ITS 201 Final Exam

Maghreb

A region in Northwestern Africa that includes portions of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia Western Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco.

General System of Preference

(2001)- Eliminate all tariffs on imports from the poorest 49 economies.

Islam

A religion based on the teachings of the prophet Mohammed which stresses belief in one god (Allah), Paradise and Hell, and a body of law written in the Quran. Followers are called Muslims.

The Anthropological Perspectives

- Comparative - Holistic - Empirical Fieldwork/Participant Observation - Evolutionary - Relativistic- Methodological, theoretical, and philosophical relativism Lacking a bounded subject matter, anthropology is defined instead by a common perspective, a particular way of looking at human activities. Employing this perspective, anthropology can be said to be comparative, holistic, empirical, evolutionary, and relativistic.

Reasons for the failure of development strategies in the Middle East

- Economic inequality exacerbated bc of population growth - Labor Migration across national borders - International debt/fiscal mismanagement - International investment (Partnering w elites

Demographic Issues in the region (Asia)

- High levels of population growth - China more males than females

Culture

- How the flows of symbols across the global landscape, facilitated by transnational migration, new information technologies, and global markets, which can lead to creativity and innovation but also to misunderstanding and conflict. - learned system of meanings through which people orient themselves in the world so that they can act in it. - can be said to be symbolic, shared, learned, and adaptive.

Minorities

- Shiite minorities in countries where they suffer political and economic marginalization, like Saudi Arabia, may well look to the successes of their coreligionists with greater pride and affinity than they feel for their own nations. - Many Middle Eastern countries have sizable Christian minorities. -Sizable minorities exist in many Middle Eastern countries whose primary affiliation is not to the state but to linguistic, religious, ethnic, or tribal fellows who live in other states. These communities can number in the hundreds of thousands or even millions. In some cases, such as that of the Kurds, these communities are spatially coherent. That is, although the Kurds live as minority communities in Iraq, Turkey, Syria, and Iran, the primary area in which they dwell is the land in which Kurds have lived for centuries. From the popular Kurdish perspective, the contemporary borders of these states arbitrarily cut up the Kurdish homeland. It should not be surprising then, that a majority of Kurds in these states support the creation of a new state, Kurdistan, to be carved out of pieces of each of these countries. - Christian Armenian Minorities

Zionism

A policy for establishing and developing a national homeland for Jews in Palestine.

Fascism

A political system headed by a dictator that calls for extreme nationalism and racism and no tolerance of opposition

Major Fields of Political Science

-American Politics -Public Administration -Political Theory -Comparative politics -International relations or international politics

Arab Spring

A revolutionary wave of protests and demonstrations overtaking dictators in the Middle East (2011) - The Syrian Civil War has its roots in a larger protest movement that began in 2011 when people in countries across the Middle East gathered in public places to demand political change.

Tribes (Middle East)

Large groups of people who share a common identity based on an assumption of common ancestry. They are, in a sense, extended families who may number in the tens of thousands.

Philosophical Relativism

A position that claims, in essence, that whatever people do is right for them. Few, if any, anthropologists would claim to adhere wholeheartedly to this philosophy. No one believes infanticide or genocide is okay—only that they are understandable. But because anthropologists do not hurry to judgment about cultural practices that many others may condemn out of hand, they are sometimes accused of taking a position of philosophical relativism.

European Common Market

1957; An organization which reduced tariffs of member countries (six) to intregrate their economies

Ottoman Empire

A Muslim empire based in Turkey that lasted from the 1300's to 1922.

Marshall Plan

A United States program of economic aid for the reconstruction of Europe (1948-1952) , the United States financed a $13 billion aid program called the Marshall Plan (1948-1952) to jump-start the Western European economies.

Fertile Crescent

A geographical area of fertile land in the Middle East stretching in a broad semicircle from the Nile to the Tigris and Euphrates

Jihad

A holy struggle or striving by a Muslim for a moral or spiritual or political goal - which has come to mean "holy war" in many international contexts and especially in international news media. For Muslims, though, jihad is a much more complex concept. The term means "struggle," and Islamic scholars have long distinguished between the greater jihad of one's personal struggle to submit to God's will in the face of worldly temptations, and the lesser jihad of militant struggle against injustice—including, but not limited to, just war.

Camp David Accord

A peace treaty between Israel and Egypt where Egypt agreed to recognize the nation state of Israel

Holistic Perspective

A second important aspect of the anthropological perspective is the capacity to understand human societies as complex systems with many interwoven elements. - Ex. . Indonesian and Western agronomists had introduced new breeds of rice, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and other technologies as part of Asia's green revolution. Many of these techniques had enjoyed enormous success elsewhere in Asia. But in Bali, one of the world's leading rice producers, crop yields actually fell after these techniques were introduced. Lansing was able to demonstrate that these problems were due in part to a failure to understand the complexity of Balinese society. At the peak of the volcanic island is a great crater lake and also the temple of Dewi Danu, the goddess the Balinese say created the island. At particular times during the year, according to detailed ceremonial calendars, priests open canal gates that flood a series of canals—but not all canals. Farming communities are organized around canal gates throughout the island, and the ceremonial calendars govern how irrigation takes place. Because farmers in different parts of the island are engaged in different stages of activity at different times, the cycle not only aids efficient rice production but also works around the life cycles of ducks, eels, and frogs, which consume insects that would otherwise eat the grain and which also form a significant protein source for the Balinese (Lansing 1991).

Scarcity

A situation in which unlimited wants exceed the limited resources available to fulfill those wants

Neoliberalism

A strategy for economic development that calls for free markets, balanced budgets, privatization, free trade, and minimal government intervention in the economy.

Nationalism

A strong feeling of pride in and devotion to one's country

Subsidies

A sum of money granted by the government or a public body to assist an industry or business so that the price of a commodity or service may remain low or competitive.

Collective Security

A system in which a group of nations acts as one to preserve the peace of all

Functions of Theories

A theory of international politics performs two crucial yet distinct functions. First, a theory provides the concepts necessary to understand the phenomena in question. That is, a theory gives us the tools we need to examine, explain, and critically evaluate global events. Second, a theory explains global political outcomes. As social scientists, scholars of international politics seek out variables—such as events, behaviors, trends—that can account for outcomes—such as war, peace, levels of defense spending, and foreign-policy actions. In social science language, we call "the explainers" independent variables and "the explained" dependent variables. For example, a theory might posit that income inequity (independent variable) explains the outbreak of civil war (dependent variable). In the recent civil war in Syria, the political power of an Alawite religious minority and a poorly performing economy could be the independent variables. Another way to think of independent and dependent variables is as causes and effects. Some theorists might argue that the huge U.S. federal debt in the 2010s will constrain the country from intervention into foreign conflicts. A theory of international politics, then, creates a framework of independent variables to explain a series of outcomes, or dependent variables, that we call world politics. Some theories take on a third function: prescription, or policy advocacy. Whereas all political scientists agree that a theory must perform the analytical role described above (concepts and explanation), they disagree on the role of prescription. A prescriptive theory goes beyond explanation and offers solutions to world problems. Some political scientists believe that engaging in policy prescription clouds researchers' judgment in their fundamental task of explaining global events. Others argue that in a world of violence, injustice, and poverty, analysis without advocacy makes no sense. Why, they argue, would scholars spend years researching the causes of war, only to remove themselves from the debate over how to implement foreign policy?

