the external fuel tank impacted the left wing. This damaged the Thermal Protection System, and the led to the left wing's destruction and the breakup of the Orbiter.

7. Similarities and differences between Mars and Earth

The Earth and Mars both have impact craters on their surface today. However due to Earth's stronger erosion, tectonic, and geological forces, its craters disappear or are erased faster than those of Mars. Mars is also estimated to have more than 43,000 impact craters. Earth, on the other hand, has fewer visible craters. The shield volcanoes on Earth and Mars are fundamentally similar. They also look similar. However, the shield volcanoes on Mars are much larger than those on Earth. Due to the lack of plate tectonics on Mars, its volcanoes were allowed to grow as large as the magma supplies would allow. On Earth, the volcanoes are constantly moving in and out of hot spots. Most volcanoes on Earth only have a few million years of life. In addition, the volcanoes on Mars are much older than the ones on Earth. There is now evidence that the Earth and Mars may both have faults. They believe that Mars may have transcurrent faults. This is evident in the lines of volcanoes and deep canyons that are present on Mars' surface. Earth has all types of fault lines. It is also much more active than Mars. The Earth and Mars also both appear to have river deltas. Mars has what appear to be deltas with flow lines similar to those on Earth. They have a fanned out feature with sediment deposits at the mouth, like the ones on Earth. The deltas also contain sedimentary rock. Today, Mars' deltas are dry, unlike those of Earth. Finally, the Earth and Mars both have drainage basin features. However, the ones on Mars are not as defined as the ones on Earth. The flow of the Martian basins conforms to the surface features of Mars. The ones on Earth shape their surroundings and cut through obstacles. So, the Martian basins seem to be formed by on continuous rainfall but intermediate rainfall.

X-prize

The Google Lunar XPRIZE was introduced on September 13, 2007. The goal of the prize is similar to that of the Ansari XPRIZE, to inspire a new generation of private investment in space exploration and technology. The challenge calls for teams to compete in successfully launching, landing, and operating a rover on the lunar surface. The prize awards $20 million to the first team to land a rover on the moon that successfully roves more than 500 meters and transmits back high definition images and video. There is a $5 million second prize, as well as $5 million in potential bonus prizes for extra features such as roving long distances (greater than 5,000 meters) capturing images of man-made objects on the moon, or surviving a lunar night.

ISS resupply schedule

every 90 days

Lovell

is a former NASA astronaut and a retired captain in the United States Navy, most famous as the commander of the Apollo 13 mission, which suffered a critical failure en route to the Moon but was brought back safely to Earth by the efforts of the crew and mission control. Lovell was also the command module pilot of Apollo 8, the first Apollo mission to enter lunar orbit. Lovell is a recipient of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor and the Presidential Medal of Freedom. He is one of only 24 people to have flown to the Moon, the first of only three people to fly to the Moon twice, and the only one to have flown there twice without making a landing. Lovell was also the first person to fly in space four times.

Young

is a retired American astronaut, naval officer and aviator, test pilot, and aeronautical engineer, who became the ninth person to walk on the Moon as Commander of the Apollo 16 mission in 1972. Young enjoyed the longest career of any astronaut, becoming the first person to make six spaceflights over the course of 42 years of active NASA service,[1] and is the only person to have piloted, and been commander of, four different classes of spacecraft: Gemini, the Apollo Command/Service Module, the Apollo Lunar Module, and the Space Shuttle. In 1965, Young flew on the first manned Gemini mission, and commanded another Gemini mission the next year. In 1969, he became the first person to orbit the Moon alone during Apollo 10. He drove the Lunar Roving Vehicle on the Moon's surface during Apollo 16, and is one of only three people to have flown to the Moon twice. He also commanded two Space Shuttle flights, including its first launch in 1981, and served as Chief of the Astronaut Office from 1974-1987. Young retired from NASA in 2004.

Leonov

is a retired Soviet/Russian cosmonaut and Air Force Major General. On 18 March 1965, he became the first human to conduct extra-vehicular activity (EVA), exiting the capsule during the Voskhod 2 mission for a 12-minute spacewalk.

Dennis Tito

is an American engineer and multimillionaire, most widely known as the first space tourist to fund his own trip into space. In mid-2001, he spent nearly eight days in orbit as a crew member of ISS EP-1, a visiting mission to the International Space Station. This mission was launched by the spacecraft Soyuz TM-32, and was landed by Soyuz TM-31.

perigee

is the closest point to the earth and it is in this stage that the moon appears larger. Looking at the moon in the sky without anything to compare it to, you wouldn't notice any size difference.

Deimos

is the smaller and outer of the two natural satellites of the planet Mars

Soyuz

one of a series of Soviet spacecraft, carrying one, two, or three cosmonauts, who carried out scientific research and developed rendezvous and docking techniques: still used to ferry crews to Soviet space stations.

apogee

the point in the orbit of the moon or a satellite at which it is furthest from the earth.

von Braun

was a German and later American aerospace engineer and space architect, but made his greatest contributions as an aerospace program manager.[1] He was one of the leading figures in the development of rocket technology in Germany and the United States and is considered one of the "Fathers of Rocket Science". Braun worked on the United States Army's intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM) program before his group was assimilated by NASA. Under NASA, he served as director of the newly formed Marshall Space Flight Center and as the chief architect of the Saturn V launch vehicle, the superbooster that propelled the Apollo spacecraft to the Moon.

White

was an American aeronautical engineer, U.S. Air Force officer, test pilot, and NASA astronaut. On June 3, 1965, he became the first American to "walk" in space. White died along with his fellow astronauts Virgil "Gus" Grissom and Roger B. Chaffee during prelaunch testing for the first manned Apollo mission at Cape Canaveral. He was awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Medal for his flight in Gemini 4 and then awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor posthumously.

Armstrong

was an American astronaut and the first person to walk on the Moon.

time to travel to the Moon

~3days