KHAN ACADEMY P/S

bandura's social cognitive theory

attention, memory, imitation, motivation ex. want to teach you to draw a star. in order to learn it, need a long enough attention span, the memory to remember it, and be able to imitate it. question is, are you motivated enough to do it? if you do action

when consistency is high =

attribution to internal factors

Ca2+ cells get activated when K+ is inside, so Ca2+ also flows into the cell, and causes an AP, which then activates a spiral ganglion cell, which then activates the ____ ______

auditory nerve

physiological changes that occur which aren't under your control are due to the _________ NS?

autonomic NS

neustress

a neutral type of stress. happens when you are exposed to something stressful, but it doesn't actively or directly affect you. for example, news about a natural disaster on the other side of the world may be very stressful but your body doesn't perceive that stress as good or bad for you so ur not affected

molecular genetics

a new field of science that looks at the molecular structure and function of genes. as we study gene and environments interaction we are getting to understand specific gene that is regulating our behaviour. we are looking at specific parts of DNA

sensitization

a non associative learning process in which repeated administrations of a stimulus results in the progressive amplification of a response. sensitization often is characterized by an enhancement of response to a whole class of stimuli in addition to the one that is repeated

hypomanic episode

a period of abnormally elevated mood and abnormally increased energy lasting at least 4 consecutive days; however, the episode is not severe enough to cause impairment in functioning or to require hospitalization

manic episode

a period of abnormally elevated mood and abnormally increased energy lasting at least 7 consecutive days; however, the episode is severe enough to cause impairment in functioning or to require hospitalization

overt orienting

a person turns all or part of the body to alter or maximize the sensory impact of an event

social status

a persons social position in society. each person has many statuses

we look at behaviour as coming from 2 parts

internal attributes being fuelled by situation/external factors

stage 6 (erickson)

intimacy vs isolation. age 20-40. try to find love and relationships - virtue: completion leads to comfortable relationships vs love negative outcomes:avoiding intimacy can lead to isolation/loneliness/depression

drives

intrinsic, universal feelings we all have towards varying things

perception

is conscious sensory experience of neuron processing

thiamine

is important because converts carbs into glucose cells needed for energy. important for normal functioning of neurons

origins in sonar

is signal a small fish vs a large whale

gross motor skills

legs/arms develop before

delusions of control

belief that one's thoughts or actions are being controlled by outside, alien forces. common delusions of control include though broadcasting (my private thoughts are being transmitted to others") though insertion (someone is planting thoughts in my head"), and thought withdrawal (the CIA is robbing me go my thoughts)

group polarization

a phenomenon where group decision making amplifies the original opinion of group members. a stronger version of the decision is adopted - for a view point to influence groups final decision making - viewpoint is shared by majority of members of the group - arguments made tend to favour popular/majority group view - any criticism is directed towards minority view conformation bias: group members seek out information that support the majority view

critical/sensitive period

a point in early development that can have a significant influence on physiological or behavioural functioning later in life

delusions of persecution

belief that others, often a vague "they" are out to get him or her. these persecutory delusions often involve bizarre ideas and plots (martins are trying to poison me with radioactive particles delivered through my tap water)

somatosensory homunculus

a map of your body in your brain. information all comes to the "sensory strip". it is a topological map of the entire body in the cortex. different areas of the body have signals that go to different parts on this strip

intelligence

a mental quality that allows you to learn from experience, solve problems, and use your knowledge to adapt to new situations. intelligence tests are numerical scores to measure aptitude for those tasks and compare them to how well others do.

gustducin

a protein associated with the sensation of taste

emotional memories

can be positive or negative valenced. highly emotional memories that feel extremely vivid called flashbulb memories and even though they seem as real as life, they are still susceptible to reconstruction as less emotional memories

electroencephalograms (EEGs)

can measure brainwaves 4 main types: alpha, beta, delta, theta each type oscillates at dif frequency and associated with different types of consciousness

significant life changes

changes in your personal. ex death of loved one, marriage, loss of job, having children, leaving home, etc

Schachter-Singer (2 factor theory of emotion)

physiological and cognitive responses simultaneously form experience of emotion. if we become physiologically aroused, we don't feel a specific emotion until we're able to label/identify reason for situation (PR) (consciously) -> Emotion

halo effect

tendency people have inherently good.bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics ex. physical attractiveness stereotype - believe attractive people have more positive personality traits

morphology

refers to the structure of words. many words are composed of multiple building blocks called morphemes (smallest significant unit of meaning of a word). "a grammatical system, which puts meaningful elements together into "words"". - in ASL, when hand shape and location are combined, they form morphemes

simple innate behaviours

reflexes, taxis, kinesis

exercise

regular exercise requires control. decrease risk of cardiovascular diseases. less increase cerebrovascular health and increase neurogenesis (grow new neurons and processes). need to exercise 20-30 minutes daily to get those cardiovascular affects you want

sperm

sex cell of male transfer male genetic material to egg. sperm has a head, tail (flagellum/propellor), and a middle section (which has lots of mitochondria -75/100 - larger mitochondria). propelling - takes lots of energy that comes from mitochondria. head - contains DNA material and the acrosome

context

the environment you encode and take the test is helpful

universalism

thought determines language completely. your thought dictates language believes that human cognition shapes language and language is created from a set of universal semantic distinctions and constructions shape human language

shading and contour

using light and shadows to perceive form depth/contours -- crater/mountain

authoritarian personality

very prejudice obedient to superiors but don't have much sympathy for those they deem inferior to themselves they are oppressive rigid thinkers, inflexible with their viewpoints

systematic desensitization

was developed by Joseph Wolpe and is a process that involves teaching the client to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation. it works great with phobias.

situational approach to behaviour

we are placed in new situations every day. these situations affect our behaviour. under the branch of social psychology

function of behaviour

to keep homeostasis - a maintained constant internal condition. behaviour is coordinated internal and external response of an organism/groups of organisms to their enivornment. functioning in the realm of adaptation to help maintain our homeostasis

with basilar tuning, brain can distinguish different frequencies -- _______ mapping

tonotopical

meditation

training people to self regulate their attention and awareness. can be guided and focused on something in particular, like breathing but meditation can also be unfocused - mind wanders freely - more alpha waves than normal relaxation in light meditation

motion parallax:

"relative motion"; things are farther away move slower, closer moves faster

"out" group

"them", group we're not associated with, "group of people who we do not feel connected to"

collectivist cultures

(eastern-africa/asia) success is attributed to external and failure to internal factors

acute

(few weeks, physical withdrawal symptoms, different for each drug/person). for alcohol, only 2 days after cessation of consumption, improvement seen in 4-5 days

sensory memory (register)

2 components based on type of input. you have iconic (memory for what you see, lasts half a second) and echoic (what you hear, lasts 3-4 seconds). defined by time

variable c is strategy

2 strategies conservative strategies - always say no unless 100% sure signal is present. might get some misses. liberal strategy - always say yes, even if get false alarms

we can hear frequencies between:

20-20,000 Hz

apex =

25 Hz (low frequency, high WL)

co-variation model

3 cues of Kelly's co-variation model consistency (time) distinctiveness (situation) consensus (people)

when ON CENTRE bipolar cells turned on, this activates ___ _____ ____ ____ ____, which sends signal to optic nerve to brain

ON CENTRE retinal ganglion cell

Efferent neurons in ____

PNS - control smooth muscle cells, cardiac muscle, and gland cells

some hallucinogens are used for ______ treatment. allow people to access painful memories from past thats detached from strong emotions -- so they can come to terms with it

PTSD

thermoreceptor

Stimuli heat cold certain food chemicals (capsaicin) Location skin (external stimuli) hypothalamus (internal stimuli)

in order for us to sense temperature, we rely on the ______ receptor

TrypV1

labelling theory

a behaviour is deviant if people have judged the behaviour and labelled it as deviant. depends on whats acceptable in that society primary deviance - no big consequences, reaction to deviant behaviour is very mild and does not affect person's self esteem. individual is able to continue to behave in same way without feeling immoral/wrong secondary deviance - more serious consequences, characterized by severe negative reaction that produces a stigmatizing label and results in more deviant behaviour.

eustress

a positive type of stress that happens when you perceive a situation as challenging, but motivating. eustress is usually enjoyable

factor analysis (cattell, eysenck, and big 5 all use it)

a statistical method that categorizes and determine major categories of traits. all port's did not, he used different methods - factor analysis: reduces variable and detects structure between variables. we get a final classification of personality after the factor analysis

tastant

a substance that stimulates the sense of taste

social psychology

a branch of psychology that analyzes the situational approach to behaviour and emphasizes influence of social phenomena and people interactions with each other on influence. it focuses on interaction between individual and the changing external environmental (situational) circumstances over internal traits/internal motivations/stable personality traits - focuses on interactions between individual and their environment - one situation is not predictive of how someone will act in another situation. depending on situation the behaviour might change

retrograde memory

ability to remember experiences before a brain injury

nociception

ability to sense pain

internal (dispositional attribution)

about them

humans have vomeronasal organ, but no ___ ____ ____? we rely little on pheromones

accessory olfactory bulb

the accessory olfactory epithelium sends projections to the what? This then sends signals to the brain

accessory olfactory bulb

other NTs

acetylcholine (ANS) and motor neurons

in the peripheral nervous system: the 2 main NTs are acetylcholine and epinephrine

acetylcholine is the main (and is involved in CNS and also in the ANS -- most neurons release acetylcholine and they release...) NTs bind to the external ligand gated ion channels (one type of ion channel)

acquired traits

acquired traits are learned traits that come from experience with a person's environment

when light hits rod, turned off -> ON CENTRE bipolar cells _______, OFF CENTRE bipolar cells _____

active inactive

confirmation bias

actively seek out only confirming facts. ex only read stories about how wonderful candidate was

episodic buffer

acts as a connector for information to be stored in long term memory

receptors send info through _____ axons

afferent

reflexes have 2 parts

afferent (stimulus) efferent (response)

oral stage

age 0-1, libido/sense of interaction is centred around baby's mouth (rooting/sucking reflex), vital for sucking/eating. infant derives pleasure via oral stimulation (tasting/sucking). because infant completely dependent on parents/caretakers, baby also develops sense of trust and comfort - if fixation here, issues with dependency or aggression. also smoking or biting fingers/nails, sucking their thumb, people who overeat

stage 7 (ericksone)

age 40-65 (middle adult hood) established career, so settle down, make families the centre of their lives, and sense of being part of bigger picture. generatively vs stagnation. positive virtue: adults feel like they give back through raising children/work/community activities/organizations, so develop sense of care for others negative outcome: is they feel stagnate and unproductive

3 categories of depressants

alcohol barbiturates benzodiazepines

proprioception

the sense of position of the body in space, i.e "sense of balance/where you are in space"

self image

what we believe we are. the view we have of ourselves

ability to sense temperature

thermoception

Types of somatosensation

thermoception, mechanoception, nociception, and proprioception

encoding

transferring information from the temporary store in working memory into permanent store in long term memory

occipital lobe

vision, "striate cortex" (striated cells)

visual spatial sketchpad

visual + spatial info are processed

within the accessory olfactory eputhelium, you have a structure called the ______ system

vomeronasal

cornea

transparent thick sheet of fibrous tissue, anterior 1'6th, starts to bends light, first part of the eye light hits

gestalt principles:

tries to explain how we perceive things the way we do

gratulation

trilminar disk (germ layer formed). ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

non associative learning

when an organisms is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus ex habituation and sensitization

temptation

when desire conflicts with values or long term goals

Bipolar II disorder

when it remains hypomania + one major depressive episode

spontaneous recovery

when old conditioned stimulus elicits response

associative learning

when one event is connected to another ex classical and operant conditioning

executive attention

involved in goal directed behaviour, monitoring conflicts between internal processes, and anticipating the effects of behaviour. dopamine from the ventral segmental area is associated with executing attention

apoE4

involved in metabolism of fats strongly related to AD

cortical cooling (cryptogenic blockade)

involves cooling down neurons until they stop firing. cryoloop- surgically implanted between skull and brain. most important part is its temporary/reversible, unlike other techniques. K/O nerves - see effect, and then bring the animal back to normal functioning temporary lesions can be created via neurochemical means. muscimol can bind to GABA receptors and inhibit neurons

taste aversion

when you eat something because you like it, but then stop eating it because you become sick. aversions are strong, and they don't always make sense.

discrimination

when you learn to make a response to some stimuli but not others. also has an adaptive value because you want to respond differently to related stimuli `

aversive control

where behaviour is motivated by threat of something unpleasant escape and avoidance/avoidant learning

linguistic determinism

language has an influence on thought. they are called the weak and the strong hypothesis - referring to how much influence they think language has on thought

weak and linguistic determinism (relativism)

language influences thought. it makes it easier/more common for us to think in certain ways based on how our language is structured -- believes linguistic structure influences but does not determine the context of everyday encounters

THC

works on anandamide. increase dopamine and GABA activity

location

location-specific stimuli by nerves are sent to brain. relies on dermatomes

personality disorder

marked deviation from how we expect the people to behave or how the person is experiencing the world. this difference leads to distress/functioning this category is controversial

monocular cues can also give a sense of ______

motion

kinaesthesia

movement of the body. more behavioural

sleep

not aware of self or world around you

social support

one of best mechanisms of stress. allows us to confide the painful/difficult feelings and allows us to understand we are not alone in stress, which helps in our perceived control and optimism -socially supported communities are identified as having better eating/exercise/sleeping patterns. marriage domesticated animals, close friendships have been shown to decrease stress.

decay

one reason forgetting happens. when we don't encode something well or don't retrieve it for a while, we can recall it anymore. one theory is that the pathway between cue and memory become weaker over time or periods of disuse which makes it harder to stimulate those neurons.

size constancy

one that appears larger because its close, we still think it is the same size

cGMP bound to Na+ channel keeps the channel ____

open, and hence "ON", as cGMP concentration decreases (due to PDE which converts it into GMP). Na+ channel closes and cell turns "off"

factor model (big 5 personality traits) - found in all people of all populations

openness - independent vs conforming, imagining vs practical conscientiousness - careful vs careless, disciplined vs impulse, organized or not extroversion - talkative or quiet, fun loving or sober agreeableness - kind vs cold, appreciative vs unfriendly neuroticism - stable vs tense, calm vs anxious, secure vs insecure

peptide NTs

opioids (endorphin). perception of pain

all axons leading from the temporal side DO NOT CROSS the_______ ________

optic chiasm

institutional discrimination

organization discriminating - including governments, banks, schools, etc.

audition

our sense of sound

insomnia

persistent trouble falling asleep. various medications but taking them too long leads to dependence and tolerance. if you rely on medication, you become more habituated to it and need more to get the same effects treatments can involve psychological training and lifestyle changes (exercising regularly or relaxing before bed). this is a better alternative to medication

social identity theory has 2 parts

personal identity social identity

phonology

phonetic component, actual sound of a language. "A sound system" 40 phonemes (smallest unit of sound) in English Language Distinction between sounds: categorical perception. children must learn to do this - in ASL - hand movements and locations are analogous to sound in spoken language, they are classified as phonemes (smallest unit of language)

3 components of emotion

physiological arousal (how your body reacts to emotions, emotional information or stimuli) expressive displays (how you express your emotions) subjective experiences (how you feel and interpret your emotions, which is extremely personal and subjective) conditioned responses are not a core component of emotion

choroid

pigmented black in humans, is a network of blood vessels that helps nourish the retina. if black all light is absorbed

formal norms are written down, informal norms are understood but are less_____ and have no specific _______

precise punishments

wernicke's encephalopathy

precursor to korsakoff's syndrome.

just world hypothesis

predictable result as a consequence for our actions. noble actions performed/good deeds by an individual are rewarded, while evil acts/deeds are always punished

we need 2 things to hear sound

pressurized sound wave (stimuli) hair cell (a receptor, located in cochlea)

biases

prevent us from making correct decisions or from changing decisions once they are made

disgust

raised cheeks, wrinkled cheeks, eyebrows lowered

surprise

raised eyebrows, eyes open wide, jaws dropped/open mouth and teeth parted, horizontal winkles across forehead, upper lip raised, lower lid drawn down

right brain

random intuitive holistic synthesizing subjective looks as wholes

nativities

rationalist, language must be innate

cognitive declines as you age

recall episodic memory processing speed divided attention

mere exposure effect

repeated exposure to novel people or objects increases our liking for them. more often we see something, more often we like it. applies to everything - music, nonsense syllabus, numbers, objects, etc

sadness

represented by, uplifted inner corner of eyebrows, downturned lips

4 main categories of stressors:

significant life changes catastrophic events daily hassles ambient stressors

A delta fibres

smaller diameter, less myelin

amotivation

amotivation is the lack of motivation

steric theory of olfaction (shape theory)

asserts that odours fit into receptors similar to a lock and key

classical conditioning

associate one stimuli with another stimuli that produces a specific response

head to toe development

baby can lift head before they can crawl

in vomeronasal system, there are ____ cells and ____ cells. they have receptors at tips

basal apical

10 personality disorders that divide into 3 clusters

cluster a (odd and eccentric traits) cluster b (dramatic, emotional, erratic traits) cluster c (anxiety and fearful) A=3, B=4, C=3 A=weird, B=wild, C=worried

what is the only drug where we cannot develop a substance use disorder

caffeine

MDMA

can be a stimulant or hallucinogen

eye colour or hair colour is a simple trait...

can be linked to specific genes. we can see which genes are controlling these simple traits easily. mendelian monogenic inheritance patterns refer to traits that are associated with a single gene and are associated with simple traits

define relative size:

can infer with one eye. The closer an object it is perceived as bigger. Gives us an idea of form.

formal operational stage

stage 4, 12+ years. reason abstract consequences, and reason consequences; moral reasoning. at this pint children are reasoning more like adults and they continue to develop that overtime. child will be able to think logically about abstract ideas, hypothetical situations, and use abstract thinking to solve novel problems.