Worldview

A worldview is a model of reality that people use to orient themselves in the world. A worldview usually consists of fundamental principles and values that organize and generate cultural logics. These may include such propositions as the following: • The world is made up of individuals who make choices. • Most people's lives are shaped by circumstances beyond their control. • There are supernatural beings who may answer my prayers or petitions. • Everything in the universe can be explained by material operations in the universe. • All living things have souls.

Geography of the Middle East

About 1,200 miles from north to south and 1300 miles from east to west. Little land that supports agriculture. Most of land is desert. Geographically, the Middle East is often conceived as a hodgepodge, an arbitrary and shifting blend of western Asia, North Africa, and parts of South and Central Asia. But the cultural, economic, and geopolitical importance of the region throughout history requires that the Middle East be considered a distinct center of global significance.

Nazism

Adolf Hitler used fascism to create this type of government based on totalitarian ideas and was used to unite Germany during the 1930s.

Languages (Middle East)

Afghan, Arabic, Aramaic, Armenian, Assyrian, Baluchi, Bari, Berber, Circassian, Coptic, English, Farsi, French, Greek, Hebrew, Hindi, Italian, Kurdish, Nubian, Pashtu, Russian, Turkic, Turkish, Turkmen, and Urdu. Some of these, like Arabic, Farsi, and Berber,

Neocolonialism

Also called economic imperialism, this is the domination of newly independent countries by foreign business interests that causes colonial-style economies to continue, which often caused monoculture (a country only producing one main export like sugar, oil, etc).

State and Nation

Americans use the terms nation and state interchangeably, but political scientists make a distinction. The state is a political entity, encompassing the basic institutions of government such as an executive and a system of administration. The nation is a group of people who identify with others on the basis of a shared (often imagined) history, a common language, a religious community, and a historic territory. An ethnic group is synonymous with the cultural definition of a nation, but an ethnic group is usually seen as a minority within an established state.

Warsaw Pact

An alliance between the Soviet Union and other Eastern European nations. This was in response to the NATO

Theoretical Relativism

An assumption, much tested and held by most anthropologists, that all human actions make rational sense when understood in their own contexts.

Nation

An imagined group of people

European Union

An international organization of European countries formed after World War II to reduce trade barriers and increase cooperation among its members.

Empirical Perspective

Anthropology is therefore an empirical science whose data are derived from direct observation and data collection by anthropologists living with the people they study. Anthropologists call what they do fieldwork, a term that may include a wide variety of methods, including interviewing, mapping, taking censuses, charting genealogies, and collecting stories and media produced by the people they are studying. For the most part, these methods are encompassed within the broader anthropological method they call participant observation. Participant observation refers to long-term engagements with a host community in which the anthropologist enters into the everyday life of the community, insofar as the hosts in that community permit.

Evolutionary Perspective

Arguing that all cultures continuously evolve by adapting to change—that they are in evolution—is not an argument for "survival of the fittest" thinking. Many times, a society changes to meet urgent pressures of war, famine, plague, or sudden economic change in ways that are not viable over the long term or that lead to other urgent crises down the road. As culture change recedes into history, it becomes possible for scholars to make judgments about how communities benefited from or were harmed by their particular adaptations and why their adaptations took the form they did.

Challenges for the Middle East and North Africa in the 21st Century

At the dawn of the twenty-first century, all of the countries of the Middle East and North Africa face similar challenges: rapid population growth, unequal distribution of resources, economic distortions caused by the enormous flow of oil revenues into the region, international debt, poor economic management by a relatively small elite, conflicts between community identities and nation building, and often unwelcome political attention from powerful states outside the region. People survive these conditions as best they can, often relying on informal social and economic networks to get by. Such informal economies can include everything from barter to street vending to private loans to smuggling and black market activities. The International Labor Organization has estimated that the informal economies in Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and Egypt may exceed 4 percent of these countries' total economic activity (ILO 2002). But while they may help many people get by, informal economic activities do little to solve larger economic issues and often exacerbate them. Most people are desperate for more permanent solutions to these problems.

Carrying Capacity

Largest number of individuals of a population that a environment can support

Comparative Perspective

Because all people tend to assume their ways of life are natural, the only way one can study culture is through a comparison of cultural systems that shakes up this sense of normalcy, showing that what we assumed was natural and essential is actually cultural and historically contingent. Anthropology is therefore deeply concerned with understanding the similarities and differences among cultural systems.

Religions in the region

Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, Daoism, and philosophies such as Confucianism. Southeast Asia has Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity, and Northeast Asia has Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism, Shinto, and Christianity

Religions in Europe

Catholic, Islam, Christian (Protestant/Orthodox) Jewish

Geography of East Asia and Pacific

Check Map and The Pacific countries include several components. Australia and New Zealand have some characteristics in common, given that the majority of the populations have European ancestry. Melanesia includes the countries of Papua New Guinea, Solomons, Vanuatu, Fiji, and the French territory of New Caledonia. Micronesia includes the countries of Nauru, Marshalls, Kiribati, Federated States of Micronesia, and the U.S. territories of Guam and the Northern Marianas. Polynesia includes the countries of Tonga and Samoa, French Polynesia and the U.S. territory of American Samoa, and the state of Hawaii (McKnight 1995). There are many landform contrasts in the Pacific. Australia is mostly plateaus and lowland. New Zealand has more rugged terrain with mountains and fjords. Some Pacific Islands are high islands built by volcanoes such as in Hawaii, Samoa, Tonga, New Zealand, or New Guinea. Other Pacific Islands are low islands, atolls built up by coral such as Tuvalu, Kiribati, and the Marshalls. One significant environmental issue affecting the region is global climate change. Many of the low-lying islands, particularly Tuvalu, Kiribati, and the Marshalls, are vulnerable to sea-level rise. In terms of climate, while Australia has vast tracts of desert, its coastal areas are mostly humid. New Zealand has a humid, subtropical climate. Most of the Pacific Islands have a tropical, rainy climate. High islands get more rainfall, while low islands get less rainfall. Hazards of the natural environment include earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, and hurricanes. The western edge of the Pacific is part of the Ring of Fire, where tectonic plates collide off the coast of Japan, the Philippines, and Indonesia. The Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 affected Thailand and Indonesia. A major earthquake damaged China in 2008; earthquakes also hit New Zealand in 2010-2012. A major earthquake and tsunami hit Japan in 2011, resulting in a nuclear disaster in Fukushima. Hurricane Haiyan devastated the Philippines in 2013. Asia Pacific countries have to deal with these damaging natural hazards. Northeast Asia encompasses China, Japan, Taiwan, and North and South Korea. There are some cultural similarities here, including Mahayana Buddhism and Confucian philosophy. The languages are less interrelated, and the ethnic groups are distinct in terms of history and political identities. China and Japan are both powerful economic and political forces in the world, but with quite distinct economic and political systems. Geographically, the Koreas have acted as a bridge between China and Japan. Western China is mostly either mountains or deserts; eastern China is mostly plains, basins, and hills. A spine of mountains and hills follows the eastern segment of the Korean peninsula. South Korea has more plains than North Korea. Japan is mostly mountainous. In terms of climate, Western China is either highland or dry, eastern China is mostly humid. Northern China is colder than southern China. The Koreas and Japan have a humid climate; North Korea and northern Japan have a colder climate. In terms of population, while China is the most populous country in the world, 90 percent of the settlement is in the eastern half of the country. South Korea, Japan, and eastern China are densely settled. The identities of these countries are tied up with their relative location; China has a continental influence, the Koreas are peninsular, while Japan has an island influence (Fairbank et al. 1989; Reischauer and Jansen 1995, Karan 2005). Southeast Asia includes the mainland countries of Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, the peninsular countries of Malaysia and Singapore, and the island countries of Indonesia, the Philippines, Brunei, and East Timor. This region is a crossroads of influences from China and India. Islam came from South Asia to Malaysia and Indonesia in particular. Buddhism came from South Asia to Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, and Vietnam. Many Chinese settled in Malaysia and Singapore, as well as Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, and the Philippines. The highland areas of Southeast Asia in Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam and Thailand proceed down to the plains and valleys of the major river systems of the Mekong, Chao Praya, Irawaddy, and Salween. Many of the islands of Southeast Asia have uplands with volcanoes. Overall, Southeast Asia has mostly tropical wet climates, quite warm year round. The mainland is mostly tropical savanna, while northern Vietnam and northern Laos have a humid, subtropical climate, like southern China. In contrast to Northeast Asia, Southeast Asia is more sparsely settled, particularly in the upland areas. Coastal areas and river deltas are densely settled. The densest settlement occurs on the island of Java in Indonesia because of the island's fertile soil. Indonesia is the fourth most populous country in the world.

Most populous countries in the region

China and Indonesia

Development of China

China has a different economic situation, in that the economy was totally controlled by the state until the 1980s, and the bulk of the population was in agriculture, with industrial activity focused on heavy industry. With the economic reforms since the 1980s, the state has encouraged a new-style economy with extensive planning, combined with a market economy. This mixed-market economy has maintained high economic growth focusing on light industry. Labor is still relatively inexpensive, so China has been able to produce many consumer goods for export. Overall, the transition from agriculture to industry to services resembles the pattern established in Japan and South Korea, although state planning is still well entrenched in China.

Proto-states

Communities with a historical claim to land currently under the sovereignty of one or more states (Communities like Kurds)

The Pacific Region

Countries include several components. Australia and New Zealand have some characteristics in common, given that the majority of the populations have European ancestry. Melanesia includes the countries of Papua New Guinea, Solomons, Vanuatu, Fiji, and the French territory of New Caledonia. Micronesia includes the countries of Nauru, Marshalls, Kiribati, Federated States of Micronesia, and the U.S. territories of Guam and the Northern Marianas. Polynesia includes the countries of Tonga and Samoa, French Polynesia and the U.S. territory of American Samoa, and the state of Hawaii (McKnight 1995).

Levels of Culture

Cultural difference is expressed largely through overt behaviors such as dress and idiomatic phrases. One way to resolve this discrepancy between overt behaviors and underlying meanings is to imagine culture as existing at three levels: (1) a level of everyday practices, (2) an underlying level of reasons and logical explanations for those practices, and (3) a level of underlying assumptions about how the world works that are usually taken for granted. All of these combine to make up the common sense by which we deal with everyday life. Cultural Practices Cultural Logics Worldview

Culture is shared

Culture, then, involves shared understandings of symbols and their meanings that allow us to communicate, to cooperate, and to predict and understand one another's actions. - Generation of similarity: involves those institutions and processes that teach and reinforce common beliefs, values, orientations, and models for action among members of a community - Organization of difference: Function of social institutions and processes to regulate behavior and reward or punish deviance. - most political and social organizations with the power to regulate behavior and reward or punish behaviors, from schools and police to tribal institutions.

Production States

Derive the bulk of their revenues from the labor of their citizens in agriculture, herding, manufacturing, or trade

Basque's ETA

ETA in the Basque region of Spain used terrorism in its attempt for independence Basque terror group Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) sought independence of the northern Basque region from Spain.

Structural adjustment Programs

Economic policies that encourage international trade - imposed on recipient countries to make them abandon nonmarket practices like food subsidies often led to riots and increasingly desperate living conditions among the poor.

Marxism

Emerged as the most famous socialist belief system during the 19th century. Saw all of history as the story of class struggle.

Kurds

Ethnic group that lives in parts of Iraq and Turkey. They often suffer persecution in both countries, and are currently under the protection of the United Nations in Iraq.

Why is Europe so Important?

Europe has a long history of human development and is considered the birthplace of Western Civilization. Today, this cultural wealth is used to solidify the European Community and is exported to the rest of the world as one of the continent's greatest global assets.

Colonialism in the region

European colonialism was very strong in Southeast Asia but less so in Northeast Asia. The Dutch secured Indonesia, the French colonized Indochina, the British colonized Malaya, and the Spanish captured the Philippines. All of the European powers gained some territorial control in China. Japan and Thailand alone escaped colonial control. At first the United States did not have a specific territory but rather sought influence and trade in many areas, but by 1898 the United States took over the Philippines from Spain (Borthwick 2014). Resistance to European colonialism took the form of nationalism in the 1900s. Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam, Sukarno in Indonesia, and Mao Zedong in China were all national leaders regardless of their political philosophies. By 1949, India and Indonesia were free from colonial rule, and after a brutal civil war, China became a communist state. France began to withdraw from Vietnam in 1954. Fearing communist takeover of the whole country, the United States defended South Vietnam from the early sixties to 1973. Two years later, the country fell to Ho Chi Minh's communist regime.

Language Groups in Europe

Germanic, Romance, Slavic . The major Indo-European languages fall into three major groups: Germanic (English, German, and the Scandinavian languages); Romance (Spanish, French, Italian, and Romanian); and Slavic (Russian, Ukrainian, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Serbian, Slovene, Croat, Bulgarian, and Macedonian).

Natural environmental Disasters that affect the region

Hazards of the natural environment include earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, and hurricanes. The western edge of the Pacific is part of the Ring of Fire, where tectonic plates collide off the coast of Japan, the Philippines, and Indonesia. The Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 affected Thailand and Indonesia. A major earthquake damaged China in 2008; earthquakes also hit New Zealand in 2010-2012. A major earthquake and tsunami hit Japan in 2011, resulting in a nuclear disaster in Fukushima. Hurricane Haiyan devastated the Philippines in 2013. Asia Pacific countries have to deal with these damaging natural hazards.

Culture is symbolic

Humans live in a physical world, and they understand and manipulate that world through symbols. Everything humans produce has a symbolic aspect—from words to gestures to clothes to housing to complex technologies. A symbol is something that stands for something else to someone in some respect. - When we define a symbol as a signifier standing for a referent to someone in some respect, we are drawing attention to special features possessed by symbolic systems.