brain relies on _____ to differentiate between 2 different sounds

cochlea

inner ear

cochlea and semicircular canals

bias

cognitive bias is the tendency to think in certain ways. cognitive biases often cause deviations from a standard of rationally or good judgement

long tracts -

collections of axons connecting cerebrum and brainstem. 2 long tracts that are important: motor (UMNs) and somatosensory

cones detect ____ primarily but also some light

colour 60% red 30% green 10% blue

fine motor skills

colour/picture/cutting with a scissor

semantic networks

concepts are organized in mind in terms of connected ideas. parallel to how info might be stored in a computer. links can be shorter for closely related ideas, or longer for less related ideas. concepts are represented by notes.

substance induced disorders:

conditions that are caused by substance. can be substance induced mood disorders (high mood- mania, low mood- depression), or disorders related to anxiety, sleep, sexual function, pyschosis (loss of contact with reality, characterized by seeing things, hearing voices, becoming paranoid)

when arcuate fasciculus is damaged,...?

conducting aphasia (associative aphasia) - ability to conduct between listing and speaking is disrupted. makes it difficult for people with this to repeat things even when they understand what is being said. associated with damaged t arcuate fasciculus

colour

cones trichromatic theory of colour vision, 3 types of cones

monocular cue of ____

constancy

norms vary/dependent on:

context, physical locations, culture, and by country. can change with time as individuals attitudes shift or circumstances change to allow certain types of behaviours to be valued

psychological withdrawal

copes through dissociation, numbness, denial, fantasy, or other internal forms of psychological escape

can tell someone is dreaming because: (2 reasons)

eyes moving rapidly under eyelids brainwaves look like they are completely awake

3 types of collective behaviour

fad mass hysteria riots

type II error

false negative

circumvenvallate papillae are ____ structures that are found at the back of the tongue and contain taste buds

flat mound

law of common fate

for example, if there are an array of dots and half the dots are moving upward while the other half are moving downward, we would perceive the upward moving dots and the downward moving dots as 2 distinct units

monocular cues gives humans a sense of _____ of an object

form

mesoderm

form inner layers of skin, muscles, bones, cardiac muscles, kidneys, and bladder, ovaries/testes

cognitive component

form thoughts/beliefs, and have knowledge about subject/topic that will influence and shape our attitude. (perhaps prior knowledge that will help you shape attitude). their cognitions ex i believe spiders are dangerous (we have a belief they are dangerous) which forms our attitude

overconfidence

going into test without knowing a lot of info. could be due to fluency (ease of processing) during studying.

implosive therapy

here they throw akira in a room with thousands of spiders with the idea that if they face their fear and survive, they will realize their fear is irrational. this technique often produces a lot of anxiety

latent content

hidden meaning (freud theory of dreams)

first semantic network was...

hierarchical, higher order to lower order categories.

ecstasy/MDMA/Molly - synthetic drug between a stimulant and hallucinogen like stimulant - increases dopamine and serotonin and euphoria. also stimulates the body's CNS. effects include...

high blood pressure dehydration overheating detah

what decreases AD

higher education challenging jobs with difficult thinking

prefrontal cortex involved in decision making, and reducing emotions. it has also executive functions ---

higher order processes such as planning/organizing/inhibiting/etc.

emotions associated with memories are encoded in the ______

hippocampus

2 areas of brain with most glucocorticoid (secreted in response to stress) receptors are:

hippocampus frontal cortex

walter cannon was interested in...

homeostasis, homeostatic response of animals to stressors - threats and dangers "fight or flight response"

wavelength

how close peaks are smaller WL = greater frequency higher WL = smaller frequency = travel farther, penetrate deeper into cochlea

impersonality

how individuals and officials conduct activities in unbiased manner

social psychology

how individuals think, feel, and behave in social interactions people act differently in groups than individually

threat

how much damage could be caused

question of nature vs nurture

how much is intelligence due to genes and how much is it due the the environment/experiences

self esteem/self worth

how much value we place on ourselves

unintentional discrimination

how policies can discriminate unintentionally

past in present discrimination

how things done in the past, even if no longer allowed they can have consequences for people in the present

behavioural

how we act or behave towards an object/subject ex i will avoid (action/behaviour) spiders and scream (action/behaviour) if i see one. influence our attitude

step 3: social comparison

how we compare ourselves with other groups (or 2 different groups). we do this to maintain our self esteem. critical to understanding of prejudice, because once 2 groups develop as rivals, we start to compete in order to maintain self esteem

tetris effect

if you play tetris right before bed, you might see visual images of blocks during sleep.

stable

implicit memory (aka procedural memories) and recognition memory (pick something out of list)

cognitive stable as you age

implicit memory (riding bike) recognition memory

similarity bias

implies we will not belfried people different from us

school

important. schools teach life skills along with science and math - don't learn from academic curriculum, but learn the importance of obeying authority, act interested, learn to be quiet, to wait, etc. part of the hidden curriculum: standard behaviours that are deemed acceptable that are subtly taught by teachers

alpha (8-13Hz)

in daydreaming state. lower frequency than beta waves. disappear in drowsiness but reappear later in deep sleep

operant extinction

in operant conditioning it results from some response by the organism no longer being reinforced

anterograde amnesia

inability to encode new memories

anomia

inability to name things characterized by problems/difficulties in naming objects or in retrieving words

anosmia

inability to perceive odour

retrograde amnesia

inability to recall info previously encoded

traditionalism

tendency to follow authority also shown to be common in twins

biological backing

the anterior cingulate (anterior part of the frontal cortex) stops responding to serotonin.

reference groups

the group to which people refer in evaulating themselves. people's beliefs, attitudes, behaviours. constantly looking for external groups that align with our beliefs/attitudes/behaviours. these groups influence our social decisions - our own bleeds. attitudes, and behaviours. reference groups are groups that people refer to when evaluating their (own) qualities, circumstances, attitudes, values and behaviours "any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behaviour"

source amnesia

the inability to remember where, when or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge

ego

the reality principle operates on secondary processes (reality testing). mediates the demands of reality vs. the desires of the id. the self. this is who we identify with/believe ourselves to be.

I

the response of the individual to the "me", I thinks about what those things mean. aka attitudes of others. the sponataneous, less socialized component of the self - the I, the nonconforming, non socialized person, the one who make dick moves all the time individual identity (personal response to what society thinks)

order of sleep cycle

N1 -> N2 -> N3 -> N2 -> REM -> N1

miss

a negative response to a present signal

social coping

seeking social support from others

individualistic cultures

(western-europe/america) success is over attributed to internal and failure is over-attributed to external/situational factors

alcohol

decreased inhibitions, so decreasing cognitive control lack of coordination, slurring of speech think more slowly, disrupt REM sleep (and form memories)

base =

1600 Hz (high frequency, low WL)

high blood pressure increases risk of ____

AD

reaction formation

defence mechanism where someone says or does exact opposite of what they actually want/feel

amino acid NTs

GABA (CNS) and Glycine (PNS)

Weber's Law

Delta I/I = K (constant)

ray of light from the left visual field hits the _____ side of the left eye and hits the TEMPORAL side of right eye (vice versa for opposite)

NASAL

lots of Na+ channels on the rods allow ___ ions to come in

Na+

first 3 stages of sleep are categorized in______________ (non-REM) - N1, N2, N3

Non rapid eye movement

when Na+ channels become unbound of cGMP, less Na+ enters the cell, the cell hyper polarization and turn ____

OFF

when OFF CENTRE bipolar cells turned on, this activates ____ _____ _____ _____ ____, which sends signal to optic nerve to brain

OFF CENTRE retinal ganglion cell

photoreceptor

Stimuli light (visible wavelength) Location: eyes (rod and cone cells)

Theory of Mental Abilities (LL Thurnstone)

Summary 7 factors of intelligence: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial reasoning, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, memory strength/evidence breakdown seems intuitive ex. possible to have high inductive skills without high verbal comprehension problems how can scores vary together statistically (suggests underlying intelligence factor?) limited in what it considers to be intelligence

Theory of General Intelligence (charles spearman)

Summary: used factor analysis to identify cluster of related abilities 1 general rule g factor - can predict our intelligence in multiple academic areas strength/evidence: theory supported by research those who score high in one area also score highly in other areas. ex. scoring high in verbal intelligence correlated to high special reasoning problems: controversial can one factor explain all of the diverse human abilities? limited in what it considers to be intelligence

dopamine

VTA and substantiated nivea next to VTA in the brainstem (overlapping) sends axons release dopamine to a few nuclei deep in the cerebral hemisphere (all parts of the basal ganglia). these brainstem (midbrain neuron collection that is projecting dopamine is called the substantial nigra). it is actually projecting dopamine to another part of the basal ganglia called the striatum. if this can't happen - this is whats called parkinson's disease - dopaminergic neurons also in the hypothalamus that send dopamine to pituitary gland to control release of one of the hormones in the pituitary gland. this is all in the CNS in the brain and the spinal cord

socialization

a life long process where we learn how to interact with others. everything we consider to be normal is actually learned through socialization - how we learn to walk/talk/feed ourselves, and how we learn behavioural norms that help us fit in

carl rogers

a humanistic theorist who says qualities maslow described are nurtured early in life, self actualization is a constant growth process nurtured in a growth promoting climate. in order for this climate to help someone reach self actualization, 2 conditions need to be met -- growth is nurtured by when individual its genuine. one has to be open and revealing about themselves without fear of being wrong second is growth is nurtured through acceptance - unconditional positive regard from others. this allows us to live up to our ideal selves. allows us to be open and learn without fear of others looking at us differently if we do something wrong. ex parent might yell at child but still love their child genuine relationship with others and acceptance is what allows us to live up to our real self

mass hysteria

a large number of people who experience unmanageable delusions and anxiety at same time. reactions spread rapidly and reach more people through rumours and fears. often takes the form of panic reactions and negative news or potential threat refers to behaviour that occurs when groups react emotionally or irrational to real or perceived threats. it is characterized by panic and spread of information (or misinformation) by the media mass psychogenic illness, or epidemic hysteria: mass hysteria can be result of psychology, like when large amount of people believe they have same illness despite lack of disease

catastrophic events

a large scale event that everyone considers threatening. ex, wars, natural disasters, etc

heuristic

a mental shortcut to make a depiction, a quick decision rule/rule of thumb. lots of kinds of heuristics used for decision making. help us make decisions.

persuasion

a method for attitude/behaviour change. the elaboration likelihood model explains how attitudes are formed and likely they are able to be changed. the target characteristics are the most important in this model, but all play a factor (message and source characteristics as well). determine when people will be influenced by the content of a speech vs more superficial features

safety behaviours

demonstrated when individuals with anxiety disorders come to rely on something, or someone, as a means of coping with their excessive anxiety

4 main categories of psychoactive drugs

depressants stimulants hallucinogens opiates

N1 (stage 1)

domaines by theta waves

canal is filled with _____, and when we rotate the fluid shifts in the semicircular canals -- allows us to detect what direction our head is moving in, and because we can detect how quickly the endolymph is moving we can determine the strength of rotation

endolymph

when the tip link gets pushed back and forth by _____ movement, they stretch and allows K+ to flow inside the cell from the endolymph (which is K+ rich)

endolymph

encoding specificity

enhanced memory when testing takes place under the same conditions as learning

external (situation attribution)

environment

nurture

environment/culture influence. back sleeping = reduce SIDS chances (sleeping on back makes it so children take a longer time to start crawling) Diaper = baby walk around a bit later

acrosome reaction

enzymes leak into zona pellucida and digest it. sperm gets closer to plasma membrane of egg

escape

escape an unpleasant stimulus once it has occurred. (the stimuli has an element of surprise usually). the response is conditioned (of escaping) in response to a stimuli and then stimuli goes away (negative reinforcement) typically, the response would not occur. fire in a building, and you have to find a way out. behaviour is negatively reinforced

innate learning

fixed action patterns that are "hard wired"

carl rogers believed self concept had 3 different components:

self image self esteem/self worth ideal self

folkways

the mildest type of norm, just common rules/manners we are supposed to follow on a day to day basis. traditions individuals have followed for a long time, ex opening the door, helping a person whose dropped item, or saying thank you. not engaging results in a consequences that is not severe/consistent. no actual punishment

attribution

the process of inferring causes of events/behaviours

deep meditation has increased ____ waves in brain

theta

conjunctiva

thin layer of cells that lines the inside of your eyelids from the eye

maslow's hierarchy of needs

we want to satisfy needs in particular order. why we use a pyramid

identification

when people act/dress a certain way to be like someone they respect. will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual

bipolar and related disorders

abnormal negative mood, but these may have periods of abnormally positive mood called mania - mania is characterized by little sleep, talking quickly, making bad decisions due to impaired judgement, making bad decisions based on bad assessment of risk or abilities of a task. can lead to social/legal problems

haloperidol

an antipsychotic medication used to treat schizophrenia

humans have 2 eyes, therefore they receive visual cues from their environment by ________ cues, which gives them a sense of depth

binocular cues

wernicke's and broca's area are connected by a bundle of nerve fibres called the...?

arcuate fasciculus, also found in deaf people who know sign language

surface traits

are evident from a person's behaviour, while source traits are factors underlying human personality (fewer and more abstract)

sound waves

are molecules are pressurized and try to escape, creating areas of high and low pressure

distal stimuli

are objects and events out in the world about you. aware of and respond to this -- that is what is important

neuron somas scattered throughout brainstem is the regular formation -

big role in autonomic functions, and continuing things like respiration, digestion, and lower/higher functions

working memory (short term memory)

is the sensory information you actually processes. consists of what you are thinking about at the moment. capacity is magic number 7. working memory can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of info at a time. why phone #s are 7 digits long. does very based on how complicated the stimuli are, how old you are. different components to process input. working memory is memory that is stored while it is held in attention. - explains serial position effect

observational learning

learned through watching and imitating others - such as modelling actions of another - mirror neurons found that support this - aggression is environmentally learnt and mass media can have a performance effect (performance is situationally dependent depending on if the actor is rewarded or punished)

learning performance distinction

learning a behaviour and performing it are 2 different things not performing it doesn't mean you didnt learn it

hippocampus

learning and memory.

non associative learning

learning where no punishment/rewarding is occurring with increase/decrease of response. you are simply noticing how response changes in relationship to the same stimuli over time

contralateral control

left brain controls right body and right brain controls left body. basically true for all your senses (this doesn't apply to smell, which is ipsilateral (same side))

dominant hemispheres

left is dominant for vast majority of people domain hemisphere: language, math non dominant: emotional tone of language, if people are happy/sad/anxious, creativity, music, special processing, big picture concepts

central trait

less dominant than cardinal, ex honesty, socialability, shyness

levy body disease

less motor abnormalities from basal ganglia dysfunction and more cognitive dysfunction from loss of function from cerebral cortex. separate from parkinsons

behavioural genetics

looking at genetic component (heredity component) or hardwiring component to behaviour

signal detection theory

looks at how we make decisions under conditions of uncertainty - discerning between important stimuli and unimportant "noise"

neurocognitive disorders

loss of cognitive/other functions of the brain after nervous system has developed. big categories within this, one is delirium (reversible episode of cognitive/higher brain problems, many causes - drugs/abnormalities in blood/infections) dementia and its milder versions are usually irreversible and progressive

3 main abnormalities in Alzheimers

loss of neurons plaques (amyloid) tangles (clumps of tau) -- groups of neurons at base of cerebrum called the nucleus basalis is often lost early in course of alz. important for cognitive functions - send long axons to cerebral cortex and through cerebrum, and release acetylcholine. contribute to cognitive functions of disease

Upper motor neurons control?

lower motor neurons found in cerebral cortex, and synapse of LMNs in the brainstem or spinal cord

motion

magnocellular pathway: has high temporal resolution (think time, motion) resolution (encodes motion) but has poor spatial resolution; no colour. rods responsible

gonads

ovaries (females) testes (male). FSH/LH stimulation releases sex hormones (progesterone/estrogen - females) and testosterone (males) the testes are involved in male sexual development during adolescence

recognition seeking, status seeking

overcompensates through impressing high achievement, status, attention seeking, etc

visual cues

overlap between visual cues and somatosensory communication

step 2: identification

own we adopt identity of the group, we see/categorize us as belonging - behaving and acting like the category we belong to. ex a student/ emotional significance to identification - our self esteem starts to become bound with this group identification and sense of belonging

taste bunds are contained in _____

papillae

rem sleep is also called what

paradoxical sleep, because brain is active and awake but body prevents it from doing anything

cluster A has 3 personality disorders

paranoid: profound distress + suspicion of other people schizoid: emotionally detached in relationships and shows little emotion schizotypal: odd beliefs/magical thinking

info from body all ends up in this somatosensory cortex of the ________ lobe

parietal

neonatal reflexes newborns: not much conscious control over their body. they have some motor skills (reflexes = automatic involuntary responses) that allow a baby to interact with the world:

permanent reflexes neonatal reflexes

anterior chamber

space filled with aqueous humour, which provides pressure to maintain shape of eyeball, allows nutrients and minerals to supply cells of cornea/iris

broca's area

speak/language expression frontal lobe

fovea

special part of macula, completely covered in cones (NO RODS) - rest of retina is covered primarily in ads

macula

special part of retina rich in cones, but there are also rods

weaker genetic traits - achievement, closeness

specific genes that relate to personality, people with longer dopamine 4 receptor gene are more likely to be thrill seekers

tiny little receptors called ______ located in our muscles sends signals that g up to spinal cord and to the brain. spindle has a protein that is sensitive to stretching

spindle

2 categories that regulate food, sex and drugs

biological factors (hormones and brain regulates each drive by controlling them automatically and unconsciously) socio-culture (our conscious choices on how we express our needs) factors

jeffrey alan gray

biophysical theory of personality proposed personality is governed by the behavioural inhibition (punishment/avoidance) and activation (reward) system