Democratic Peace Theory

Idea that democracies tend not to fight wars against one another and that the spread of democratic government can be the antidote to war in the international system - liberal democracies do not war against each other. True liberal democracies have only existed in the last century or so, and not one has initiated a war against another. Although liberal democracies such as Great Britain and the United States have gone to war with undemocratic states, war is most likely between two undemocratic states. If democratic peace theory holds true, it follows that a world full of democracies would be more peaceful than its alternative. Hence, the existence of democracy would be a boon not only for a domestic population enjoying the benefits of choosing its leaders but also for the greater global environment.

Generation of similarity

Involves those institutions and processes that teach and reinforce common beliefs, values, orientations, and models for action among members of a community

Declaration of Independence by Israel

Israel declared its existence and independence. The following day, military forces from Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Transjordan, and Iraq attacked the new state. In the face of this external threat, internal divisions within the Israeli independence movement vanished. Arab forces, on the other hand, were hampered by just the opposite problem: states failed to commit promised troop levels, and troops resisted following orders from commanders of other Arab states. Israel defeated the Arab armies, and an armistice was signed in 1949 (Goldschmidt and Davidson 2005). Almost simultaneously, Jordan seized a large tract of land west of the Jordan River reaching to East Jerusalem, which became known as the West Bank territory.

Keiretsu

Japanese business groups after the post-WWII dismantling of the zaibatsu. They are Alliances of corporations each often centered around a bank. They dominate the post-WWII Japanese economy. - In Japan, the government bureaucracy works in tandem with integrated corporations (keiretsu) to build the economy.

Religions (Middle East)

Judaism, Christianity, and Islam to Bahai, Druze, and Zoroastrianism

Al-Queda and Osama bin Laden

Link between 9/11 and Afghanistan Al Qaeda is an international terrorist network formed by members of the mujahideen, originally guerrilla resistance fighters against the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan in the 1980s. The group was initially financed by its late leader, Osama bin Laden, who was a member of a wealthy Saudi family. Bin Laden's goals were to rid Arab lands of foreign armies, free the Muslim world from pervasive Western influence, and erect Islamic fundamentalist regimes. The September 11 terrorist attacks in the United States, and the train and bus bombings in Spain and the United Kingdom in 2004 and 2005, heightened fears of Islamic fundamentalism. Since then, the Islamic State (IS) in northern Syria and Iraq has further encouraged domestic terror in Europe, and in November 2015 attackers killed 130 people in Paris, and in March 2016 thirty-two more died in an attack in Brussels. The terror threat has contributed to the rise of anti-immigrant nationalist parties in Europe.

NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organization; an alliance made to defend one another if they were attacked by any other country; US, England, France, Canada, Western European countries

European Coal and Steel Community

Organized by Jean Monnet (1888-1979) it called for an integration of the coal and steel industries of France and West Germany. It finally added Italy and the Benelux states

Embodiment

Our deepest cultural learning often shapes our bodies and unconscious behaviors: how we speak, how we move, how we eat, how close we are comfortable standing to people. - An example of embodiment is accent. As we learn the language of our community, we train our whole vocal apparatus to easily and automatically produce a certain range of sounds.

Maps

Precolonial maps drawn by Arab and Persian cartographers rarely show borders or boundaries; instead, they mapped centers—seats of power and spheres of influence. The idea of culturally distinct peoples inhabiting geographically exclusive space did not become widespread in the region until the colonial rulers brought it in.

Realism

Realism is also referred to as realpolitik Realism as an international theory is quite distinct from realism in everyday English parlance. People who say they are "realists" usually mean that they are cynical, or at least pragmatic, about their expectations of human behavior. Do not confuse this definition of realism with its use as a theory of international politics. Although the two uses share some very general meanings, realism as a theory connotes very specific concepts, assumptions, and expected global political outcomes Human nature is self-interested and power hungry. • The primary entity in world politics is the state. States act as an extension of humans and therefore are also self-interested and power hungry. • States behave as rational actors. They pursue their interests within the limits of their own resources and abilities. • States' goals are national interests defined as power. • Power is expressed in political, economic, and military might. Of these, military power is the most important in world politics. Economic development is a means to create military might. • States operate in a world of anarchy, defined as the absence of a global government. • In an anarchical world system, states operate in a self-help system, looking out for their own interests alone. • States pursue alliances to the extent that they provide defense and power enhancement.

Marxism

Refers to a range of systems of economic analysis based on the notion that the value of goods and services stems not from supply and demand in a market but from the human labor, both physical and mental, required to produce it. This means that when markets set the prices of goods lower than the cost of the labor required to produce them, they may become a means of exploiting people.

Common sense

Set of unstated assumptions we share with others in our community that we can most rely on in making sense of the world around us. It is what we accept to be true without questioning or analyzing it.

Newly Industrialized Nations (NICs)

South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore play a strong role in the Asian economy

Protectionist policies

Tariffs/Subsidies such as tariffs on imported goods, creating subsidies to protect businesses from risks, and imposing import quotas to prevent other nations from dumping cheap products on national markets. Protectionist policies were imposed to limit other nations' competitive advantages, because it was believed that one nation's advantage required another nation's loss. This zero-sum approach to economics was the dominant political-economic paradigm during the emergence of the nation-state in Europe between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries. Historically, protectionist policies gave industry time to develop their production systems and accumulate capital until they could compete in the international marketplace.

Tariffs

Taxes on imported goods

British Mandate of Palestine

Term for area of land that became British territory after their victory at the end of WW1.

Differences and similarities between US and the EU

The United States has always pushed the EU for lower tariffs and freer trade in general. European Union tariffs on industrial imports average 4 percent, while U.S. tariffs average 3 percent (ABC Doha 2011). In 2007 the U.S. trade representative asked Europe to eliminate all tariffs of 5 percent or less. The EU balked, but tariffs on the goods exchanged between the United States and the EU still average under 3 percent, and trade disputes amount to less than 2 percent of their trade volume. The United States and the EU have maintained a close trading relationship. The United States takes in the most EU exports, while the United States ranks second in EU imports. The EU and the United States have tangled over subsidies for major industries and agriculture, and taxes and environmental issues. For years, the United States has accused the EU of giving Airbus, the joint European aircraft manufacturer, illegal debt relief and research-and-development monies. In 2011, the WTO ordered the EU to end the illegal subsidies to Airbus, but the practice continued. The United States charged that the subsidies continued, and in 2016 the WTO ruled in favor of Washington (Washington Post, September 23, 2016). The EU has countered that U.S.-based Boeing receives indirect government subsidies through U.S. military contracts. The EU has also brought suit against U.S. tariffs on some European information technology imports. The WTO is adjudicating these disputes. The environmentally conscious EU states have banned meat products from hormone-injected livestock and refuse to accept U.S. genetically modified foods (WTO 2011). In 2016, a new free trade agreement, the Transatlantic Trade Investment Partnership, foundered because of increased anti-trade and anti-immigrant sentiments among disaffected Americans and Europeans. European and American values have diverged on social issues as well. The EU has banned the death penalty, considering it a barbaric act for the state to put a prisoner to death. Donald Trump's election as U.S. president in 2016 gave most Europeans pause, suggesting that nationalism and xenophobia have become mainstream in U.S. politics. Europeans are also highly critical of the role money plays in the U.S. political system and the electoral power of right-wing Christian fundamentalists. Organized religion plays little role in mainstream Western European politics. About a third of West Europeans go to church once a month. That number is even lower in Britain. Polls vary, but at least a third of Americans go to a religious service every week. Although former President Barack Obama's Affordable Care Act enabled millions of Americans to get health insurance, Europeans wonder about the lack of a universal healthcare system in the United States and the exorbitant cost of higher education, which seems to favor wealthier Americans. Some Europeans also decry the global influence of what they consider to be American lowbrow culture, from the Big Mac to Hollywood action films. Europeans as a whole are much more environmentally conscious than Americans. Green parties are a strong political force in several EU countries. Europeans willingly support subsidies for environmentally friendly mass-transportation systems, and they are critical of Americans' gasguzzling autos. Europe is responsible for approximately 25 percent of the world's carbon dioxide emissions. The United States has a smaller population but also produces about 25 percent of global carbon dioxide emissions. In March 2007, the EU agreed to cut its greenhouse gas emissions by 20 percent (compared with 1990 levels) by 2020. If non-EU states agreed to reduce emissions significantly, the EU promised to make cuts of up to 20 percent ("Europe to Cut" 2007). Chinese and United States indifference to climate change makes that target unlikely. Nonetheless, Europe is on the front line of the effort to stop global warming. Despite these controversies, the Atlantic partnership is still strong, cemented by NATO, the G-7, and many other multilateral institutions. Europe and the United States play a dominant role in world affairs. The United States and EU countries have some of the world's largest economies and the biggest and most sophisticated militaries. Western ideas still dominate the global debates on modern political and economic development.