5 main tastes

bitter sweet salty sour umami (glutamate)

cocaine

blocks dopamine reuptake

negative symptoms of schizophrenia

blunted emotions, loss of employment "emotional abnormalities" refer to the absence of normal behaviours found in healthy individuals. common negative symptoms of schizophrenia include: lack of emotional expression - inexpensive face, including a flat voice, lack of eye contact, and blank or restricted facial expressions. -- affective flattening is the reduction in the range and intensity of emotional expression, including facial expression, voice tone, eye contact (person seems to stare, doesn't maintain eye contact in a normal process,) and is not able to interpret body language nor use appropriate body language lack of interest or enthusiasm- problems with motivation; lack of self care avolition is the reduction, difficulty, or inability to initiate and persist in goal-directed behaviour; it is often mistaken for apparent disinterest (examples of avolition include: no longer interested in going out and meeting with friends, no longer interested in activities that the person used to show enthusiasm for, no longer interested in much of anything, sitting in the house for many hours a day doing nothing seeming lack of interest in the world -- apparent unawareness of the environment; social withdrawal speech difficulties and abnormalities - inability to carry a conversation, short and sometimes disconnected replies to questions; speaking in monotone - alogia, or poverty of speech, is the lessening of speech fluency and productivity, though to reflect slowing or blocked thoughts, and often manifested as short, empty replies to questions

albert bandora

bobo doll experiment. cited when people debate if they should ban violent video games. its a blow up doll you can punch. bobo AL

circadian rhythms control:

body temp, sleep cycle, etc

the cribriform plate is

bone with little holes that allow olfactory sensory to send projections to the brain

incentive theory of motivation

calls attention to how factors outside of individuals, including community values and other aspects of culture, can motivate behaviour

piaget

came up with cognitive development in children. he believed one children were able to think a certain way, they then developed language to describe those thoughts -> influences build it. language influence is influenced by cognitive development

PET (position emission tomography)

can't give us detail of structure, but can combine them with CAT scans and MRIs. inject glucose into cells and see what areas of brain are more active at given point in time. (active = use most glucose). more invasive. 3D images of tracer concentration within the body are then constructed by computer analysis -PET require swallowing a radioactive tracer and shows activity, with low resolution

narcolepsy

can't help themselves from falling asleep. various fits of sleepiness, going into REM. have fits (usually 5 minutes) that can occur any time. 1/2000

pain also changes conformation of receptors -- ______ binds the TrypV1 receptor in your tongue, and triggers the same response

capsaicin

altruism

care about welfare of other people and are acting to help them. beneficial to society and also individuals

target characteristics

characteristics of listener such as mood, self esteem, alertness, intelligence, etc how we receive a message

cardinal traits

characteristics that direct most of person's activities - the dominant trait that influence all of our behaviours, including secondary and central traits

semantic networks

concepts are organized in your mind as connected ideas. for closely related ideas, they might be closer and longer for less closely related ideas

dramaturgical approach/theory:

concepts of front stage, back stage self, impression management and communication are all relevant to the dramaturgical approach to social interactions. dramaturgy uses the metaphor of theatre to understand social interactions. when interacting, people are assumed to act in accordance with the expectations of their audience

inclusive fitness

concerns the number # of offspring an animal has, how they support them, and how offspring support each other. inclusive fitness is thinking about fitness on a larger scale - evolutionary advantageous for animals to propagate survival of closely related individuals and genes in addition to themselves

role conflict

conflict/tensions between 2 or more different status, unlike role strain. the different status compete for someones time.

heat causes a ________ _______ in the protein

conformational change

suppression

conscious thought get pushed to unconscious but can access thoughts at a later time

operant conditioning (learned behaviour)

consequences that follow behaviour increase/decrease likelihood of behaviour happening again

3 main parts of external attribution

consistency: does person usually behave this way distinctiveness: does person behave differently in different situations consensus: do others behave similarly in situation? - if person behaves differently in different situations (distinctive) and others behave similarly in the same situation (consensus) then we know the behaviour is due to the situation (external). situation is effecting behaviour

grey matter

contains most of the neuron somas

white matter

contains myelinated axons

dominance/excessive self assertion

controls others through direct means to accomplish goals

cerebellum

coordinates movement: motor plan info is sent to cerebellum, also receives position sense information (ex muscle stretch fibres), and sends feedback to the cerebellum and motor areas of the motor cortex middle of cerebellum coordinates middle body movement and walking, while the sides are involved in movement of the limbs - arms and legs. also speech and movement of eyes midbrain, pons, medulla (also called medulla oblongata)

(Avoidance) social withdrawal, excessive autonomy

copes through social isolation, disconnection, and withdrawal. may demonstrate an exaggerated focus on independence and self reliance, rather than involvement with others. sometimes retreats through private activities such as excessive tv watching, reading, recreational computing, or solitary work

coping

coping is expanding conscious effort to solve personal and interpersonal problems, and seeking to master, minimize or tolerate stress r conflict. the effectiveness of the coping efforts depends on the type of stress and/or conflict, the particular individual, and the circumstances. psychological coping mechanisms are commonly termed coping strategies or coping skills. subconscious or non conscious strategies (eg, defence mechanisms) are generally excluded. the term coping generally refers to adaptive or constructive coping strategies, ie the strategies reduce stress levels. however, some coping strategies can be considered maladaptive, ie stress levels increase. maladaptive coping can thus be described, in effect, as non-coping. ie, the coping response follows the stressor. this contrasts with proactive coping, in which a coping response aims to head off a future stressor - coping responses are partly controlled by personality (habitual traits) but also partly by the social environment, particularly the nature of the stressful environment

self

core circle - media, society, family interactions can be internalized by an individual and can lead to avoidance, denial of condition, suffering of mental health conditions, and no longer participating in society. useful interventions include educating, access to support groups/resources

neurulation

core in mesoderm differentiates into a notochord. notochord induces change on cells above in the ectoderm (cells become thicker). called the neural plate - neural plate cells begin to dive into mesoderm. ring structure/tube forms and becomes known as a neural tube. you have neural crest cells too on the side

hemispheres communicate via ____ _____

corpus collosum

religious beliefs/faith

correlated by generally healthier lifestyle and social support

UMN starts in _______ ________, axon travels down through the brainstem, and where it meets the spinal cord most of these axons cross and travel down other side until they reach LMN. this collection of axons is called the....? if it goes to the brainstem, called corticobulbar tract

corticospinal tract

aggression/hostility

counterattacks through defying, abusing, blaming, attacking, or criticizing others

discrimination

differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities. can be based on different factors including race, age, religion, etc. can occur at individual or at the organization/institutional level

at periphery, light has to go through bundle of axons and some energy lost. so at fovea, light hits cones _____. at periphery, less light gets to the rods

directly

ethology

focuses on the observation of animal behaviours, call these overt behaviours (not necessarily obvious, just means observable). innate behaviour, learned behaviour, and complex behaviours

binet's idea of mental age

how a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years

challenge

how can the situation be overcome or conquered

intensity

how quickly neurons fire for us to notice, slow = low intensity, fast = high intensity

primary reinforcers

innately satisfying/desireable, like food water sexual activity

hearing adaptation

inner ear muscle, higher noise = muscle contract (dampens vibrations in inner ear, protects ear drum).. takes a few seconds to kick in

retina

inside, back area filled with photoreceptors, where the ray of light is converted from a physical waveform to an electrochemical impulse that the brain can interpret

we can let problem incubate

insight comes after some time

basal forebrain

is a collection of structures located to the front of and below the striatum. it includes the nucleus accumbent, nucleus basalts, and medial septal nuclei. these structures are important in the production of acetylcholine, which is then distributed widely throughout the brain. the basal forebrain is considered to be the major cholinergic output of the CNS

escape

is closely related to avoidance. this technique is often demonstrated by people who experience panic attacks or have phobias. these people want to flee the situation at the first sign of anxiety

social class

status (social status) is relative (to have higher status you need a lower status). social class often sets stage for prejudice (people on top maintain differences between themselves and lower class - the just world phenomenon - good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people, contributes to prejudice)

achieved status

status you earn yourself after working for it

ascribed statuses

statuses you can't change form birth

self fulfilling prophecy

stereotypes can lead to behaviours that affirm the original stereotypes

receiver goes to a _________, which reaches the cochlea. receiver receives info from a _____. transmitter gets electrical info from the speech processor. speech processor gets info from microphone

stimulator transmitter

chemoreceptor

stimuli specific chemicals total solute concentrations (osmoreceptors) blood pH (CO2 levels) prostagladins (nocireceptors) Location tongue blood (dissolved chemicals) nose (vaporized chemicals) tissue

subliminal stimuli

stimuli below the absolute threshold of sensation

Just noticeable difference

the threshold at which you're able to notice a change in any sensation

hypothesis of relative deprivation

upsurge in prejudice/discrimination when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to -relative depreciation is the discrepancy of what they are entitled to and what they get - extent and how quickly this happens can lead to collective unrest- an upsurge in prejudice and discrimination -linked to frustration aggression hypothesis

radio frequency lesions

used to destroy tissue on surface of brain and deep inside brain. wire is inserted into brain to determine the area. then pass high frequency current which heats up and destroys everything in the area (cell bodies and axons). you can't tell if this area was responsible for the behavioural that is not responding, or just has an axon passing through

barbiturates

used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety (calm them down) depress CNS anesthesia or anticonvulsant (drugs that reduce seizures) not often prescribed due to negative side effects such as reduced memory, judgement, and concentration, with alcohol can lead to death (most drugs with alcohol are bad) barbital

top down processing

uses background knowledge influences perception. ex wheres waldo - theory driven. perception influenced by our expectation deductive reasoning ex. creating a cube when its not there. not always correct

decision making

we make a judgement of the desirability/probability of a certain outcome

affective (emotional)

we may feel or have emotions about a certain object, topic, subject ex i am scared (an emotion) of spiders is an emotional attitude and shapes our attitude about spiders

form

we need to figure out boundaries of the object and shape of the object parvocellular pathway: good at spatial resolution (boundaries and shape - high levels of details) and colour. poor temporal (can't detect motion - only stationary) cones responsible

spotlight model of attention and multitasking: selective attention

we take information from our environment, but we don't consciously process all of it. you probably see everything, but don't attend to it consciously. we can attend to only a small amount of info at a time, but we see a lot of info.

2 categories of problems

well define and ill defined

harm

what damage has already been caused

amplification is ___ _______ (opposite of sensory adaptation)

up regulation

front 2/3 carries signals via ___ cranial nerve via chord tympani

7th

post acute

(fewer physical symptoms. more emotional/psychologic symptoms, same symptoms for everyone) common PAWS: mood swings, anxiety, irritability, tiredness, variable energy, low enthusiasm, variable concentration, disturbed sleep

stereotype threat

(negative consequence of stereotyping) - self fulfilling fear tat one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype - exposure to a negative stereotype surrounding a task can actually cause decrease in the performance of an individual performing task. stereotype threatens performance

pre-conventional

(pre-adolescent) 1. obedience vs punishment - reasoning is based on physical consequences of actions, so obeying the rules isa means to avoid punishment. 2. individualism and exchange or self interest - recognize not just one right view by authorities, different individuals have different viewpoints. doing what is right for personal gain

Stage 1 (Erickson)

0-1 years, crisis is trust vs mistrust. if an infants physical and emotional needs are not met, as an adult he or she may mistrust everyone virtue is hope and failing to acquire of virtue can lead to suspicion/fear/mistrust

4 factors to determine strong/weak self efficacy

1) mastery of experience - strengthens self efficacy 2) social modelling - seeing people similar to ourselves complete the same task increases self efficacy 3) social persuasion - when someone says something positive to you, helps overcome self doubt 4) psychological responses - learning how to minimize stress and control/elevate mood in difficult/challenging situations can improve self efficacy

somatosensory information travels in different pathways. in general, 2 big categories:

1) position sense, vibration sense, and fine touch 2) pain, temperature, gross (less precise) touch deliver info to spinal cord

development to higher mental functions from elementary mental functions (social interactions)

1) requires cooperative and collaborative dialogue from a MKO (more knowledgable other) - a person with a better understanding than the learner. the interaction with the learner + MKO -> learning + higher MF 2) zone of proximal development - part where most sensitive instruction/guidance should be given ex between ability of not being able to do something and being able to do something. ZPD is the link between the zone of can't do and can do. allows learner to use their skills they already have and expand learning to things they can't do 3) language - the mean means by which adults transmit info to children, and a powerful tool of intellectual adaptation. ex private internal speech, when people speak out loud to themselves - happens most in children. way for children to plan activities/strategies, and aids their development. language is an accelerator to thinking and understanding

stage 2 (erickson)

1-3 years, autonomy vs shame/doubt. around 18 months to 3 years. children develop independence by walking away from mother, what they eat, etc. critical that parents allow children to do that. virtue is achieved is will (independence) negative outcomes: if child is overly criticized/controlled, feel inadequate and lack self esteem, and have shame/doubt in abilities

anal stage

1-3. centred around anus. ex toilet training. leads to developing control/independency, encouraging child to feel positive outcomes and helps child feel capable and productive. serve as basis for competent, productive, creative adults. - if fixation occurs, have problems with orderliness and messiness

distinct stages of stress - general adaptation syndrome (GAS) 3 phases by Hans Selye

1. alarm phase - stress reaction kicks in, heart races, resources mobilized - "ready for fight or flight" 2. resistance - fleeing, huddling, temperature elevated, BP high, breathing rate high, body bathed in cortisol 3. exhaustion - if resistance isn't followed by recovery, our body's stress resources are depleted, our tissues become damaged and our dampened immunity can make us susceptible to illness. negative impact of long term stress.

parathyroid

4 spots back of thyroid. regulate calcium level

phallic stage

3-6, children discover difference between males and females. oedipus complex and electra complex at this stage. oedipus also develops - boys view fathers as rivals for mothers affection. describes feeling of wanting to possess mother and replace father. electra complex is the equivalent for young girls to their fathers. resoled through process of identification, where child starts to understand and develop similar characteristics as same sex parent. - if fixation occurs, cause homosexuality/exhibitionism

stage 3 (erickson)

3-6, initiate vs guilt. children feel more secure in their ability to lead others and play, so ask questions - virtue they reach is a sense of purpose in what they do and choices/decisions they make negative outcome: if tendency to ask questions is controlled, develop guilt - as if they're annoying other people and act more as a follower. inhibits their creativity, and outcome is inadequacy. some guilt is necessary so child can have self control

conventional

3. societal norms/acceptance - good boy and good girl - authority is internalized, but not questioned, and reasoning is based on group person belongs. individual is good in order to be seen as good by others, emphasis on conformity. "to gain acceptance and to avoid disapproval" 4. law and order/law abidance - maintaining social order, child is aware of wider roles of society and obeying laws "to follow rules"

in each taste bud are ____ receptor cells that can detect each taste. each taste can be detected anywhere on the tongue. each taste bud has cells specialized for each of the 5 tastes

5 receptor cells

post conventional

5. social contract - individual becomes aware that even though rules and laws exist for greater good, there are times this law works against interest of particular people. 6. universal ethical principle - people develop own set of moral guidelines, which may or may not fit the law, and principles apply to everyone. people who uphold and believe in these have to be prepared to act towards these even if they have to obey consequences/disapproval/imprisonment. very few people who reach this stage

by week 24

50% survival. after 23 weeks - rate of less complication decreases

there are __-__ million cones

6-7

stage 4 (erickson)

6012 years, where teachers take an important role in a childs life, and child works towards competence. crisis is industry vs inferiority virtue: child will gain greater significance and greater self esteem, and try to win approval from others. competence. will feel industrious. negative outcome: but if initiative is restricted child feels inferior (don't have competence). some failure is necessary/good though, so child has modesty

stage 8 (erickson)

65+, slowing in productivity. crisis is integrity vs despair. stage where people contemplate on lives, reminisce. may feel guilty about past or unaccompanied, dissatisfied. virtue is wisdom - look back on life with sense of closure/completeness and accept death without fear but if we feel unproductive leads to despair/dissatisfaction upon death

endoderm

GI tract tube (forms esophagus, small intestine, large intestine) + lungs + liver + pancreas

PDE takes cGMP and converts it to ____

GMP (so when light hits, lower concentration of cGMP and increases concentration of GMP)

sweet, umami and bitter cells rely on _____ receptors

GPCR

ANS divides into SNS and PNS

SNS starts middle of spinal cord -> short axon synapses with short ganglia close to spine -> second neuron goes to the target cell (smooth, cardiac, gland cells) PNS -> starts at the brain stem or bottom of spinal cord -> 1st neuron sends long axon -> synapse with ganglion of second neuron -> sends short axon to target cell general - both have 2 chains of axons. SNS is short and then long. PNS is long and then short

biologic theory suggests

important components of personality are inherited, or determined in part by our genes

attitude

a learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. to evaluate people, issues, events, objects. (we think of attitude as a moody teenager, or someone having certain attitude towards a topic)

cannabis

a mix of all. can be hallucinogen and also be a depressant or a stimulant

the information processing model is:

a bottom up or stimulus driven model assumes limited storage capacity assumes serial processes, however the human brain does have the capacity for parallel processing

sleep spindles

a burst of rapid brain activity. some researchers think that sleep spindles help inhibit certain perceptions so we maintain a tranquil state during sleep. sleep spindles in some parts of brain associated with ability to sleep through loud noises

shape constancy

a changing shape still maintains the same shape perception

pheromones

a chemical released by 1 member of the species and sensed by another species to trigger an innate response

bipolar disorder

a condition where someone swings from extreme emotional highs to extreme emotional lows individual with bipolar disorder will have periods of depression and periods of mania Mania acronym: DIG FAST distracibility insomnia gradiose fleeting thoughts agitation speech (pressured) thoughtlessness (risky behaviour)

correct rejection

a correct negative answer for no signal

scapegoats

a group of people towards whom the aggression is directed

representativeness heuristic

a heuristic where people look for the most representative answer, and look to match prototype - a given concept to what is typical/representative

means end analysis

a heuristic where we analyze the main problem and break it down into smaller problems. we then attack the problem that has the most different between current state and goal state. solve biggest -> smallest problem. current state -> goal state. ex, planning a trip to a new country, biggest problem would be to get to the new country, so you book a plane ticket to a new country

delusions of reference

a neutral environmental event is believed to have a special and personal meaning. for example, a person with schizophrenia might believe a billboard or person on TV is sending a message meant specifically for them.

trait theory

a personality trait is a stable predisposition towards a certain behaviour. straightforward way to describe personality - puts it in patterns of behaviour. description of traits instead of explaining them

positive priming

a positive prime speeds up processing. caused by simply experiencing the stimulus. positive priming is thought to be caused by spreading activation. this means that the first stimulus activates parts of a particular representation or association in memory just before carrying out an action or task. the representation is already partially activated when the second stimulus is encountered, so less additional activation is needed for one to become consciously aware of it

lewis merman

a psychologist f stanford university furthered/modified binet;s intelligence test and also incorporated teenagers and adults. this was named the stanford -binet intelligence test. merman noted that binet's test was not predictive of US children

abraham maslow's hierarchy of needs

a pyramid. we have needs that must be fulfilled from bottom to top. these needs must be fulfilled in a specific bottom -> top order basic needs are most fundamental and at bottom there are 5 needs acronyms: Please Stop Liking Stupid Shit physiological: food, water, breathing, sleep. essential to survive (basic need) -safety needs are associated with stability, security, protection, and freedom from threats love: need to belong, acceptance from friends/family intimacy, love. social needs/belonging self esteem: feel confident and sense of achievement, recognition, competence of skill, respect self actualization: one reaching their maximal potential, achieving the most one can be. they were moral to their own principles and mastered the other needs. differs from person to person. maximum potential - one can want to be ideal parent, or ideal athlete or ideal artist

cross tolerance

a reduction in the efficacy or responsiveness t a move drug due to a common CNS target

what is a trait?

a relatively stable characteristic of a person that causes individuals to consistently behave in certain ways. combination and interaction of traits forms the personality

limbic system

a set of structures in the brain, and many structures play an important role in regulating emotions. experts can't agree on what structures make up the entire limbic system -responsible for storage/retrieval of memories, especially ones tied to emotions. -strctures of the limbic system: hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus, hippocampus

lexicon

a set of vocabulary items. entire set of morphemes in a language. ASL that would mean the total combinations of hand movements, locations, facial expressions, and body language that help them to form meaningful words

cochlear implants

a surgical procedure that attempts to restore some degree of hearing to individuals with sensorineural narrow hearing loss (nerve deafness)

operational span testing

a task in which subjects are asked to perform a simple mathematical verification and then read a word, with a recall test following some number of those verify/read pairs. the maximum number of words that can be recalled is the "operation span"

Gate control theory of olfaction

a theory of the processes of nociception. the gate control theory of pain asserts that non-painful input closes the "gates" to painful input, which prevents pain sensation from travelling to the central nervous system. Therefore, stimulation by non-noxious input is able to suppress pain. "fast blocks slow" Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall

vigilance

a type of attention

imitation

a type of individual social influence, one of most basic forms of social behaviour. begins with understanding there is a difference between others and our self

the vestibular system

a type of sensation, balance and spatial orientation - comes from both inner ear and limbs

fluid intelligence

ability to reason quickly and abstractly, such as when solving novel logical problems - ability to think on ones feet, be adaptable, and solve problems using deductive and inductive reasoning cattell defined fluid intelligence as: in novel situations, the ability to recognize and reason relationships between objects or ideas independent of previous experience fluid intelligence helps one see patterns, organize and identify feature and spatial relationships to solve complex problems

abnormalities in neural pathways using certain NTs (depression)

abnormalities in pathways cause abnormal increase or decrease activity in the brain. collection of neurons have cell bodies in brain stem while axons project into frontal lobe/limbic system. one structure starts in the raphe nuclei of the brainstem responsible for serotonin release. another pathway starts in the locus coeruleus, which sends long axons to cerebrum and releases norepinephrine. also the VTA sends long axons to different areas of cerebrum, supplies dopamine medications that affect serotonin, NE, and dopamine often improve symptoms.

cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia

abnormalities of attention, organization, planning abilities, disorganized thinking, slow thinking, difficulty understanding, poor concentration, poor memory, difficulty expressing thought, difficulty integrating thoughts, feelings and behaviour

rational techniques

accept reality prevent or correct injustice - with cavities, sign a petition or changes to legal system

3 categories of 12 steps are:

acceptance - acknowledge addiction is a chronic progressive disease that you can't control surrender - give yourself over to higher power and accept help offered through that power and group active involvement in meetings/activities - can include helping other addicts

practice

activities well practiced become automatic processes, or things that occur without need for attention. whether task is automatic vs. controlled is determined by the amount of practice. a controlled task is harder, and would struggle to complete if attention is divided. automatic task occurs with greater experience.

nicotine

acts on acetylcholine

adoption studies

adopted child is compared to biological family and their adopted family. biological parents have shared gene to an adopted child but the parents (or other twin who grew up with biological parents) will have markedly different environments - if environmental factor plays a big role, the adoptive child would be similar to adoptive parent and dissimilar to parents - if genetics is predominate player, the adoptive child would be similar to biological parent and not the adoptive parent

monoamine NTs (biogenetic amines)

amino group and aromatic group connected by 2 carbon chain. cognition/thinking/emotion/attention. drugs subgroup: catecholamine's (benzene with hydroxyl groups)

emotional support

affection, love, trust, caring. the type that involves listening and emphasizing. can include physical support (hugs pats on back). provided by those closest to you (family, close friends)

_______ refers to the experience of emotions

affective

attitude (3 components)

affective behavioural cognitive

stage 5 (erickson)

age 12-20, adolescence. transition from childhood to adulthood, so one of most important criss. want to start feeling they belong in society - identity vs role confusion. in this stage, the child has to learn rules he needs to occupy as an adult, so may reexamine identity to figure out who they are. body image plays a big role. virtue is fidelity, seeing oneself as unique failure: role confusion. can cause rebellion/unhappiness

amygdala

aka aggression centre. if you stimulate amygdala, produces anger/violence and fear/anxiety - if you destroy, get mellowing effect. clever-bucy syndrome - bilateral destruction (destruction of both) amygdala can result in hyperorality (put things in most a lot), hyper sexuality, and distinguished behaviour. these are all drunken behaviours. damaged amygdala -> patients given bentos (act like alc.) those who have anxiety, whom are given bentos, and you see these behaviours

hawthorne effect

aka observer effect type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behaviour in response to their awareness of being observed - hawthorne effect occurs when an individual participant changes his or her behaviour, specifically due to the awareness of being observed `

self concept

aka self identity is how someone thinks about/perceives/evaluates themselves, aka self awareness

counterconditioning

aka stimulus substitution is a form of respondent conditioning that involves the conditioning of an unwanted behaviour or response to a stimulus into a wanted behaviour or response by the association of positive actions with the stimulus

step 1: categorize

all humans categorize ourselves and others without really realized it, part of human nature. categorize in order to understand objects/identify them. ex categorize to groups (which we belong to and those different) like race, job

random mating

all individuals within a species are equally likely to mate with each other. mating not influenced by environment/heredity or any behavioural/social limitation. ensures a large amount of genetic diversity

broadbent's early selection theory

all information in environment goes into sensory register (which briefly registers/stores EVERYTHING/all sensory information you receive such as words, clicks, sirens, etc) then the info gets transferred to selective filter right away which identifies what you are supposed to be attending to via basic physical characteristics and filters out stuff un unattended ear based on things you don't need to understand to identify (based on voice, pitch, speed, accents, etc) and finally information moves to perceptual processes identifies friend's voice and assigns meaning to words. then you engage in other cognitive processes such as deciding how to respond. sensory regulator -> selective filter -> perceptual process -> conscious

procedural memories

all memories formed by conditioning are implicit memories implicit memories are formed unconsciously all habits are procedural memories, a type of implicit memory memories that inform unconscious motor skills are procedural memories, a type of implicit memory procedural memory is long term memory for actions or habits such as how to kick a ball or washing hands before eating. procedural memory is a type of implicit memory. habit learning occurs in a specific type of implicit memory habits/implicit memory is stored in the basal ganglia

gordon allport

all of us have different traits. came up with list of 4500 different descriptive words for traits. from those he was able to come up with 3 basic categories of traits: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits

directed attention

allows attention to be focused sustainably on a single task, in this case a single orientation of the Necker cube

transfusing is a molecule made of 3 different parts:

alpha, beta and gamma that is attached to rhodopsin typically

marijuna

also a mild hallucinogen. main active chemical is THC, which heightens sensitivity to sounds, tastes, smells, like alcohol, reduces inhibition, impairs motor and coordination skills, perceptual skills disrupt memory formation, and short term recall stays in body up to a week's so regular users need less of the drug rather than more to receive the same high

role exit

also called social role. ex when an individual stops engaging in a role previously central to their identity and the process of establishing a new identity

biopsychosocial

also considers abnormalities and might be useful for cause or classification of mental disorder but also includes psychological and cultural/social factors that might be useful for cause or classification of mental disorder

authoritative parenting

also strict, consistent and loving but more pragmatic and issue-oriented and listen to children's arguments. balance responsibility with rights of child. discipline

attitude to behaviour process model (attitude - behaviour)

an event triggers our attitude (something that will influence our perception of an object) then attitude + some outside knowledge (what regarded as appropriate behaviour) together determines behaviour

effort justification

an idea and paradigm in social psychology stemming form festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance. it is people's tendency to attribute a greater value (greater than the objective value) to an outcome they have to put effort into acquiring or achieving.

negative priming

an implicit memory effect in which prior exposure to a stimulus unfavourably influences the response to the same stimulus. caused by experiencing the stimulus, and then ignoring it. negative prime lowers the speed to slower than un primed levels

IQ measures what type of intelligence

analytical

3 types of intelligences

analytical intelligence - academic abilities - to solve well defined problems creative intelligence - ability to adapt to new situations and generate novel ideas and adapt practical intelligence - solve ill defined problems, such as how to get a bookcase up a curvy staircase - proposed by robert sternburg

one of the major emotional responses of stress is depression

anhedonia - inability to experience pleasure, so perceive more stressors

solitary forcing

animal looks for food by itself.

group foraging

animals look for food in groups. hunting based on both your behaviour and those around you. can leas to competition whiten a group if food is scarce. benefit of this strategy is that animal's can take down larger/more aggressive prey and everyone can benefit

proactive coping

anticipating a problem anticipation is when one reduces the stress of some difficult challenge by anticipating what it will be like and preparing for how one is going to cope with it

cluster b has 4 personality disorders

antisocial: little or no regard for others. commit crimes and show no remorse. inconsiderate of others borderline: unstable relationships, emotions are unstable, variable self image and compulsive. people at the borderline are at the brink of emotional/relationship issue. ex displays characteristics of a stereotypical teenager histrionic: are very attention seeking. display emotions outwardly, wear bright clothes narcissistic: huge egos, need for admiration and praise, grandiose, ex dr house, hitler,

aggression

any physical/verbal behaviour intended to harm or destroy.

passive aggressiveness, rebellion

appears overtly compliant while punishing others or rebelling covertly through procrastination, pouting, backstabbing, lateness, complaining, rebellion, non-performance, etc

posterior chamber

area behind the iris to the back of lends, also filled with aqueous humour

norepinephrine

area in pons called the locus coeruleus that releases it to cerebral cortex. Also ANS, but less so than Act.

abnormal activity in brain of depressed people

areas with abnormal activity involve the frontal lobe and limbic structures. decreased activity in frontal lobe and increased activity in limbic structures. show a role in regulation of emotions and response to stress. ex stress hormones like cortisol are controlled by hypothalamus, which communicates with limbic system and frontal lobe. hormones affect the brain themselves too - communication of frontal lobe, limbic system, and hypothalamus may play a role why there are abnormal hormones in the body - stress hormones affect most tissues of the body and the brain (including hypothalamus, limbic system, and frontal lobe) - unclear which abnormalities of stress hormone are caused and which are effects of the disease

pleasure principle

as a young child (or if you are immature) you want to immediately feel pleasure to avoid suffering. not willing to compromise

heritability increases in following:

as environments become more controlled, differences in behavioural traits are tied to heritability. secondly, more genetic variation leads to greater variability ex. fraternal quadruplets with way more different phenotypes. the differences are tied to the genes/heritability as well if environments are kept constant - in heritability we are talking about the relative contributions of genes to behaviours or traits heritability is dependent on population that is studied. heritability is specific to the population studied and would likely be different in different environments

the vibrational theory of olfaction

asserts that the vibrational frequency of a molecule gives the molecule its specific odour profile

primary appraisal

assessing stress in present situation. 3 categories of response to this primary appraisal - irrelevant, benign/positive, or stressful/negative. if primary appraisal is negative (stressful), move forward with secondary appraisal

beta (12-30Hz)

associated with awake/concentraion. if you are alert for too long, beta levels get high and you experience increased stress, anxiety, restlessness - constant awakened alertness

recognition

best out of the 3 tests/easiest to recall. present 2 words, and say which one you heard. retrieval of correct word is highly likely.

pavlov

associated with classical conditioning. ex, pavlov dog experiment. places a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to trigger an involuntary response. ex ringing a bell in presence of food causes dog to start salivating - people have consistent behaviour patterns because we have specific response tendencies, but these can change, and thats why our personality develops over our entire lifespan. constantly evolving and changing

extrinsic motivation

associated with rewards or obligated behaviour. extrinsic motivation is motivation to do something based on an external reward (like money or fame)

semantics

association of meaning with a word. semantics are the broad meanings of each word, phrase, sentence, or text. N400 response, bigger with bigger violation

suspensory ligaments

attached to a ciliary muscle. these 2 things together form the ciliary bond, what secretes the aqueous humour

vygotsky sociocultural development babies have 4 elementary mental functions:

attention sensation perception memory

divided attention

attention is a limited resource. can't split it very well. Doing 2X at once you end up switching between tasks rather than doing them simultaneously. divided attention occurs when an individual must perform 2 tasks which require attention simultaneously

prejudice

attitudes that prejudice a group, usually negative and not based on facts. make same assumptions about everyone in a group without considering their differences.

stereotyping

attributing a certain thought/cognition to a group of individuals, and overgeneralizing

anthropomorphism

attributing human characteristics to non human animal's

distinctiveness of a situation =

attribution to external factors

3 types of hormones effects

autocrine - effects the cell that makes it paracrine - regional effect endocrine signals - response that is far away

cluster c has 3 personality disorders

avoidant: inhibited, feel inadequate, and try to avoid putting themselves in a situation where they can be criticized dependentL submissive and clingy ex. those who stay in physically abusive relationships obsessive-compulsive personality disorders: very focused on life being ordered and things being perfect and for them being in control to an extent where it annoys other people. it is a personality! on the other hand, in OCD the focus is on order, things in control, having to wash hands

addictive self soothing

avoids through addictions involving the body, such as alcohol, drugs, overeating, addictive masturbation, etc

genital stage

back on libido, because individual develops strong sexual interests. before this stage, focus on individual needs. now, focus on needs of others. no adult fixation - person is mentally healthy. goal: establish balance between various life areas (well balanced, warm, caring)

Why injury to one side of brain often results in damage to other side ->

because all the somatosensory pathways cross to the other side

continuous reinforcement

becomes less reinforcing so there is a need for ulterior reinforcement. continuous reinforcement occurs on a 1:1 ratio - this means that for each behaviour, there is a reward. discovered by bf skinner

stage 1: pre processing stage due to target characteristics

before we can consider information or be persuaded by it, the information is first filtered by interest, motivation, or importance central processing: if listener interest, motivation, importance are high. people will only choose this route when they are interested in the topic peripheral processing: if listen interest, motivation, importance are low we process via the peripheral route. chosen when listener doesn't care about topic we filter info before we can even process it

bottom up processing

begins with stimulus. Influences what we perceive (our perception) - no preconceived cognitive constructs of the stimulus (never seen it before) - data driven. and the stimulus directs cognitive awareness of what you're looking at (object) - inductive reasoning. always correct

endocrine system related to behaviour

behaviour coordinated response to environment hormones effect how we respond to attitude/personality cognitive betrayal therapy: control what your body is doing physiologically with your mind. when you are afraid for example, epinephrine causes increased heart rate etc. (fight or flight response). when you are no longer scared, become calmer and hormones then get reduced)

prototype Willingness Model (PWM)

behaviour is a function of 6 things, the combination of which influence our behaviour. our behaviour is a function of... past behaviour attitudes - explained in attitude to behaviour processing model; attitude -> behaviour subjective norms - what others think about our behaviour our intentions - our behaviour intentions our willingness to engage in a specific type of behaviour models/prototyping - a lot of our behaviour is carried out from prototyping/modelling

partial reinforcement schedule

behaviour is reinforced only some of the time. more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement. behaviour is shaped through a process of successive reinforcement of approximations of target behaviour

psychological factors - in depression, the following occur

behavioural theory - "learned helplessness" begin to feel powerless if they have no control over the environment they are in repeatedly. uncontrollable exposure to an aversive stimulus "independent to intensity of punishment" cognitive theory - cognitive distortions - getting trapped in negative thought pattern, when you continue to think about negative thoughts cognitive theory - attribution. these form a pessimistic/negative attributional style which makes people vulnerable to depression - individuals with depression link negative experiences to internal causes. they think negative experiences will continue to occur in the future. they also think negative experiences are global. are pessimistic attribution style individuals more likely to have depression or is it the other way around. not always clear

taboos

behaviours completely forbidden/wrong in any circumstances, and violation results in consequences far more extreme than a more. often punishable by law (with serious legal consequences) and a result in severe disgust by members of community. considered very immoral behaviour. ex incest (sexual relationships between family members) and cannibalism (eating human flesh)

optimism bias

belief bad things happen to others, but not to us

self efficacy

belief in ones abilities to succeed in a situation/to organize and execute the courses of action required in a particular situation. developed by bandora due to his dissatisfaction with idea of self esteem,

delusions of grandeur

belief that one is a famous or important figure, such as jesus christ or napoleon. alternatively, delusions of grandeur may involve the belief that one has unusual powers that no one else has (eg, that ability to fly)

lens

bends the light so it goes to back of eyeball -- focuses light specifically on the fovea of the retina. adjust how much it bends the light by changing its shape, using the suspensory ligaments

amphetamines

both block dopamine reuptake and stimulate presynaptic dopamine release.

global aphasia

both broca's aphasia and wernicke's aphasia are damaged. combination of impaired comprehension and production of speech