Comparative Advantage

The ability to produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than another producer

Formal Learning

The acquisition of cultural knowledge that takes place within institutions specifically designed for this purpose, such as schools, apprenticeships, and on-the-job training. Each society has institutions that exist primarily to pass on to children specific knowledge and skills needed as adult members of that society.

Idealism/liberalism

The body of theory known as liberalism today went by the term idealism for most of the twentieth century. Idealist theory is rooted in the more general liberal tradition, which holds that humans are moral beings, that they have free agency, and that public institutions moderate their behavior. The crucial tenets of liberalism in international politics (adapted from Kegley and Wittkopf [2004, 70-71]) include: • Humans have a capacity for good. • Selfish and violent behaviors come not from human nature but from institutions that promote such behavior. • The primary public institution leading to war is the state, because it promotes nationalism and selfishness over global welfare. • Multilateral action and institutions help to prevent war.

Borders

The borders of most contemporary Middle Eastern states, including Iraq, are still those established by European governments more than half a century ago. With the fall of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I, the colonial powers of Europe divided up the Middle East and established arbitrary borders where none had previously existed. The European concern with borders exhibits a different concept of space and power than that historically held by Middle Eastern geographers. Precolonial maps drawn by Arab and Persian cartographers rarely show borders or boundaries; instead, they mapped centers—seats of power and spheres of influence. The idea of culturally distinct peoples inhabiting geographically exclusive space did not become widespread in the region until the colonial rulers brought it in.

Anthropology

The empirical study of what it means to be human

The Problem of Palestine

The establishment of the state of Israel is known to Palestinian Arabs as the nakba, or catastrophe, because it left the majority of them without a homeland. During the war, more than half a million Palestinian Arabs—Muslim and Christian—fled Palestine for neighboring Arab countries. Others were expelled from their homes in the early days of independence. In 1948, there were approximately 150,000 Arab Israelis, 400,000 Arabs who had become "Jordanians" through the seizure of the West Bank, and some 550,000 to 800,000 refugees. Israel refused to allow the refugees to return, claiming that they had fled under orders from the Arab high command and so abandoned any claim to Israeli citizenship.2 Arab countries responded by expelling Jews from their own countries. These Jews were welcomed by Israel, and today only a few Jewish communities exist in most other Middle Eastern states.3

Intercultural Relations

The flows of symbols across the global landscape, facilitated by transnational migration, new information technologies, and global markets, which can lead to creativity and innovation but also to misunderstanding and conflict.

Qur'an

The holy book of Islam - The written record of Muhammad's revelation

Informal Learning

The learning we engage in simply by watching, listening, and participating in everyday activities. Consider how you learned to speak, your taste in clothes, or your eating habits.

Economic development of the region

The most common type of Asian economic growth has been export-led. Most Asian economies are capitalist-market-focused economies. Japan is a good example of an economy that conforms to market pressures, and it is the most developed country in Asia (see Figure 8.7). The focus of Japan and South Korea has been big business; large corporations and most people have benefited from that development. Just as Japan and Indonesia have varieties of democracy, they also have varieties of capitalism. A contrasting example is that of China, which has a mixed-market economy, though with elements of a state-run sector. In East Asia, the general model for economic growth has been one in which the state is heavily involved in setting goals and aims for the economy (very different from the U.S. version of capitalism). In Japan, the government bureaucracy works in tandem with integrated corporations (keiretsu) to build the economy. South Korea has modeled itself on the Japanese system with large industrial conglomerates (chaebol). In both cases, the countries have moved from exporting consumer products to heavy industry and then to high-tech goods and services. Both Japan and South Korea have built industrialized, urbanized economies (Borthwick 2014). China has a different economic situation, in that the economy was totally controlled by the state until the 1980s, and the bulk of the population was in agriculture, with industrial activity focused on heavy industry. With the economic reforms since the 1980s, the state has encouraged a new-style economy with extensive planning, combined with a market economy. This mixed-market economy has maintained high economic growth focusing on light industry. Labor is still relatively inexpensive, so China has been able to produce many consumer goods for export. Overall, the transition from agriculture to industry to services resembles the pattern established in Japan and South Korea, although state planning is still well entrenched in China.

Labor migration (Middle East)

The movement of people from one country to another for employment (Oil Rich countries)

Political Tensions in area (Asia)

The political tensions in Asia reveal twin tendencies: authoritarianism and government that concerns itself with the aspirations of the people. In the modern world, this tension is between dictatorship and democracy. Asia has both, but the rising tide is toward democratic systems In Southeast Asia, current political tensions are strongly related to the colonial past. Thailand and the Philippines have liberal democratic political structures. Thailand is a constitutional monarchy, but the military overthrew the prime minister in 2014. The long-reigning Thai king passed away in 2016, and the crown prince succeeded to the throne.

Enculturation

The processes by which members of a society pass on culture to new generations

Shi'a

The rapid expansion of Islam as both a faith and an empire brought vast wealth to the caliphs. Factionalism began to divide the Muslim community. A dispute in the seventh century over the succession to the caliphate led to a division of the Muslim community into Shia (or Shiites), who followed the biological descendants of the prophet (whom they called imams), and the majority Sunni, who accepted the authority of the historical caliphs. The former, who have probably never numbered more than one-fifth of the world's Muslims, settled largely in what are today Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, and India.

Sunni

The rapid expansion of Islam as both a faith and an empire brought vast wealth to the caliphs. Factionalism began to divide the Muslim community. A dispute in the seventh century over the succession to the caliphate led to a division of the Muslim community into Shia (or Shiites), who followed the biological descendants of the prophet (whom they called imams), and the majority Sunni, who accepted the authority of the historical caliphs. The former, who have probably never numbered more than one-fifth of the world's Muslims, settled largely in what are today Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, and India.