CNS

brain and spinal cord brain includes cerebrum, cerebral hemisphere, brainstem (midbrain, pons, and medulla) and cerebellum forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain. forebrain becomes cerebrum, midbrain becomes midbrain, and hindbrain becomes pons/medulla/cerebellum

abnormalities in neuroplasticity (Depression)

brain changes in response to experience. but unclear if neuroplasticity abnormalities is a cause or effect. strength of information/efficiency of flow changes or connections change. aspects of neuroplasticity appear to be normal in animals of major depressive disorder. may include genetics (predisposition can be inherited, increase risk of developing a response to negative or stressful event particularly early in life), but psychosocial factors can also be linked to major depressive disorder such as childhood abuse, stressful events or limited social support during adverse circumstances. so likely combination of biological and psychosocial factors

activation synthesis hypothesis

brain gets a lot of neural impulses in brainstem, which is sometimes interpreted by the frontal cortex brainstem = activation, and cortex = synthesis our brain is simply trying to find meaning from random brain activity. therefore dreams might not have meaning

2 modern types of studying brain

brain structure brain function

biological basis of Alzheimers

brain tissue has decreased in size significantly - shrivelled up, atrophy - its the cerebrum that often dramatically decreased in size. severity of atrophy correlates with severity of dementia starts in temporal loves, important for memory later, atrophy spreads to parietal and frontal lobes. many cognitive functions

old brain (all occur outside of our awareness)

brainstem (mostly covered by brain) and is the medulla and pons. controls heart beat/breathing and cross over point of our nerves reticular formation: from brainstem to other brain areas. it filters info and sends important info to the thalamus. sleep/wake cycle (arousal). ability to be aware. thalamus (above brainstem) relay station (eye/ear info) goes to thalamus cerebellum - coordinates voluntary movement (alcohol effects in this area)

social anomie

breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community. a situation in which society does not have the support of a firm collective consciousness. social anomie can also result in social groups disbanding, and alienation from social groups. to resolve social anomie, social norms must be strengthened and groups must redevelop sets of shared norms. can lead to uncertainty in social situations. means that there is a weakened sense of morality and criteria for behaviour

inhalation

breathing or snorting or smoking, because once you inhale goes straight to brain, insufflation inhaling drugs through the nose is highly addictive but less addictive than drugs that are injected. 10 seconds

temperament

broader than personality. its their characteristic emotional reactivity, intensity, their shyness and their sociability. temperament seems to be established before babies are exposed to environment. persistent as person ages - there is a difference between children, not all people have the same as temperament. babies/children's/people have different ways they respond to environment/parents. ex one baby can be relaxed (easy), another irritable/tense (difficult) and another can show flat affect (withdrawn). we can differentiate babies in different ways as well the withdrawn person is more likely to be withdrawn as an adult temperament is hard wired into us at birth, and persistent as we age

myers briggs personality test

carl jung 4 letters that characterize you in one of 16 personality types. there are a set of traits/behaviours based on these! ESTJ: extraversion (E), sensing (S), thinking (T) judgement (J) INFP: introversion (I) iNtuition (N) Feeling (F) Perception (P)

catatonic schizophrenia

catatonic schizophrenia is a type of (subtype) of schizophrenia that includes extremes of behaviour. at one end of the extreme the patient cannot speak, move or respond -- there is a dramatic reduction in activity where virtually all movement stops, as in a catatonic stupor

korsakoff's syndrome

caused by a lack of vitamin B1 or thiamine. caused by malnutrition, eating disorders, and especially alcoholism. these groups don't process or absorb all the nutrients they need

muscle stretch reflex

causes a muscle to contact after its stretched, as a protective response. ex, knee jerk response - involuntary response of leg kicking out. the hammer hits the tendon right below the knee cap, which hooks right onto the lower leg bone on one end, and a large group of upper muscles on the other. muscles are called muscle spindles

central sleep apnea

central (brain is part of CNS) sleep (at night), apnea (effects airflow) - looking fro apnea without obstructions. looking at 5+ appease/hour during sleep problem with the brains control system for ventilation (that control brain for breathing) cheyness-stroke breathing- crescendo then decrescendo breathing followed by stop in breathing. normal breathing pattern is inhale/exhale changes from a normal fixed pattern --believed heart failure/stroke/renal failure is the cause

both rogers + maslow

central feature of our personality is self concept - achieved when we bring genuineness and acceptance together to achieve growth-promoting climate. when theres discrepancy between conscious values and unconscious true values leads to tension, must be resolved genuine + acceptance = self concept

stage 3: change in attitude

central processing: creates a lasting attitude change peripheral processing: creates a temporary attitude change

stage 2: processing stage by message/source

central processing: focus on a deep processing of the information peripheral processing: focus on superficial characteristics (shallow processing of info) such as attractiveness of speaker, their powerpoint attractiveness, or even how many points the speaker made. how many times speaker got audience to laugh, etc

anxiety

centres the amygdala. amygdala - fears and phobias, fits in perfectly with response to stress. perceive more things as fearful - accompanies the flight aspect of sympathetic response

privately conform

change behaviours and opinions to align with group

how to improve self control (4 ways)

change environment operant conditioning classical conditioning deprivation

neural plasticity

changes in brain size/ and involves function of environmental influences

epigenetics

changes to gene expression resulting from changes other than to gene/DNA sequence. ex addition of methyl groups to the gene, which makes it more difficult for TFs to come in and activate gene. epigenetics can override our behaviour - epigenetics is the study of changes ing one expression hat result in something other than changes to a DNA sequence. one epigenetic change is methylation, which can make it more difficult for a gene to be expressed

sublimation

channeling negative to positive energy. ex violent energy, instead of expressing violence you become a boxer. transform into socially acceptable behaviours

latent learning

learned behaviour is not expressed until required

riots

characterized by large numbers of people who engage in dangerous behaviour, such as vandalism, violence, or other crimes. riots are very chaotic and cost cities millions in damages. can be result of perceived issue. cause of act can be legitimate, the group acts out in ways that are illegal/damaging to society as a whole - a riot is a violent form of crowd behaviour that results from feelings of injustice or feeling that has been ignored. riots typically result in property damage and other significant crimes - mob is a group of individuals who are emotional and violent, but target specific individuals or categories of individuals

OCD

characterized by obsessions and compulsions obsessions: unwanted repetitive thoughts compulsionsL unwanted repetitive actions these obsessions and compulsions persistently interfere with everyday life. ex continuously washing ur hands multiple times throughout the day to the point where ur skin becomes rock - for normal people, once you perform the action the worry goes away and doesn't interfere with ur life. the worry doesn't continue to occupy the brain. ex checking if door is locked, or washing ur hands shortly after touching something gross common obsessions: dirty, bad future (something terrible is about to happen), ex someone in your family is about to get sick to the point that they don't think about other things), need for symmetry (feel uncomfortable unless things around them are ordered to the point they continue thinking about it ex a book is slanted and u think about it till u fix it. if u don't something bad will happen - remember: these must invade ur everyday life and the obsessions are an extreme common compulsions: washing (intense need to wash hand, to bathe, or groom). check doors/appliances (constantly/repeatedly), movement ritual (feeling the need to repeatedly sit down/stand up, leave room and come back, tap on a desk) 2-3% of people, typically, teen and young adult

depression/major depressive disorder

characterized by prolonged feeling of helplessness and discouragement about the future. individuals with this disorder have the following: suicidal thoughts- low self esteem, low mood interests decreased: lack of interest guilt energy decreased - lethargy concentration decreased - trouble making decisions appetite disturbance - increased/decreased psychomotor changes/symptoms (agitation or retardation) sleep disturbances (increased/decreased) + weight gain or loss

optic nerves from each eye networks the electrical signal to the brain and converge from each eye at the optic _____ and then break off and dig deeper into the brain

chiasm

nativist perspective

children are born with ability to learn language. associated with noam chomsky. thought humans had a language acquisition device (LAD) that allowed them to learn language. idea that this ability exists - all languages shared universal grammar (same basic elements like sounds, verb, etc) so LAD enables child to pick up on/understand those types of words and their organization within a sentence for any language - goes along with idea of critical period (aka sensitive period)

learning (behaviourist) theory

children aren't born with anything, they only acquire language through operant conditioning. child learns to say "mama" because every time they say that, mom reinforces child. but doesn't explain how they can produce words they've never head before or unique sentences. associated with BF skinner

well defined problems

clear starting and ending point. a well defined problem has clear criteria that describe whether or not the goal has been achieved

primary groups

closest members of the group to you. close intimate long term relationships. give a dense of belonging and shared identity.

sociocultural/environment factors

co-rumination/empathy: having a friend/roomate/partner with depression can increase likelihood of individuals around you getting depression. might be due to people talking about problems and the negatives of them instead of how to solve them. you also take on the (empathize) with the emotions of those close to you. this empathy might cause depression low socio-economic status or those who lost job/struggling to keep a job have a higher risk of developing depression social isolation/child abuse inernaalization of prejudice = higher likelihood of depression

higher =

cognition (thinking), emotions (feelings) and consciousness

proprioception is ______, kinaesthesia is _______

cognitive behavioural

cognitive dissonance

cognitive dissonance is the discomfort experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting cognitions (ideas, beliefs, values, emotional reaction) these conflicting ideas lead to feelings of discomfort which we want to alleviate. these conflicting ideas can be alleviated by alterations in our beliefs/behaviours. we want to reduce the discomfort by minimizing the dissonance/inconsistencies/contradictions

3 categories of symptoms of schizophrenia:

cognitive, positive, negative symptoms

categorical self

comes once baby realizes they are separate (comes after existential self) - becoming aware that even though we're separate/distinct objects/beings, we also exist in the world with others. and each of these objects/entities has properties. ex age, gender are the first categories babies first learn, then skills and size. then as we grow older compare ourselves with others - traits, comparisons, careers (these are more developed categories)

somatosensory communication

communicate through touch and movement. movement can also convey food location (bees), pair/group bonding

classical twin study -

compare monozygotic + dizygotic each raised in same household

types of learned behaviours

complex behaviour- combination of innate and learned behaviour. relationships between genes and environment in adaptation. can be a spectrum, most behaviours fit between innate and learned - ability of insects to fly. starts as innate but through learning become more efficient in ability to fly genes/environments forms behaviour and they also contribute to the adaptive role of these behaviours covert behaviour - covert behaviour is behaviour that is not observable

# of types of conformity and obedience

compliance identification internalization

surrender

compliance, dependence: relies on others, gives in, seeks affiliation, passive, dependent, submissive, clinging, avoids conflict, people releasing

prejudice is made of 3 components

component 1: cognition (stereotype) - fundamental underlying though overgeneralized belief (cognition) component 2: affect-prejudice carries an emotional component Component 3: discrimination (tendency of prejudice to lead to behaviour) - capacity to carry out a behaviour and act on prejudice (ABC model)

strength of a signal is variable d'

d' strength hit > miss (when there is a strong signal) miss > hit (weak signal)

broca's aphasia

damage to language production centres of the brain. produce broken/halted speech. frontal lobe region damaged characterized by apraxia, a disorder of motor planning which causes problems producing speech

up regulation

dark regulation. pupils dilate - rods and cones start synthesized light sensitive molecules

thanks:

death drive. self destructive/harmful to others. comes with fear, anger (inward or outward), hate

explicit memories

declarative conscious

explicit memory

declarative. are facts/events you can clearly/explicitly describe. explicit memory is a type of long term memory that focuses on recalling previous experiences and information. explicit memory can be divided into 2 categories, episodic and semantic

views of deviance include

differential association labelling theory strain theory

N2 (stage 2)

deeper stage of sleep. People in N2 are harder to awaken. we see more theta waves, as well as sleep spindles and K complexes

regression

defence mechanism where one regresses to position of child in problematic situations

sublimation

defence mechanism where unwanted impulses are transformed into something less harmful

ethnicity

defined by national origin/distinct cultural patterns.

irrational techniques

denial of the situation - refuse to accept the situation reinterpreting the events - change our interpretation of the outcome, the cause, and the character of the victim

pragmatics

dependences of language on context and pre-existing knowledge pragmatics are affected by prosody - the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices

dependent stressor

depressed person would be expected to experience a greater number of stressful events that he or she influences

Visual cues allow us to perceptually organize by taking into account the following cues:

depth, form, motion, constancy

the labeled line theory of olfaction

describes a scenario where each receptor would respond to specific stimuli and is directly linked to the brain

demand characteristics

describes how participants change behaviour to match expectations of experimenter. conformed because thats what experimenter wanted them to do

generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

describes person whose general state is tense and uneasy to a degree it influences their life (don't eat well or are sleep deprive for example). this anxiety must last for 6 months or more. - identifiable physical symptoms: eyelids, twitching eyelids, trembling, fidgeting population it affects: women (2/3 are women) source of anxiety: unclear can't identify the cause of their stress so they can deal with it or identify it/cause can lead to high BP and other bodily symptoms usually have also depression (not part of this disorder but can go along with it) continuous high level of anxiety

socialization

describes the process by which people learn the attitudes, behaviours, and values expected by their culture/community. socialization learning occurs through observation of/interaction with people who we are surrounded by - those close to us and everyone else - everyone has something to teach us on how we should act in our community - also shapes our self image and self concept, and charles cooley used the term "looking glass self" to describe this process

obedience

descries how we follow orders/obey authority. no cognitive component ex im just following orders

smell

desensitized receptors in your nose to molecule sensory information over time

colour constancy

despite changes in lighting which change the image colour falling on our retina, we understand (perceive) that the object is the same colour

cones

detect colour and discern high level of detail in what you are observing. cone shaped

rods

detect light. rod shaped

otolithic organs (utricle and saccule) help us..

detect linear acceleration and head positioning. in these are CaCO3 crystals attached to hair cells in viscous gel.

parallel processing:

detect/focus all information (colour, form, motion) at same time

dizygotic twins

develop from 2 separately fertilized eggs. share 50% of genes, like regular siblings both

humanistic theory

developed by carl rogers focuses on healthy personality development and humans are seen as inherently good. the most basic motive of all people is the actualizing tendency (self actualization), innate drive to maintain and enhance oneself to full potential. it also says that people have free will. person will grow towards self actualization as long as there are no obstacles

physical changes of puberty

development of primary sex characteristics (testes males and ovaries female) secondary sex characteristics (related to sexual development but not required). males - change in voice/growth of body hair, growth spurt. females - breast/hips. both genders: pubic hair/underarm hair sequence of changes are same but timing is not the same in all individuals. depends on height, weight, and individual social effects of timing of puberty males: early puberty males have both negative and positive consequences positive: stronger/taller (more athletic), popular, independent negative: increase delinquency and alcohol use females: only negatives: teasing, sexual harassment,. out of sync with friends in interests

when norm is violated, its referred to as a _____

deviance. not negative, just individuals behaving differently from what society feels is normal. deviance is relative just like norms. based on content, individuals, group and country

DSM-5

diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th edition, from the APA. 20 top level categories

wernicke's aphasia

different pattern of behaviour - words they make don't make any sense. they also can't understand what others say. temporal lobe region damaged characterized by difficulty understanding spoken words and sentences as well as difficulty producing sentences that make sense

inside rods are optic _____, which are large membrane bound structures -- thousands of them. in membrane of each optic disc are proteins that fire APs to the brain

discs

schizophrenia

disorder of the brain but it has nothing to do with multiple personalities combination of genetics and environmental (experience in the womb, childhood experiences) cause abnormalities in the brain these abnormalities in the brain can be picked up by abnormal brain scans and NTs (high dopamine). antipsychotic medicines reduce dopamine. none of the tests actually diagnose schizophrenia and is diagnosed by a clinical interview (history, hearing from the patient/family, and observing patient) why do we observe the patient? it causes changes in the patient's behaviour? - the behavioural change can be changes in the way they think or act -- differences in the way they think: abnormal beliefs (delusions), see/hear things (hallucinations) differences in the way they act: isolate themselves socially, disorganized, flat affect (lack emotion) lots of changes that are different 1% of people have schizophrenia. equal in males and females. affects those who are 16-30 years old. males are affected at a younger age than females

aphasia

disorder that involves language. aphasia is a communication disorder that causes problems with language, like speaking, listening, reading and writing

mental disorders

disorders of the mind. mental illness, psychological pyschiatric illness. abnormalities of the mind that cause distress or disability. sometimes can shorten someone's lifespan (suicide or other negative effects)

examples of maladaptive behaviour strategies

dissociation, sensitization, safety behaviours, anxious avoidance, and escape (including self meditation)

traits:

distinguishing qualities and characteristics that compose us. our attributes. ex our temperament of our eye colour

pathological defence mechanisms

distort reality denial - person pretends something hasn't happened. most important defence mechanism

hallucinogens (psychedelics)

distorted perceptions/hallucinogens - seeing or hearing things different from how things actually are heightened sensations. based on reality but is different from whats going on in the world around. can give them energy or calm them down emotional responses - feeling of connectedness and mood swings (changing moods) exact effect can be different depending on an individuals personality or who they are.who they are with

definition of distress

distress is a negative type of stress that builds over time and is bad for your body. it happens when you perceive a situation to be threatening to you in some way, and your body becomes primed to respond to that threat

gender dysphoria

distress/disability caused by person identifying as a different gender than society represents them as. must cause distress/disability

drama/stressor related disorders

distress/disability form occurs after stressful/traumatic events. leads to mood, emotional and behavioural abnormalities - ex post traumatic stress disorder, common after wards or other traumatic experiences

anxiety disorders

distress/disability from abnormal worry/fear. some are specific to certain stimuli like phobias, while others are not specific to certain stimuli, including generalized anxiety disorder. panic disorder involves panic attacks (intense anxiety) - social anxiety disorder a false cognition leads to a fear of humiliation, embrassament, rejection, negative evaluation, or rejection by others ---- selective mutism is an anxiety disorder characterized by difficulty speaking in social situations, but the individual is developmentally normative in terms of their language and communication ability. general anxiety disorder: individuals with generalized anxiety disorder experience excessive and persistent worry or anxiety regarding many different spheres of life that cause distress, impairment, or maladaptive behaviour

sexual dysfunctions

distress/disability from abnormalities in or performance of sexual activity

dissociative disorders

distress/disability from abnormalities of identity or memory - multiple personalities, people who have lost memories for part of their lives

depressive disorders

distress/disability from abnormally negative mood. mood refers to long term emotional state. (mood is not emotion, mood is more long term and not necessarily related to events). mood is also subjective experience person has of their experience - mood (how someone feels such as sad) becomes affect (how mood is displayed to others - person crying). hopelessness, loss of enjoyment in activities. high risk of suicide

other disorders

distress/disability from any person that appears to have a mental disorder causing distress/disability but doesn't fit into other categories rare

feeding and eating disorders

distress/disability from behavioural abnormalities related to food - ex anorexia nervosa (takes in insufficient amounts of food), bulimia nervosa (binge eating then purging (induced vomiting))

disruptive, impulse control, and conduct disorders

distress/disability from behaviours that are unacceptably disruptive or impulsive for someones culture. inability to control inappropriate behaviours

paraphillic disorders

distress/disability from having sexual arousal to unusual stimuli for a person's culture. must cause distress/disability or if causes harm to another person, particularly people or a child who does not have decision making capacity for proper consent

obsessive compulsive and related disorders

distress/disability from obsessions or compulsions obsessions - thoughts that occur involuntarily, often unwelcome. occur repeatedly compulsions - are activities that one must do and are often related to an obsession ex obsession with hands being dirty, compulsion to wash them many times a day

secondary appraisal

evaluation of the individual's ability to cope with the situation. what is the individual's material preparedness to deal with stressor. appraisal of harm, threat, and challenge (how to overcome it)

somatic symptom and related disorders

distress/disability from symptoms similar to those that may occur to illness unrelated to mental disorder, but of psychological origin with or without having a general medical condition at the same time - example is someone that has abdominal pain, caused by psychological disorders such as stress without any physical signs

substance related and addictive disorders

distress/disability from the abnormal use of substances that affect mental function. include alcohol, caffeine, cannabis, hallucinogens, inhalants, opioids, sedatives, hypnotics, anxiolytics, stimulants, tobacco, others. can cause mood abnormalities, anxiety symptoms, or psychosis. also includes gambling

elimination disorders

distress/disability from urination/defecation at inappropriate times or places - ex urinary accidents

personality disorders

distress/disability related to personality. involves long term mental and behavioural features that are characteristic of a person, huge spectrum of personality types considered acceptable from a culture. personality disorders involve ones outside those accepted of societal norms. cluster A off/eccentric (weird), saluter B intense emotional/relationship problems (wild), cluster C is anxious/avoidant/obsessive (worried)

gestation

divide it into months (9 months-10) or trimesters (3 months each) or divide into weeks (10/20/30/40 weeks). weeks is best/scientifically accurate/useful

damaging effects of stress on our immune function

divided into innate vs adaptive causes inflammation - acute stress can lead to overuse of immune system. can attack our own body. good example is arthritis (joint become overly inflamed) chronic stress: stop activating immune system response and it suppresses you. doesn't make you sick, but makes you more susceptible to illness - 40% slower healing rate for puncture wounds delivered to grad students right before exam compared to same wounds inflicted during summer vacation - increased susceptibility to virus to stressful individuals. 20% increase in development of cold stress can have damaging effects

ecological validity

do the conditions of the study mimic those of the real world. if they don't , we can only make limited conclusions. a line in lab is not same as conformity in the real world

sight

does regulation or up regulation to light intensity

exogenous/external cues:

don't have to tell ourselves to look for them in order for them to capture our attention. ex, bright colours, loud noises, "pop out effect") - exogenous attention is driven by bottom up or external events, ie pop out

incentive theory focuses on positive reinforcement

done through continuous positive stimulation. a positive reinforce is given after a response to increase the response. you need to be constantly given positive reinforces

amphetamines and methamphetamines also trigger release of _______, feeling of euphoria for up to 8 hours. once effect wears off, experience irritability, insomnia, seizures, depression

dopamine

some features of schizophrenia also involve abnormalities in ______ (increase)

dopamine this dopamine plays a role in frontal/temporal lobes. effects cognitive, emotional, perceptual functions

brain releases NT called _____. produced in the _____ _____ _____ (VTA) in the midbrain

dopamine ventral tegmental area

RANT ABOUT DOPAMINE

dopamine, produced in the arcuate nucleus, is transmitted from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland via the tuberoinfundibular pathway. the dopamine released regulates the secretion prolactin by inhibiting its release in the anterior pituitary. dopamine, produced in the substantia nigra, is transmitted from the neuron soma to axons projecting into the caudate nucleus and the putamens of the neostriatum via the nigrostriatal pathway. this pathway is associated with motor planning and purposeful movement. - substantia nigra -> motor planning dopamine, produced in ventral tegmental area (VTA) is transmitted form the VTA to the pre frontal cortex via the mesocortical pathway. this pathway is associated with cognition, affect, and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. VTA -> CORT = negative symptoms dopamine, produced in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) is transmitted from the VTA to the nucleus accumbens, the amygdala, and the hippocampus. the mesolithic pathway is associated with reward, motivation, and many of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia VTA -> LIMBIC (nucleus accumbens, amygdala, hippocampus) -> reward/positive symptoms

sigmund freud (dreams)

dreams are our unconscious thoughts and desires that need to be interpreted. little scientific support

transdermal

drug is absorbed through skin. ex. nicotine patch. drug in patch has to be pretty potent, released into bloodstream over several hours transdermal administration occurs slowly, since the drugs have to be absorbed through the skin before the effects can be felt

psychoactive drugs

drugs that can alter our consciousness and perceptions. they can alter our perception, increase our mood, calm us down, make us feel more alert, etc. classified by action and effects they have on our bodies

stimulants

drugs that excite your CNS, increase HR/BP, alertness, more awake, more energetic. can cause people to feel glittery. examples include: caffeine, amphetamines (adder all) methamphetamines (meth)MDMA (molly/ecstasy) cocaine, nicotine, THC

depressants

drugs that lower your body's basic functions and neural activity, lower CNS activity (decrease arousal/stimulation in areas of our brain) ex decreased heart rate, BP,

damaging effects of stress on our metabolism

during stress, body secretes cortisol and glucagon, which converts glycogen to glucose. glucose increases in our blood which remains floating around in blood vessels (we don't need all this extra glucose, which can exacerbate metabolic conditions like diabetes) too much blood sugar can also cause heart disease

development of self concept has 2 parts

existential self categorical self

phrenologists

each brain area is devoted to a certain personality characteristic, thought, emotion (they were wrong, but there are brain areas associated with specific tasks) - as areas of the brain developed -- they would grow and create bumps on the skull which could then be used to study the individual - early ways to study brain were limited. wait till someone died and then study it. it told them about the structures of the brain but it did not tell them how the brain functions, how the brain generates thoughts, how the brain controls the body - so to figure out how it worked -- they waited till someone got a brain injury and then the effect the brain injury had on an individual. (we don't have control of when this happens, so not the best way to study! also an accident typically causes problems with many areas - makes it hard to isolate what brain area is response for which behavioural change) cerebral localization: specific parts of the brain can control specific aspects of behaviour and emotion, thought, personality

hierarchy of organization

each position is under supervision of higher authority. not all people of an organization are equal.

labelled lines model

each taste bud has 5 axons, all which send separate test info to different parts of the gustatory (taste) cortex. remain separate to the brain. and they all synapse on diff parts of the gustatory (taste) cortex

classical conditioning (self control)

eat healthy snack every time you crave chocolate and over time you might start craving healthy snacks. refocus desires to something more in line of long term goals

lower motor neurons (LMN)

efferent neurons of the PNS synapse on control skeletal muscle. skeletal muscle cells it contacts is the other end of the motor unit. form a neuromuscular junction

monozygotic twins

egg splits into 2 after fertilization. share 100% of genes, genetically identical

amygdala is involved with ____, aggression, mating, etc. in temporal lobe, also involved in memory/decision making, emotional reactions

emotion

further examples of coping strategies include:

emotional or instrumental support self distraction denial substance use self blame behavioural disengagement the use of drugs or alcohol

behavioural

emotions produces different behavioural responses evident from body language or facial expression. expressions vary by individual and interpreted differently culture to culture

behaviourists

empiricist, believe language is just conditioned behaviour

2 types of cues that can direct our attention

exogenous and endogenous

devil effect/reverse halo effect

even if baseline skills are same, we perceive them to all be lower (poor people) can cary over into how we see other attributes about the person. happens if overall negative impression or if one attribute is very negative

normative influence

even if you know whats right, do what group's negative actions to avoid social rejection

iron rule of oligarchy

even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by select few

episodic memory

event related memories, like last b-day party

modified semantic network

every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge. some links might be shorter/longer for different individuals and there may be direct links for higher order categories to exemplars.

role playing

everyone plays many roles in life (we wear lots of hats, ex: we can be a brother/sister, a son, student, etc). now picture yourself in new role. first few days in new role is a bit strange/fake because we're tying to follow social quota in that role. we are trying to fit the role and sound professional. but over time, what feels like acting starts to feel like you - our behaviour of playing this rule influences our attitude overtime. what feels like acting starts to feel like you and begins to fit your attitude. - playing role as a student now become normal, playing role of a parent becomes normal over time. our behaviour became part of us. changed attitude as a result of our behaviour and carrying out that role

1 general intelligence -- spearman

evidence comes from fact people who score well on one test also tend to score well on other types of tests. ex, verbal and math skills. relative to other people, you tend to equal in both skills, although relative to oneself they might be different factor underlying these consistent abilities is called g factor (g= general intelligence)

positive emotions evoke more activity on left side

evidence: videos of positive emotions = left hemisphere increased activity on EEG. more activity on left Evidence with children: Little kids playing in group - more social kids had more activity in left hemisphere, and isolated kids more activity in right more positive, joyful, interest, enthusiastic, cheerful people had more activity in left

motivation has 5 schools of thought

evolutionary approach drive reduction theory optimum arousal theory cognitive maslow's hierarchy of needs

james lange theory -- experience of emotion is due to perception of physiological responses

ex. holding pet cat (event) -> increased HR/NT/smile (physiological response) -> interpretation of physiological response -> happiness (emotion). its not the cat making you happy... its something the cat is doing to your body that makes you happy. when sad, don't cry because you're sad, you're sad because you cry Event -> physiological response (PR) -> interpretation of PR

banging/positive

ex: a dinosaur takes out the dog - the rabbits enemy

absolute threshold can be influenced by:

expectations: are u expecting a text experience- are u familiar of the phones text vibration sound motivation: are u interested in the response of a text alertness: are u awake or drowsy

shadowing task

experiment that studies selective attention. in this task you are wearing headphones and they have 2 dif sounds in each. left ear hear one, right hears other. told to repeat everything said in one ear and ignore the other. focus on one ear and ignore the other (selective attention) based on the unattended information that we do and don't end up comprehending - we can learn about how selective attention works by seeing what they filter out in other ear. 3 theories

diffusion of responsibility theory

explains bystander effect. when individuals are in presence of others where help is needed, feel less personal responsibility and less likely to take action when needed - in a small group you don't diffuse the responsibility. you are more likely to feel personal responsibility to intervene. ex in a small group you might realize that you are only one who has practiced CPR

humour

expressing humor/jokes to be truthful and alleviate feelings but make them socially acceptable

esteem support

expressions of confidence/encouragement. things people say to let you know they believe in you. can come from family, friends but also therapists, teachers, coaches

EEG (electroencephalogram)

external, can't tell us about activity of individual/groups of neurons. can only look at sum total. can tell us about seizures, sleep stage, cognitive tasks. not invasive, we don't get a picture of a brain from this method, but we get an EEG. easier set up than MEG

social stigmas

extreme disapproval/discrediting of individual by society - comes in 2 forms 1: social stigma, 2> self stigma

fear

eyebrows raised and drawn together, wrinkles in middle of forehead, eyes open intense, mouth open, lips drawn back slightly

REM (rapid eye movement)

eyes move rapidly beneath your eyelids but most of your other muscles are paralyzed. most dreaming occurs in REM sleep, so paralyzation inhibits actions. combination of alpha, beta, and dyssynchronous waves, similar to beta waves seen when awake.

change blindness

fail to notice changes from a previous to a current state in environment (different from in attentional blindness, a subtle importance ex: don't notice when your mom gets a haircut

type I error

false positive

family

family can be shunned by society or family might shun individual themselves. may be detrimental to personal/intimate relationships, and interventions like education/therapy are important

position/vibration/touch (mehcanoreceptors) =

fast

3 types of nerve fibres

fast medium slow

A beta fibres

fast ones are thick and covered in myelin (less resistance, high conductance)

intramuscular injection is the _____ route of entry. most abused drugs are injected intravenously, however

fastest

daydreaming

feel more relaxed, not as focused as alertness. can also be light mediation (self induced)

by week 10 of gestation

fetal development

vitreous chamber

filled with vitreous humour, a jelly like substance to provide pressure to eyeball and gives nutrients to inside of eyeball

target behaviour

final behaviour you wish to train

long term memory

final stage capacity is unlimited. 2 main categories: explicit (declarative) and implicit (non declarative)

tangible/instrumental support

financial assistance/support, material goods, or services. taking some of your responsibilities so you can deal with other problems. can come from a bank, people who bring you dinner when you're sick, or lend you money between jobs

ebbinghaus

first person to look at decay in human memory. found his rate of forgetting very fast, but if he remembered it after initial stage it levelled out. in his experiment, he memorized 3 letter nonsense syllables.

hierarchical semantic network

first semantic network theory suggest that we stored information in a hierarchical way. we store info at the highest category possible.

taste bunds are concentrated at the ____ of the tongue

front (anteriorly)

alfred- binet

first to develop an intelligence test, but wasn't intending to. he developed a test in order to establish a child's mental age and measure a child's intellectual development and predict how well that do in school later on. was designed for french children

complex innate behaviours

fixed action patterns migration circadian rhythms

cannon bard theory - disagreed with james-lange, and found flaws in idea that physiological response triggered emotion

flaws they found: they first said that you could experience physiological response without emotion. ex. your heart can race if you had a long run. if only physiological response was required to produce an emotion, shouldn't anyone with a racing heat feel afraid (an emotion where your heart races as well) noticed many different emotions had same physiological responses. for example, heart racing shows feelings of anger and excitement. 2 totally different emotions physiological response system was too slow to produce emotion that seemed to happen almost instantly. ex, hearing a loud sound you would feel fear or surprise almost instantly and the physiological responses of you HR/muscle tone increase come later believed physiological response and emotion occurred simultaneously event -> PR + emotion at same time

fad

fleeting behaviour is something that becomes incredibly popular very quickly, but loses popularity just as quickly. last for short period of time, but reach influence of large number of people in that time. not necessarily in line with normal behaviour. perceived as cool/interesting by large group of people

there is ____ inside the cochlea, which gets pushed around and comes back around. ______ __ ______ splits cochlea into 2, upper and lower membrane

fluid organ of corti

physical abnormalities in schizophrenia brain

fluid filled regions have been enlarged because there is less tissue of the brain cerebral cortex (layer that is outermost part of cerebrum) seems to have decreased in size, in frontal and temporal lobes. these areas have to do with cognitive and perceptual functions which are abnormal in schizophrenia - organization of the cerebral cortex (cortical layers) particularly in frontal and temporal lobes is disturbed. typically there is a clear organization. here, there is a disorganization and thinking of layers - frontal and temporal love activity is also seen in same areas of structural/physical abnormality

attention

focus/concentrating on something at the exclusion of the other stimuli in environment

biomedical

focuses on biological, physical abnormalities

drive reduction theory/drive theory

focuses on drives vs needs. need is lack or deprivation that will energize the drive, or aroused state. that drive is the aroused state. fulfilling the drive will reduce the need. this need-drive balance is what maintains homeostasis. typically basic, essential, and physiological ex you are at the gym and need for water. trainer says you need to do more exercise. in this example, need: water, drive: thirst. doing push ups is means to fulfill drive for water

2 parts of dramaturgy

front stage back stage

fundamental attribution error

focuses only on actions of others, tendency to believe that others in out groups behave a certain way based on inherent personalities/flaws. idea of attributing character too strongly to explain another group's actions. real takeaway of study - how easy it is to think others are atrocious and evil, while people like us would only perform evil acts because they're misguided. truth is we are all misguided, all susceptible to authorities in ways that many of su would find upsetting

______ papillae are folded structures at the back of the tongue on both sides

foliate

norms can be classified in 4 groups:

folkways mores laws taboos

hypothalamus

for limbic system. it regulates the autonomic nervous system (fight or flight vs rest and digest). controlling endocrine system by triggers hormones like epinephrine/norepinephrine; responsible for hunger, sleep, thirst, sex

secondary groups

formal, impersonal, temporary, and business-like relationships, based on a limited purpose/goal. usually short term, and only see them sometimes. do a few goal-directed activities with these people

dissociate identity disorder

formerly called multiple personality disorder 2 or more distinct personalities exist in a single body. both identities have influence on persons thoughts and behaviours - extremely rare

paul ekman

found 6 main emotions which can be identified by everyone around the world happiness sadness fear disgust anger surprise consistent facial expressions across culture and easily recognizable

almost all cones are entered in the _____, which is the centre of the macula

fovea

memory of retrieval from most difficult to easiest

free recall, cued recall, recognition

histamine

from hypothalamus sends to cerebral cortex

middle ear

from malleus to stapes (3 ossicles)

external/outer ear

from pinna to tympanic membrane

psychological cause of aggression

frustration aggression principle: the idea that frustration creates anger which can spark aggression. almost anything can cause frustration. reinforcement modelling: can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement. parents who give into demands of child during temper tantrums lead to more temper tantrums in future

birth at 40 weeks

full term (37-42 weeks). before 37 (preterm) after 42 (posters). complications at both pre and postterm end of gestation - birth

taste buds can be _____ (anterior), foliate (_____) and circumvallate (back)

fungiform side

chemical signals/olfactory signals

gain info from the environment through smells. they can also release scents for communication called pheromones or to guide other members to food.