Economics

The social science that studies, describes, models, and makes projections about the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

Shari'a Law

The system of Islamic law, based on varying degrees of interpretation of the Qu'ran Western journalists often write of sharia law as if the code of law derived from the Quran and hadith were a coherent body of rules all Muslims agreed on. But it is not. Laws must be interpreted, and within orthodox Islam, there are a number of accepted schools of legal interpretation, which can differ in the ways they address everyday behavior.

Mercantilism

Theory of political economy that holds that the economic well-being of a nation is directly related to its control over the global volume of capital. In early forms of mercantilism, the volume of global trade was seen as constant and unchanging, and it was calculated in known values of precious metals held by the state.

Mustafa Kemal Ataturk

Turkish nationalist leader who became the first president of modern Turkey in the 1920's and set about to modernize and Westernize Turkey, including making it more secular

Partioning (of Palestine)

UN commission had recommended a patchwork partitioning of the country into seven interlocked sections, three controlled by Jews, three by Muslim Arabs, and one (which included Jerusalem and Bethlehem) by the United Nations. On May 14, 1948, the day set for the British mandate to expire, Israel declared its existence and independence. The following day, military forces from Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Transjordan, and Iraq attacked the new state. In the face of this external threat, internal divisions within the Israeli independence movement vanished. Arab forces, on the other hand, were hampered by just the opposite problem: states failed to commit promised troop levels, and troops resisted following orders from commanders of other Arab states. Israel defeated the Arab armies, and an armistice was signed in 1949 (Goldschmidt and Davidson 2005). Almost simultaneously, Jordan seized a large tract of land west of the Jordan River reaching to East Jerusalem, which became known as the West Bank territory.

Opportunity Cost

Whatever must be given up to obtain some item - Trade-offs are therefore an inherent aspect of economic decision making and part of the decision to meet one set of desires requires not meeting another set of desires. Imagine a young woman choosing between a party dress and a new softball bat. She can afford only one. Her choice involves both objective costs (the price of the party dress or the bat) and the subjective value of being well dressed and of improved athletic performance. Once she chooses to buy one rather than the other, there is also the cost of the desire that is not met; buying the dress comes at the cost of forgoing the bat, and vice versa

Cultural Misunderstandings

When people who operate under different common senses interact

Fatah

a Palestinian political and military organization founded by Yasser Arafat in 1958 to work toward the creation of a Palestinian state

Balfour Decleration

a decleration from the British that said that they would find the Jewish people a homeland

Hegemons

a global or regional leader whose leadership is recognized by members of the group can be organized in multipolar, bipolar, or unipolar systems. Although hegemony is contested and won through war, realists argue that hegemonic systems bring about decades of coexistence without outright war between the major powers. Perhaps their best example is the twentieth century's Cold War. This supposedly bipolar system dominated by the United States, and the Soviet Union saw enormous spending on armaments, including nuclear weapons

State

a governing political structure

Oslo Accord

a plan signed by Yitzhak Rabin, that gave Palestinians in Gaza and the West Bank limited self-rule.

Arkaan

a set of practices sometimes called the Five Pillars of Islam, which shape people's minds and bodies into those of good Muslims

Chaebol

a very large South Korean business conglomerate that is composed of numerous smaller companies - South Korea has modeled itself on the Japanese system with large industrial conglomerates (chaebol). In both cases, the countries have moved from exporting consumer products to heavy industry and then to high-tech goods and services. Both Japan and South Korea have built industrialized, urbanized economies (Borthwick 2014).

Challenges to European Union

a. balancing national interests and common goal b. loss of national sovereignty and control c. ethnocentric attitudes(identity) d. different languages e. different economic structure/conditions *in 2008 suffered major set beck in attempt to have a more politically integrated unit since Ireland refused to ratify the Treaty of Lisbon Brexit

Good Friday Agreement

an agreement to end the conflict in Northern Ireland signed in 1998 by Protestants and Catholics

Economic Nationalism

an emphasis on domestic control and protection of the economy -refers to policies that are guided by the protection of national labor, production, and wealth accumulation.

Development "From Below"

approaches, with a further consideration of the cultural dimension, have added to the wholeness of development. "Culture, not economics, technology, or politics, is the primordial dimension in development"

Wallerstein and Frank's theory (dependency theory)

argued that both capitalist and Marxist economic theories were inappropriate for modeling economic development in the Third World because they were derived from Western European historical experiences. A similar perspective informed the pan-Arab movement in the 1960s and 1970s. Another critic, Arturo Escobar (1995) has laid the failures of development of many nations in the Third World at the feet of Western economic powers, arguing that development projects and economic policies based on growth-oriented, capitalist economic models that are successful with European and North American economies often fail when applied to societies that operate according to different cultural logics.

Salifis

believe the Quran must be interpreted only in terms of the collected sayings of Muhammad and the first three generations of Muslims

Hegemonic System

bring about decades of coexistence without outright war between the major powers.

Ecological Economies

civilizations cannot overcome environmental limitations - Convinced that existing forms of economic organization were incapable of guaranteeing sustainable production or healthy ecological systems, these economists sought to include a reasonable method of explicating the value of such things as clean water, vibrant environmental systems, and future resource needs.

Hadith

collected accounts of sayings and actions of the prophet and his companions

Complex Independence

conceives of a world in which multiple types of actors engage in much more cooperative behavior than in conflict. They develop institutions, rules, and practices aimed at enhancing that cooperation because they all benefit from it. If this theory is valid, there is no reason to heed the warning of some realists of a coming conflict between the United States and China, because the two powers are connected in so many economic, political, and cultural ways. Liberals are less threatened by the rise of China.

Microeconomics

concerned with studying specific market systems on a small scale, such as the economic behavior of individuals, firms, and industries, to understand the relative prices of goods and services and the alternative uses to which resources can be put in a particular market system. Microeconomics assumes that there is a host of buyers and sellers in the market, none of whom can effectively control the price structure in the market. Real-market transactions, of course, do include individuals or groups who can influence prices, and this complicates microeconomic analysis. For example, the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and the chaotic political climate in many oil-producing countries such as Nigeria and Iraq clearly influences the supply and cost of petroleum products. The environmental costs of using these products are increasing as well. Sophisticated models in microeconomic analysis are used to formulate business policies for a firm or industry in the context of these politically, environmentally, and economically complex marketing environments.

Macroeconomics

concerned with the study of the combined performance of all markets in a defined market system. Macroeconomics may have nation-states or global regions as its unit of analysis, and aggregate information about a nation's economy is gathered.

Politics

concerns human interactions that involve both power and conflict.

Southeast Asia

includes the mainland countries of Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, the peninsular countries of Malaysia and Singapore, and the island countries of Indonesia, the Philippines, Brunei, and East Timor.