gene environment interaction

gene + environments effect our behaviour, and the role of genes + environments on behaviour is dependent on each other. (explains nature through nature)

arousal

general physiological or psychological excitement (increased HR, FASTER BREATHING, ACTIVATION OF ANS) and is known as nervous energy. increased energy/arousal increases likelihood of dominant response occurring. whether dominant response is correct or accurate depends on how easy the task is, and how well you've learned it/rehearsed it. presence of others improves performance (helps) on simple tasks and hinders it on difficult tasks/unpracticed tasks (Yerkes Dodson Law)

5 types of anxiety disorders

generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) panic disorders phobias OCD PTSD

Biological cause of aggression

genes: evidence: identical twins, if one is more aggressive the other is as well. with fraternal twins - not the cat, and we can breed animals for aggression brain structure impact on aggressive behaviour: no one brain spot controls for aggression but there are circuits in brain that can inhibit/facilitate aggression. the amygdala (part of the limbic system which is composed of structures from telencephalon, diencephalon, and mesencephalon) facilitates our fear response, and when stimulated triggers aggressive behaviour. the frontal lobe is responsible for planning, decision making, and importantly impulse control, and correlation studies have shown criminals have decreased frontal lobe activation. testosterone: a hormone released by testes in men and ovaries in women. higher in men = why men are more aggressive than women. also why 70 yo man is less aggressive than 17 adolescent one. high levels of testosterone can lead to aggression, muscle building, and wider faces (rather than long round one). can lead to irritability/assertiveness/impulsiveness, and low tolerance for frustration. drugs that reduce testosterone levels tend to reduce aggressive tendencies

biological factors of depression

genetic component 5HTTLPR gene associated with depression but only if individual is in stressful environment. decreased activation in prefrontal cortex (associated with difficulty in generating levels of activity in regard circuit to the brain) associated with NT - fewer receptors for serotonin (monoamine) and NE

drugs

genetic: family member or family history/genetic predisposition - then you have a higher chance of abusing the drug withdrawal and cravings biochemical factors - imbalance in our brains drugs like weed and heroin mimic NTs of our brain. cocaine causes the abnormal release of natural NTs like dopamine - affects our limbic system - dopamine overstimulates/activates our brain limbic system (which controls movement, emotion, motivation, pleasure). why we perceive emotions and mood altering properties of drugs. we become in state of euphoria - total happiness - if we continue to use drug, we abuse the drug. reinforcing effect - we want to constantly stimulate the brain by using drugs -- socio-culturally: curiosity, novelty of drug, rebel, poor control of user, cope with stress, low self esteem (remember: one of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, right below self actualization), relief from fatigue, feel good, and more prevalent in areas of higher poverty

employment based on technical qualifications

hiring in bureacracy is based on qualifications person has and not favouritism/personal rivalries -leads to peter principle - employee promoted until no longer able to b/c not good at their job

innate behaviour traits

genetically programmed behaviour. present at birth and requires no experience with the environment. have the following characteristics; inherited - innate behaviours are encoded by DNA intrinsic - present even if you're raised in isolation. ex pooping stereotypic - performed the same way each time inflexible - not modifiable by experience consummate - fully developed right away, at first performance. not influenced by experience - subject to change through mutation and recombination, natural selection, etc (just like all other physical traits) nausea in women during pregnancy helps them avoid toxic foods/novel strongly flavoured food in critical period of development. thought of as programmed.

fixation

getting stuck on a wrong approach to a problem. - if we can solve a problem, it typically occurs through an insight - that aha moment. insight is hard to predict and hard to encourage, particularly when you are fixated on seeing a problem from the same inefficient approach

first stage of information processing is -->

getting the input - occurs in the sensory memory (sensory register)

define convergence:

gives humans an idea of depth as well based on how much eyeballs are turned. gives sense of depth

iris

gives the eye colour. the muscle that constricts/relaxes to change the size of the pupil

cost signalling:

giving signals to others that person who's giving has resources. people have increased trust in those they know have helped others in the past. signals that the person is open to cooperation

ambient stressors

global stressors that are integrated into the environment. perceivable, but hard to control. can negatively impact us without being aware of them. stuff we just put up with in our lives. ex pollution, noise, crowding

molecule will come in and activate receptor on basal/apical cell here. basal cell sends axon through accessory olfactory bulb to _____, then mitral or tufted cell which eventually goes to the _______ (part of the brain)

glomerulus amygdala

posterior (rear 1/3) carries signals via 9th and 10th cranial nerves (_____ and _____)

glossopharyngeal and vagus

working backwards

goal state -> current state. start with goal and use it to suggest connections back to current state. used in mathematical proofs, in mazes

pathway of olfaction

goes from olfactory bulb to amygdala and the piriform cortex to the orbitofrontal cortex

in spinal cord, ____ is on inside and _____ on outside

grey white

group polarization

group makes decisions that are more extreme than any individual member in the group would want. this can turbo charge the group's viewpoints

factors that influence conformity and obedience

group size - more likely to conform in groups 3-5 unanimity - when opinions of groups are unanimous group status - why children more likely to go along with popular group. why we trust 4 doctors over 4 gardeners about our health group cohesion- if we feel no connection with group, feel less of need to go along with that group observed behaviour - whether we believe our behaviour is observed. public response 0 if we think we are met with acceptance vs shunning internal factors -- prior commitments -- feelings of insecurity - more likely to follow judgements of others our closeness to authority physical proximity legitimacy of authority institutional authority victim distance depersonalization - when learner/victim is made to be less human through stereotypes/prejudices, people are less likely to object against them role models for defiance - more likely to disobey orders when we see others doing the same

group-produced reduction of individual effort

groups experiencing social loafing are less productive, put forth less effort, and perform poorly. perhaps to hard against being the person who is doing all the work, or because you know that your individual contributions are not evaluated

positive symptoms of schizophrenia

hallucinations - sensory perceptions without stimuli like hearing or seeing not there. hallucinations are sounds or other sensations experienced as real when they exist only in the person's mind. while hallucinations can involve any of the five sense, auditory hallucinations (eg hearing voices or some other sound) are most common in schizophrenia. visual hallucinations are also relatively common. research suggests that auditory hallucinations occur when people misinterpret their own inner self talk as coming from an outside source delusions - false fixed beliefs not explainable by a person's culture. a delusion is a firmly held idea that a person has despite clear and obvious evidence that it isn't true. delusions are extremely common in schizophrenia, occurring in more than 90% of those who have the disorder. often, these delusions involve illogical or bizarre ideas or fantasies. common schizophrenic delusions include:

complicated/complex traits

happiness, aggressiveness, intelligence, characteristics of behaviour controlled by/characterized by groups of genes. those groups of genes are interacting with each other or the environment. the genes can be active or inactive. environment plays a role in activating/inactive. complex traits are associated with groups of genes and can follow mendialin polygenic inheritance patterns ex, tea bag = genes, water = environment, expression of tea is dependent on water. it is difficult to separate to what degree our genes and our traits effect our behaviour

task difficulty

harder tasks require more focus. texting while driving is more difficult than talking to a passenger in a car. also, you turn off/down radio in an unfamiliar town... because driving requires more focus/becomes a harder task when you don't know where you are going

semantic memory

has to do with words/facts. remembering simple facts

cued recall (recall cues)

having extra clues to remember the words. still have to produce an answer but still get some more cues to help you. the added cues help you retrieve the information from your long term memory. get more retrieval cues, then to do better than a free recall. for example, giving you the cue of "pl_____" and asking for what word was on a list and you answer planet

early development trajectory:

helping behaviours begin early. some newborns cry when other newborns cry (they recognize other babies distress). helping behaviour begins around age 2, children share toys and play act/helping altruism. age 4 actually begin helping says that altruism might be a normal human behaviour because it occurs at such a young age. we have a tendency to help other people without an alternative motive

meditation

helps us lower our heart rate, blood pressure, and cholesterol

assimilation

how we describe new information/experiences in terms of our current understanding/schemas.

attribution theory

how we explain behaviours of others around us - explain the behaviour of other people by breaking down our understanding/explanation of their behaviours to factors about them, and factors related to their environment/surroundings

accommodation

how we later adjust our schemas to incorporate new experiences - to remember

Syntax

how words are put together in sentences. syntax refers to the way words are placed to form language. syntax describes how words are arranged to create grammatically correct sentences. p600 response bigger with bigger violation - in ASL, this would mean combining multiple signs, gestures, and body movements to communicate effectively - all languages have some form of syntax

social facilitation

how would presence of others affect your behaviour? would it help or hinder your performance? according to social facilitation, most dominant response for particular behaviour would be shown. dominant response refers to response most likely to occur. -- occurs when individuals perform better in front of an audience

homeostasis

how you maintain temperature, heartbeat, metabolism, etc. occurs even when you are resting. takes place when you take drugs

framing effects

how you present the decision can affect decisions as well.

gallons idea of hereditary genius

human ability is heritable

optimism

humour and optimisms linked to decreased stress. nurture an optimistic outlook

strange sensations

hypnagonic hallucinations, hearing or seeing things that aren't there. ex. seeing flash of light, or someone calling your name, doorbell, etc

induced states of consciousness

hypnosis + medication are examples. does not occur naturally

dissociation theory

hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness

cyclothymic disorder

hypomania + dysthymia

connection between NS and endocrine

hypothalamus

repressed memories/memory

hypothesized memories having been unconsciously blocked. due to the memory being associated with a high level of stress or trauma. the theory postulates that even though the individual cannot recall the memory, it may still be affecting them consciously. the existence of repressed memories is a controversial topic in psychology; some studies have concluded that it can occur in victims of trauma, while others dispute it. according to some psychologists, repressed memories can be recovered through therapy. other psychologists argue that this is in fact rather a process through which false memories are created by blending actual memories and outside influences. furthermore, some psychologists believe that repressed memories are a cultural symptom because there is no written proof of their existence before the 19th century some believe they can be recovered years/decades after the event, most often spontaneously, triggered by a particular smell, tase, or other identifier related to the lost memory, or via suggestion during psychotherapy

irrelevant

i see the stress but its not important

iceberg id ego superego

id: at the bottom, its the unconscious part. it develops after birth and demands immediate gratification ego - part of the conscious and unconscious. involved in our perceptions, thoughts, and judgements, and seeks long term gratification super ego - develops around age 4, and its our moral unconscious. also part of conscious and unconscious minds

looking glass self

idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others 1) how do i appear to others 2) what must others think of me? (shy, intelligent, funny?) 3) revise how we think about ourselves (based on correct OR incorrect perceptions on others evaluations)

ego depletion

idea that self control is a limited resource. if you use a lot of it, it can get used up, and less of it to use in the future which can affect a later unrelated task that also requires self control. this is true because self control requires lots of energy and focus

just world phenomenon

idea that universe is fair so people must get what they deserve - belief good things happen to good people and vice versa. some people use this to justify their actions

internalization

idea/belief/behaviour has been integrated into our own values. we conform to the belief privately. stronger than other types of conformity

strong genetic component

identical twin =/= fraternal twin identical twins raised together = raised apart adoptive child = biological parents

strong environmental component

identical twins = fraternal twins identical twins raised together =/= raised apart adoptive child = adoptive parents

problems with twin studies

identical twins treated more similarly than fraternal twins are. this would mean that monozygotic twins share even "more" of same environments than fraternal twins

strain theory

if person is blocked from attaining a culturally acceptable goal, may become frustrated/strained and turn to deviance. individuals in a group are pushed to attain certain goals, but may not have means or legitimate ways to achieve success. society values a certain behaviour but the opportunity to be successful is not made available to everyone. the lack of equal opportunity results in increased access to illegal means to achieve success

normative social influence

if we do something to gain respect/support of peers, we are complying with social norms. because of this we might go with group outwardly, but internally believe something differently

Lazarus Theory - experience of emotion depends on how the situation is cognitively appraised (labelled)

if we label emotion as good, it is positive if we label emotion as bad, it is negative how we label event is based on culture/individual differences event is the same and depending on label it produces 2 very different emotions event -> label the event (appraisal) -> emotion + PR based on appraisal + if label is + - if appraisal is - about the event

group lateness

if you arrive late at meeting but if you are with 20 other people are late too, high degree of consensus. when a lot of people demonstrate same behaviour, we are more likely to attribute behaviour to situational cause - consensus of people = attribution of external factors

extensor plantar response

if you take a hard object and scrape along the bottom of foot normal response is flexor - toes will come down on the object. but with extensor, toes extend up

belief perseverance

ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts, ex during elections learned about and then ignore facts about someone you like

types of mnemonics

imagery - crazier the better pegboard system - verbal anchors link words that rhyme with the number - ex. 1 is bun, 2 is shoe method of loci - good for remembering thins in order, link info to locations. the info you need to remember to certain stops along a route that you already know password + method of loci = 2 methods that are good for remembering things in order that you already know. verbally anchors and links words acronym - each of the letter of a popular word you know stands for the first letters of a set of words you need to remember

inattention

impacts memory formation negatively (being bored would do this)

culture and socialization

important contributions of society to our personal development, emphasises interactions between the people and culture in which we live. everyone around us (teachers, coworkers) influence our social-identity development and on a larger scale the country which we live, communities, language, attitudes of groups we belong to

permanent reflexes

important for newborns and also present throughout life breathing reflex: inhalation and exhalation eyeblink reflex: involuntary blinking of eye when something comes near head/bright light pupillary reflex: constrict pupil when bright light swallowing reflex: swallowing food happens automatically

cortical reaction

in egg there are enzymes (contained within cortical granules) that get ejected to zona pellucida and that digest the zona pellucida/ prevents sperm from binding (block to polyspermy) if this doesn't happen, zygote fails

somatosensory neurons (afferent)

in muscle spindles, form excitatory synapse in spinal cord with another neuron in the spinal cord, which sends axon out back to same muscle that was stretched, and excite skeletal muscle cells to contract - lower motor neurons (efferent)

altruism

in service of others, we feel fulfilled and gain pleasure/satisfaction

PAW feels like a rollercoaster of symptoms:

in the begging, your symptoms will change minute to minute and hour to hour. later as you recover further they will disappear for a few weeks or months only to return again. as you continue to recover the good stretches will get longer and longer. but the bad periods of post acute withdrawal can be just as intense and last just as long

agraphia

inability to write.

false information

inaccurate recollections of an event

social identity

includes the groups you belong to in our community has 3 steps

problems with adoption studies

incomplete information about biological families for adoptive children. also adoption isn't random, adoptive family sometimes matched to be similar to the biological family (of having the same community or culture). makes it more difficult to understand if something is genetic or environmentally drive.

cerebral cortex bumps=

increase cellular mass/surface area

upper motor signs hyperreflexia

increase in the muscle stretch reflexes. cause in unclear, but when muscle spindle receptors are activated, without periodic stimulation of LMNs and UMNs, they become hypersensitive and you get bigger reflex

global changes

increase myelination (faster communication of neurons - faster connections between brain area) increase in brain volume in early adolescence and then decrease later in adolescence. synaptic pruning - breaking down connections between certain neurons. focus resources on the ones we use most. what we do during teenage years - shapes us for life. what we spend out time doing - what is reinforced

damaging effects of stress on our heart

increased BP, BZV distend, so they build up more muscle and become more rigid. can lead to hypertension (HBP) and vascular disease (disease of blood vessels - get damaged with higher force of blood movement). spots attract fat and narrow blood vessels. worst place to experience this is coronary arteries - coronary artery disease

Yerkes Dodson Law

increased arousal occurs only when person's efforts are evaluated. ex if you are giving a presentation to close friends who are not evaluating you, you may not have any nervous energy, because you feel comfortable around them.

deep meditation shows increased activity in prefrontal cortex, right hippocampus, and right anterior insula

increased attention control

hypertonia

increased tone of skeletal muscles. increase muscle tension, reduce muscle stretch

bystander effect

individual may feel less inclined to take action because of presence of others in the group. the bystander effect refers to a group process in which individuals observe an injustice or a crime being perpetuated and do not intervene small group = less bystander effect. large group = more bystander effect (leads to nothing happening by any one individual and people might not even call 911)

individual discrimination

individual person acting to discriminate based on something

genes

individual units of heredity. segments of DNA that are capable of synthesizing a protein. DNA contains all the instructions of our development and in the function of our organisms and in the function of who we are. DNA is our genetic material. many of these genes (units of heredity material/DNA pieces) are linked together to form a long straight of DNA called a chromosome. as humans we have 46 chromosomes full of genes to make up who we are (23 from mother/23 from father). these chromosomes reside in almost all cells of body in the nucleus of the cells of our body.

oral

ingesting something, one of slowest routes because goes through GI tract - half hour (pill/alcohol)

inherited traits

inherited areas are qualities that are passed down from parents to children, like eye colour, hair colour, and height

caffeine

inhibits the enzyme that breaks down cAMP

I = ?

initial intensity of stimulus delta I = JND

temperament

innate disposition, our mood/activity level, and is consistent throughout our life

id

innate. the reservoir of all psychic energy. the id seeks to discharge tension arising from internal needs or external stimulation. it is made up of all instincts and wants to get rid of all uncomfortable feelings. (this is called a "drive reduction theory") - the pleasure principle: to gain pleasure or avoid pain. to accomplish this it uses: reflex actions (for instance sneezing) - primary processes (forming a mental image of the desired object) - wish fulfillment - the image of your desire which temporarily restores comfort

treisman's attenuation theory

instead of complex selective filter, have an attenuator - weakens but doesn't eliminate input from unattended ear. then some gets to perceptual processes, so still assign meaning to stuff in unattended ear, just not high priority. then switch if something important - treisman's attenuation theory replaced the selective filter with an attenuator, which selectively allows the attended message to be processes to a greater extent than the unattended message sensory register -> attenuator -> perceptual processes -> -> conscious

organizations

institutions designed for specific purpose, collective goal, and try to achieve maximum efficiency.