What is the role this region (Asia) in the world

conomic networks link countries and businesses. Japanese firms such as Toyota, Sanyo, and Nissan, and Korean firms such as Hyundai, Samsung, LG, and Kia, are recognizable to Western ears. Large Chinese firms such as Lenovo, Haier, and Alibaba, and Taiwanese firms such as Acer, Giant, and Tingyi are also moving onto the market. Products range from electronic goods, software, IT, automobiles, and bicycles to noodles. Asian firms have markets globally, including China's push to Africa as well as Latin America. Global transnational corporations are also heavily invested in East Asia, which offers a large skilled workforce as well as large markets. So bothr production and consumption in East Asia attract the global economy. The One Belt One Road Initiative links China with many Asian and European countries. Political power and security issues also point toward the Asian connection. China is a permanent member of the UN Security Council and as such has veto powe

Culture is adaptive

culture is not only capable of changing, it is always in a process of change. - It is important to recognize that culture does not cease to be culture because it borrows and adapts. When the Plains Indians adopted the horse and the rifle from Spanish conquerors, traders, and settlers, they completely transformed their society. They did not, however, become Spaniards. Today it is not uncommon to see Coca-Cola franchises in Cairo or New Delhi and interpret them to be evidence of an emerging global culture, or globalization, a process some have even referred to as McDonaldization. But the McDonald's of Egypt is not the McDonald's of the United States. In the United States, McDonald's is a low-status, inexpensive, and convenient restaurant designed to serve frantically busy lifestyles, low budgets, and the desire for places children can go with their parents. In Egypt, McDonald's is a high-priced, high-status restaurant that delivers food, caters parties, and is a favorite place for young cosmopolitan Egyptians to hang out. Although the restaurants share many of the same physical characteristics, those characteristics mean very different things in their different contexts. Understanding how apparently identical things can have very different meanings in different contexts is an important aspect of international studies.

Allocation States

does not derive its revenues by taxing its citizens but rather by directly selling key resources to the rest of the world (Luciani 1987). Most of the major oil-producing states—Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Libya, Oman, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates—are allocation states. Allocation states are often dependent on foreign companies and workers for everything

International Politics

domain of scholarship that examines political behavior outside of or across domestic political borders. Subfields- peace and conflict, international security, foreign-policy analysis, international political economy, global organization, and international law, among others. The common theme among all these areas is that they involve international exchange and do not operate at the domestic level alone. Domestic politics is invariably one of the strongest inputs into foreign-policy behavior, but because foreign policy involves a country's interaction with actors beyond its own borders, foreign-policy analysis remains within the field of international politics.

Northeast Asia

encompasses China, Japan, Taiwan, and North and South Korea. There are some cultural similarities here, including Mahayana Buddhism and Confucian philosophy

Power

essential element of politics because political issues are conflicts about who wins and who loses.

Economic disparity (Middle East)

exacerbated by massive population growth.

Organization of difference

function of social institutions and processes to regulate behavior and reward or punish deviance

Nation

group of people who identify with others on the basis of a shared (often imagined) history, a common language, a religious community, and a historic territory.

Liberal Economics

hold a consistent commitment to markets with minimal government intervention. In an absolute form, liberal economic theory assumes a perspective on human beings as "economic man," Homo economicus, who act to gain the highest possible well-being, or utility. Such individuals are rational in the sense that they seek to achieve their goals at the least possible cost. This does not mean that individuals' goals are rational or that individuals necessarily know fully what their long-term best interests are, only that they try to fulfill needs and desires at minimal cost to themselves. - assumes that humans have unlimited wants and desires, thus creating demand, but have limited resources to fulfill them, creating scarcity.

State

political entity, encompassing the basic institutions of government such as an executive and a system of administration.

Ethnic Group

is nearly the same as nation, but the international community usually accepts the minority status of ethnic groups within a state dominated by another national group. The Kurds in Turkey, the Tibetans in China, and the Basques in Spain are examples.

Neorealism

maintain that a result of the lack of a higher authority in the structure of the world systems is that countries have to go to war to settle their disputes. A neorealist notes that if human nature was the cause of war in 1914, then human nature was also the cause of peace in 1918. According to Kenneth Waltz, countries that struggle for power are driven instead by the anarchy of the international system. As states attempt to survive in the absence of a higher authority to adjudicate their disputes, they must rely solely on themselves and their own power. As a result of this anarchical system, war becomes inevitable (Waltz 1959, 28; 1979, 87).

Hamas

militant anti-Israeli organization

Relativistic Perspective

no culture is inferior or superior to other cultures - This means that anthropologists cannot make advance judgments about the practices of the peoples they are studying.

Diffusion of ideas

occurs through direct contact, such as migration or conquest, as well as through indirect contact, such as trade and mass media.

Arab World

often used to describe the twenty-two Arabic-speaking countries of the world as a single geopolitical unit. Stretching from Morocco to Iraq, and including several sub-Saharan African countries, the combined population of this Arab world is 325 million.

Culture Shock

often used to describe the unpleasant, even traumatic, feeling people get when the rules and understandings by which they have organized their lives no longer apply.

Colonialism

political, economic, and cultural domination of Middle Eastern societies by European powers—transformed the Middle East in many ways. Increased demand for agricultural products on the world market, coupled with better medical care, led to a population explosion. International corporations were brought in to better exploit natural resources and ship them to Europe to fuel its industries. Borders between states, established by Europeans without regard for the geographies of local communities, were given force of law. Tribal, religious, ethnic, and other cultural distinctions that had often been fluid and negotiable were enumerated in laws and censuses, making them more rigid and often exacerbating tensions between groups as they competed for power and resources under colonial administrations.

W.W. Rostow's theory

posited that nations pass through five consecutive stages before reaching the "stage of high mass consumption" characteristic of the United States. A central problem with early developmental theories was that they looked at how American and Western European countries became wealthy (often in idealistic ways that excluded the contributions of slavery, colonialism, and appropriation of land from Native people) and constructed idealistic "one size fits all" models that paid little or no attention to the actual ecological, social, and historical conditions of the countries they were supposed to help.

Realpolitik

realistic politics based on the needs of the state

Social Democracy

refers to a variety of egalitarian political economies that generally embrace industrial production and market systems but include governmental and social controls intended to mitigate the tendencies of market systems to exacerbate social inequalities, including partial or full-state ownership of businesses or industries.

Aliyah

refers to both voluntary immigration and the flight of persecuted populations of Jews to Palestine. Nonetheless, by the outbreak of World War I, only about 7 percent of Palestine's population was Jewish, smaller than its Christian Arab population and much smaller than its Muslim Arab population

Participant Observation

refers to long-term engagements with a host community in which the anthropologist enters into the everyday life of the community, insofar as the hosts in that community permit.

Sustainability

refers to the capacity of a political economic system to meet the needs of present communities without reducing the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Cultural Practices

refers to the everyday actions through which people in a particular community get through their day. It is the work we do, the things we say, the tools we use, the physical spaces we occupy and the ways we live and work in them, the things we buy, the ways we behave around other people, the entertainment we enjoy, the prayers we say. Cultural practices are the surface of culture, the artifacts we produce and use, and the actions of everyday life.

The rise of political Islam

refers to the invocation of Islam in contemporary political and economic life, both by political actors within states and by groups opposed to existing governments.

Parsimony

refers to theoretical brevity and elegance. In other words, a parsimonious theory explains a large dependent variable (war and peace) with few independent variables.

Muslim World

requently used in a cultural sense to refer to the worldwide community of Muslims and also in a geographical and political sense to include Muslim enclaves in non-Muslim majority countries, such as Yinchuan in China, Southall in London, and Dearborn, Michigan. Although the majority of the world's Muslims live in Asia and the religion is growing fastest in Africa, the Middle East looms large in the Islamic imagination throughout the world as the geographic location of Islam's sacred historical sites, as the place toward which prayer is directed, and as the destination for the pilgrimage all Muslims seek to make during their lifetimes. These terms thus remind us that the Middle East is the center of global cultural networks as well as economic and political ones.

Cultural Logics

s are the underlying mechanisms that generate meaningful human action, including routine cultural practices like those described above. Anthropologists have generally recognized two forces at work. On the one hand, people act according to ideas they have in their heads. They have goals, values that make the goals worthwhile, and strategies for achieving these goals. These do not seem to take the form of scripts and rules so much as sets of logics that generate consistent behaviors. On the other hand, people's cultural logics are always organized in part by real-world conditions. If culture is to offer us a meaningful model of reality, it must be sufficiently true to reality to work on an everyday basis. Nature, and our technological adaptations to it, enable and constrain forms of human action.

Taqlid

the position that authoritative interpretation for almost any position already exists in centuries of accumulated work by theologians and jurors.

Summit of the Americas

set of meetings held every two years between leaders of countries in North America, South America, Central America, and the Caribbean to discuss economic issues. It was established in the early 1990s to allow the leaders of the Organization of American States (OAS) to discuss the implementation of the principles of the Washington Consensus, a set of policies aimed at instituting free markets for the entire Western Hemisphere. These principles included fiscal discipline, anti-inflation policies, privatization of state enterprises, elimination of state interference in the economy, deregulation of the private sector, and liberalization of investment policies.

Washington Consensus

set of policies aimed at instituting free markets for the entire Western Hemisphere. These principles included fiscal discipline, anti-inflation policies, privatization of state enterprises, elimination of state interference in the economy, deregulation of the private sector, and liberalization of investment policies.

Blowback

situations in which foreign policies and interventions that seem like good ideas at the time have unforeseen consequences years later. - Although political Islam is a relatively recent phenomenon, its roots can be traced back at least to the nineteenth century, to thinkers like Jama al-Afghani and Sayyid Qutb, and to groups like the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt. Shortsighted policies by the international community have also contributed to the creation of Islamist groups. For example, the United States strongly encouraged political Islam in Afghanistan and provided strong support for the Afghans fighting a military jihad against Soviet invaders in the 1980s. Under Presidents Carter and Reagan, the United States spent over $5 billion to arm, supply, and train Afghan freedom fighters—including many of those who went on to create al Qaeda. But when the Soviets finally withdrew in 1989, the United States effectively abandoned its Afghan allies, leaving them with a collapsed economy, the second highest saturation of land mines in the world, and the highest percentage of weapons per person in the world. Power was seized by the only two groups that still had international connections—the Taliban, with ties to Pakistan, and al Qaeda, with its international financial networks. Afghanistan quickly became a training ground for terrorists. The September 11 terrorist attacks in New York were examples of what some political scientists call "blowback"

Development Economics

studies economic growth in less-developed countries. Defining developing countries is difficult, but the label refers to countries where standards of living are consistently low compared to the so-called First World economies in Europe, the United States, Canada, and Japan. Most of these countries are located in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Latin America, but poor countries are also found in East Asia (e.g., Vietnam), Central Asia (e.g., Kazakhstan), Eastern Europe (e.g., Romania), as well as the Middle East. The goal of economic development is to create an economic environment where people enjoy long, healthy, and creative lives. Obviously, there is more to economic development than growth in incomes, but the concept begins with developing economic structures to facilitate higher standards of living. WW Rostow's theory Wallerstein and Frank's theory (dependency theory)

Liberal Democracy

system of government that institutionalizes majority rule and equality under the law.

Fieldwork

term that may include a wide variety of methods, including interviewing, mapping, taking censuses, charting genealogies, and collecting stories and media produced by the people they are studying.

ASEAN

the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, an alliance that facilitates economic growth and peace in the region

IRA

the Irish Republican Army (IRA) fought for the end of British rule in Northern Ireland and unification with the Republic of Ireland.

Anarchy

the absence of a global government.

State Sovereignty

the concept that states have the right to govern themselves independent of the federal government

Specialization

the development of skills in a specific kind of work

Neoliberalism

the economic theory and ideology that has served as the primary backdrop to globalization. It is an adaptation of liberal economic theory applied to a world economy, and assumes that markets will always be more efficient than states or local communities in managing "common good" resources such as reserves, public lands, public schools, and hospitals., on the.

Parliamentary System

the executive, or prime minister, is elected by the majority vote of a popularly elected parliament, such as the House of Commons in Great Britain. Most European countries and Japan, for example, have parliamentary systems. France is among those countries with a hybrid government in which the president shares powers with the prime minister and a Chamber of Deputies.

Methodological Relatavism

the principle that, to be comparative, anthropology must treat all social practices as data of the same type, that is, as institutions that serve particular social functions in specific times and places and that are embedded in complex webs of meanings.

Capital Flight

the tendency for wealth to leave poor countries rather than trickle down from the wealthy to the middle classes

Ijtihad

the use of good judgment in applying the word of God to contemporary situations

Terrorism and Guerilla Warfare

today is mainly associated with the Middle East, but Europe has a long history of terrorist activities to demand political rights. Russian revolutionaries in the nineteenth century used terrorist tactics to oppose tsarist rule, culminating in the assassination of Alexander II in 1881. Serbian Gavrilo Princip's assassination of the Archduke of Austria in 1914, which led to World War I, fell into a nineteenth-century tradition of national groups using terrorist methods to attack the symbols and institutions of an oppressive state. When conventional war against a stronger military and police force is impossible, nationalists often turn to so-called asymmetrical guerrilla war, or terrorist attacks on vulnerable state institutions.

Public Islam

used to describe these diverse invocations of Islam by "religious scholars, self-ascribed religious authorities, secular intellectuals, Sufi orders, mothers, students, workers, engineers, consumers and many others" in public life

Islamic World

usually used to refer to the total number of the world's Muslim-majority countries in Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and Europe. Some, however, conceive of an even more encompassing concept. As the world's fastest growing religion, Islam is now the second-largest religion in most Christian majority nations

Culture is Learned

we do not simply possess culture by virtue of being born into a society, we learn our culture as we live, work, and grow. - Enculturation: The processes by which members of a society pass on culture to new generations - Formal Learning: the acquisition of cultural knowledge that takes place within institutions specifically designed for this purpose, such as schools, apprenticeships, and on-the-job training. Each society has institutions that exist primarily to pass on to children specific knowledge and skills needed as adult members of that society. Informal Learning: the learning we engage in simply by watching, listening, and participating in everyday activities. Consider how you learned to speak, your taste in clothes, or your eating habits. Embodiment: Our deepest cultural learning often shapes our bodies and unconscious behaviors: how we speak, how we move, how we eat, how close we are comfortable standing to people.

Presidential democratic system

with a separation of powers between the executive and legislative branches. The president is usually elected by popular vote and is not only the chief executive but the head of state.