operant conditioning

instrumental conditioning focuses on the relationship between behaviour and their consequences, and how those in turn influence the behaviour

neurotic defence mechanisms

intellectualization - taking intellectual aspects and detaching to the emotional aspects of the situation. separating emotion from ideas rationalization - making yourself believe you were not on fault - avoids blame to oneself. can have flat logic or false reasoning regression - acting like a baby in some situations ex throwing temper tantrum, start whining repression - unconscious process where thoughts pushed down to unconscious displacement - person angry at someone but displaces it to someone else (a safer target) ex mother who is mad at her husband gets mad at her child reaction formation - unconscious feelings that make person to complete opposite - ex a mother who bears an unwanted child may react to her feeling son guilt for not wanting it by being extremely solicitous and overprotective to convince herself that she is a good mom - ex a person who doesn't like immigrants might start to volunteer at an immigration centre

fixed mindset

intelligence is biologically set and unchanging - praise that reinforces a fixed mindset describes characteristics and actions as innate and unchangeable

growth mindset

intelligence is changeable if you learn more - praises efforts, perseverance, improvement and strategies rather than the end result

IQ stands for

intelligent quotient

theory of planned behaviour

intentions + implications: we consider our implications of our actions before we decide on how to behave. the best predictor of our behaviour is the strength of these intensions and implications intensions are based on 3 things - our attitudes towards a certain behaviour (ex I like/favor studying) subjective norms: what we think others think about our behaviour (ex my friends think studying is a waste of time) -perceived behavioural control (how easy/hard we think it is to control our behaviour). ex I also have to work 40 hours this week on top of studying

preparatory stage

interaction through initiation ex play with pots and pans when parents are cooking. as they grow older, focus more on communication with others instead of simple imitation, and get practice using symbols (gestures/words). can't take perspective of others

society

interactions between self and society like education/employment/health and stigmatizing views can affect individual to get a job, in healthcare, etc. a great intervention to stop societal level stigma is the use of legislation and anti-discrimation laws

intrinsic motivation

internal motivation

ICD-10

international classification of diseases, 10th revision, system from the WHO, 11 top level categories

Sexual response

investigated by master & johnson. they studied 100s of male and female volunteers during sexual activity. they measured the physiological indicators and they turned the results into the sexual response cycle biological: sexual response cycle - first part of cycle is excitement phase, marked by increased heart rate, muscle tension, BP, etc second is plateau then 3rd - orgasm 4th is resolution/refractory period M&J also noted sexual drive/activity was related to testosterone for women and men (sexual activities increased testosterone which in turn increased the sex drive) also have genetic predisposition to sexuality, and found by studying at homosexuality sociocultural - varied sexual response due too: age, cultural background (certain practices acceptable in certain cultures but not others), stimulus (determined by how responsive we are to visual/tactile stimuli), emotions (psychological influence) and desires (to procreate or not) hormones: prolactin is related to sexual gratification and is associated with relieving sexual arousal after an orgasm endorphins produce feelings of euphoria and pleasure, and are related post orgasm oxytocin is released after an orgasm to facilitate bonds and feelings of connectedness between sexual partners

neurodevelopment disorders

involve distress/disability due to abnormality in development of nervous system. includes intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorders, and ADHD - autism spectrum disorder is characterized by a variety of issues related to social and communication abilities, and first symptoms of the disorder typically include delayed language development and unusual communication patterns specific learning disabilities: all specific types removed from DSM V the specific learning disorder dyslexia is characterized by problems with accurate or fluent word recognition, poor decoding, and poor spelling abilities dyscalculia - mathematics learning disorder. removed dysgraphia - writing disorder, removed developmental coordination disorder is characterized by difficulties in acquiring and coordinating motor movements

implicit memories/non declarative

involve things you may not articulate. a type of memory in which previous experiences aid in performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences. evidence for implicit memory arises in priming, a process whereby subjects are measured by how they have improved their performance on tasks for which they have been subconsciously prepared - such as riding a bicycle

schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders

involves distress/disability from psychosis. psychosis involves delusions (fixed false beliefs not explainable by experiences/culture ex. ones thoughts are controlled by someone else or "i have superpowers"), hallucinations (sensory perceptions without any stimuli ex hearing voices without stimuli). with psychosis disorganized thinking can occur and negative symptoms (decreased emotional expression, decreased motivation, decreased social behaviour). schizophrenia has many of these features while other psychosis disorders have some

motivational interviewing

involves working with patient to find intrinsic motivation to change. very focus, goal directed therapy. few sessions and can be doorway for patient to engage in other treatment

sour and salty rely on ____ _____

ion channels

smell and taste do not synapse on the thalamus and hence are both _____, while vision/hearing/touch are _____

ipsilateral contralateral

phobias

irrationally afraid of specific objects or specific situation. focused anxiety can be debilitating (ex phobia of leaving your home) or can have a normal life (ex phobia of snakes) tend to form a pattern. people tend to have phobias of specific subtypes of things typically - generally associated with fear of animals, insects, blood, heights, or enclosed spaces. these are common but there are more. people get by by avoiding the source of their phobia social phobias: fear of different social situations. not as easy to avoid. ex shyness, or intense fear of being scrutinized by others people avoid talking to people or places where they might be judged or situations that might lead to embarrassment

what is light

is an electromagnetic wave. EM spectrum contains everything from gamma rays (low wavelength) to AM?FM waves (long wavelength). visible light is in the middle of the EM spectrum Violet (400nm) - red (700nm) highest to lowest WL is ROYGBV

consciousness

is awareness of our self and environment. can have different levels of consciousness (diff levels of awareness) and can be natural or be induced by external factors such as drugs or internal such as mental efforts. states range from alertness to sleep

sensory adaptation

is change over time of receptor to a constant stimulus - down regulation of a sensory receptor in the body

sensitization

is when a person seeks to learn about, rehearse, and or anticipate fearful events in a protective effort to prevent these events from occurring in the first place

instinctual drift

it is the phenomenon whereby established habits, learned using operant techniques, eventually are replaced by innate food-related behaviours. so the learned behaviour "drifts" to the organism's species-specific (instinctual) behaviour

similarity

items similar to one another grouped together by brain. ex. the brain automatically organizes these squares and circles in columns, and not in rows

xenocentrism

judging another culture imposition of ones own cultural values on another culture

ethnocentric

judging someone else culture from the position of your own culture -viewing our own culture to be superior to that of others -can lead to cultural bias and prejudice -using one's own cultural standards such as norms and values to make judgements about another culture

drowsiness

just before falling asleep/after waking up. can also be self induced in deep meditation

hippocampus

key role in forming new memories. convert STM (short term memory) -> LTM. if destroyed, still have old memories intact, just can't make new ones (anterograde amnesia)

vygotsky

language and thought are both independent, but converge through development. eventually learn to use them at same time via socialization - believed children developed language through social interaction with adults who already knew language. through the interaction, they learnt to connect the thoughts and the language they eventually learn

strong linguistic determinism (sapir whorfian hypothesis)

language determines thought completely. people understand their world through language, and in turn shapes how we experience the world. -- believes linguistic structure determines how and about what an individual is able to think

biological factors

lateral hypothalamus (LH, acronym: one with missing LH - lacks hunger, son normal functioning LH controls that we start eating. you'd be skinny with an "L") in normal conditions, LH sends positive signal to us to start eating ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), when functioning properly, it signals to us to stop eating. lectin present in high amounts in blood when full (apetite suppressing hormone) another hormone is insulin. brain can detect level of insulin to see amount of sugar and fat store in blood. too much insulin = lots of sugar/fat store metabolism rate. in dieting we get a slowdown in metabolism. makes it easier for people to gain weight when resuming normal eating. genetic predisposition to our weight, set point influenced by parents

under the microscope (PD), we see "diseases neurons" which are degenerating in the substantia nigra. often contains _____ ______

levy bodies abnormal structures inside dopaminergic neurons of substantial nigra. the lew bodies contain a protein alpha synuclein, a normal protein present in brain cells under normal conditions are clumped together in PD

2 instinctual drives motivate human behaviour

libido - neutral energy source - fuels energy of mind for motivation for survival, growth, pleasure, etc death instinct: drives aggressive behaviours fuelled by unconscious wish to die or hurt oneself/others

eros drives:

life drive, like health, safety, sex. comes with love, cooperation, collaboration, working with others to promote your and others wellbeing

down regulation

light adaptation. when its bright, pupils constrict and the densensitization of rods & cones (become desensitized to light)

phototransduction cascade is what happens when light hits rod/cone

light hits rod (which causes it to turn off) -> bipolar cell (turns on), retinal ganglion cell (turns on) -> optic nerve -> brain

weber's law predicts a ______ relationship between incremental threshold and background intensity

linear

continuity

lines are seen as following the smoothest path. ex: you group the line together

mnemonic devices

link what you are trying to learn into previously existing long term information that is already in your memory

C robert cloninger

linked personality to brain systems in reward/motivation/punishment, such as low dopamine correlating with higher impulsivity

task similarity

listening to radio and listening to interview while writing paper. better to listen to classical music because harder to multitask with similar tasks. easier to multitask with music

manifest content

literal meaning (freud theory of dreams)

prosody

located on right hemisphere. concerned with larger units of speech like syllables. contribute to linguistic functions such as intonation, tone, stress, and rhythm. prosody may reflect various features of the speaker or the utterance: the emotional state of the speaker; the form of the utterance; the prince of irony or sarcasm, emphasis, contrast, and focus; or other elements of language that may not be encoded by grammar or by choice of vocabulary.

left brain

logical sequential rational analytical objective looks at parts

first impressions are: (3)

long strong easily built upon -- called primary bias, first impression is more important than later data

with repeated stimulation, the same pre-synaptic neuron stimulation converts into greater post synaptic neuron potential - stronger synapse, and when it lasts a long time it is called

long term potentiation

materialist

look at what happens in brain when people think/speak/write

informative influence

look to group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume the group is correct

other (dreams)

maintain brain flexibility - allows us to learn and be creative when we are awake consolidate thoughts to long term memory, and cleaning up thoughts. people who learn + sleep retain more than those who do not sleep. but role of REM is unclear preserve and developing neural pathways. because infants constantly developing new neural networks, spend most of time in REM memory consolidation theorists believe memory consolidation in deep sleep

excessive orderliness, obsessionality

maintains strict order, tight self control or high level of predictability through order and planning, excessive adherence to routine or trial, or undue caution. devotes inordinate time to finding the best way to accomplish tasks or avoid negative outcomes

depression, a major depressive order

major cause of distress, disability, and death from suicide. prototype of disorder category of depressive disorders related symptoms of depressive mood: feelings of hopelessness, loss of interest in activities. our understanding of cause of major depressive disorder is limited. no consistent abnormalities in brain tissues, but scans have suggest functional abnormalities in brains

change environment (self control)

make object of you temptation harder to get while making better/healthier options easier to get.

2 identities in DID are distinct from each other. each has its own:

mannerisms emotional responses distinct "physical changes" - not actually different physical differences but one identity could identify as right handed and another as left handed denial - denying the existence of the other identity. not aware of other distinct personalities exist within that person

perceived control

many studies show lack of control associated with higher stress. low SES increases stress shown by Robert Sapolsky with Baboons who had social hierarchy structures similar to humans. primates at the bottom of the barrel socially experienced much more stress than the ruling elite baboons. the white hall study showed the exact same effect based on relative rank in the workplace in humans in britain. suggestion: look for areas of life where you can take a little bit of your control. "king of your own castle"

biological theory

many variations to this theory, some relate to the brain and some to behaviour (the evolutionary psychology approach) instead of traits ex a dominant psychological (behavioural) biological theory by buss: evolutionary psychology theorizes that males + females have different mating strategies that influence costs associated with passing on genes. males can have many mates, females more selective due to cost of pregnancy

pituitary

master gland anterior (FLAT-PEG) FH, LH, ACTH, TSH, prolactin, endorphins, GH GH - the pituitary gland triggers the growth spurt that occurs during adolescence posterior: ADH + oxytocin (intermediate lobe) pars intermedia - MSH (melanocyte stimulating hormone)

nature

maturation. genetic factors/anatomical/neurophysiological/biological traits that drive development. identical twins walk on the same day. children all over the world develop motor skills in the same time and same order. blind children tend to show same timing and progression of motor development. - infants need to have muscles that are developed to walk or to have bowel control.

basic functions =

motor (control of skeletal muscle) sensory (the senses) automatic (reflexes)

frontal lobe

motor cortex (body movements), prefrontal cortex (executive function, surprise/direct other areas of brain), broca's area (speech production)

outpatient treatment

means they can live at home and come inq for treatment

tolerance

means you get used to a drug so you need more of it to achieve the same effect shift in the does response curve that causes decreased sensitivity to a drug due to exposure

self serving bias

mechanism of preserving our self esteem, more common in individualistic cultures. if we succeed its due to our internal/personal qualities, but if we fail no hit on self esteem because likely to do with things outside of our control -individualistic societies tend to demonstrate a great degree of self serving bias. more important in individual societies because of their emphasis on achievements and success

pain and temperature receptors end in big uncovered terminals, don't have big structures like ______

mechanoreceptors

position + vibrant + touch =

mechanoreceptors, pain = nocireceptors, temperature = thermoreceptors

manipulation/exploitation

meets own needs through covert manipulation, seduction, dishonesty, or conning

utilitarian organizations

members are paid.rewarded for their efforts

normative organizations

members come together through shared goals

coercive organizations

members don't have choice about membership

false memory

memories that incorporate hypnotizers expectations even when not intended

autobiographical memory

memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individuals life, based on a combination of episodic and semantic memory

somatic symptom disorder:

mental disorders manifesting in physical symptoms can be any symptom. wrist pain or general feeling of fatigue may or may not be able to explain what we see (the physical condition). may or may not be related to a physical condition must cause functional impairments. stops them from going to school or enjoying life. these individuals have excessive levels of all of the following symptoms: worried (excessively), have extreme levels of anxiety, and spend lots of time and energy worrying/stressing about these symptoms, etc

schemas

mental models frameworks for us to organize and interpret new information. piaget belief of cognitive development was in the development of schemas. to develop these, you need to be able to grow/change them - which happens through assimilation and accommodations

heuristics

mental shortcut that allows us to find solution quicker than other 2. reduces number of solutions we need to try by taking an approach as to what possibilities could exist and eliminates trying unlikely possibilities. don't guarantee a correct solution, but they do simply complex problems and reduce total number of solutions we will try in order to get to a more manageable number.

the mesocorticolimbic pathway is affected in schizophrenia

mess = midbrain, where VTA. specifically, the soma of neurons that use dopamine are located at VTA cortico= cerebral cortex, axons project to frontal and temporal love of brain and relate dopamine to cerebrum areas. limbic= collection of structures inside of brain involved in emotions/motivations/etc often divided into mesocortical pathway (VTA to the frontal love) and mesolithic pathway (VTA to limbic structures) abnormal activity of mesocorticolimbic pathway. one way of thinking about schizophrenia is abnormal activity is mesocorticolimbic pathway leads to dysfunction in parts of frontal cortex that cause cognitive symptoms, and limbic structure causes negative symptoms, and abnormal activities in temporal cortex causes positive symptoms. -abnormalities are likely much more complicated causes: genes, physical stress during pregnancy (such as infection during pregnancy and psychosocial factors (negative family interaction styles effect development of brain) - poverty and schizophrenia link. casualty is not well known

message characteristics

message itself, clarity, was it logical, how well thought message it. also includes how well written it was, does speaker have good grasp of grammar, appropriate vocabulary, length of talk, etc

hormone concentration is regulated by:

metabolism (metabolized by liver and makes bile) and kidney (excretes them into urine after breakdown) secretion: controlled by negative feedback loops ex. hypothalamus - TRH -> anterior pituitary - TSH -> thyroid - T3 (thyroxin) T3 negative feedback to TSH/TRH

algorithm

methodical approach. a logical step by step procedure of trying solutions until you hit the right one. not efficient, but are guaranteed to find the correct solution eventually.

anger

meyer friedman and ray rosenman were testing notion that stress is associated with increased vulnerability to heart disease, and when they interviewed the patients during their study and characterized them as either type A or B type A: easily angered individuals, aggressive, competitive Type B: easy going those who had heart attacks later were mostly type A/ the toxic component of type A personality was being prone to hostility and anger. accompanies the fight aspect of sympathetic response

hypomania

mild forms of mania is sometimes not that bad. lots of energy and don't need to sleep a lot so you get lots of work done. you also feel good. creativity. results in mania at times, but sometimes does not develop into it

4 things we do to reduce cognitive discomfort

modify our cognitions: change/alteration in the cognition (thinking process) in a person's action/behaviour to reduce the discomfort a person has with that attitude/behaviour trivialize: make less important/make trivial change the importance of their cognition add: adding more cognitions to make contradictions more comfortable deny: denying the facts

gene regulation

modulatory world of gene expression (gene expression modulated by environmental factor). greatest achievements in clarifying the modulatory factors we have had mapped our entire gene - gene mapping of all genes on the 46 chromosomes. because of genome now we can look at populations which share traits and not have to relay on twin/adoption studies to narrow down heritability of traits. now, we can look at population of shared traits and look at genes that code for those traits and compare/contrast those genes - scientists who study gene mapping look at populations with shared traits and compare their genetic profiles. they also may look at damage to DNA in a person's genome

visual cues that we receive but do not need 2 eyes for are _____ _____

monocular cues

faster rout of entry =

more addictive potential

ill defined

more ambiguous starting and or/ending point. an ill defined problem does not have an obviously stated goal or lacks relevant information to solve the problem

play stage

more aware of social relationships, reflected in children tendency to pretend play as others like fire fighters, doctors, etc. mentally assuming perspective of others and acting based on their perceived point of view. focused on role taking: mentally taking perspective of another person and acting on that perceived view point way beyond immigration. they create social interactions (not just mimicking) children consider attitudes, belief, and behaviours of individuals closest to them

elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (ELM)

more cognitive approach - focuses on the why/how of persuasion 2 ways in which information is processed central route of persuasion: the degree of attitude change depends on quality of the arguments by the persuader. how much we are persuaded depends on quality of persuasion. argument/words are central! peripheral route of persuasion: looks at superficial/expertise/non-verbal persuasion cues, such as attractiveness/status of persuader. the doctor himself is peripheral (he is the one delivering the words)

encoding is more successful when

more cognitive effort is actively used. combining encoding strategies is more useful than using only one

back stage

more private are of our lives, when act is over. you can be yourself. you can do what you feel makes you comfortable, private area of your life

existential self

most basic part of self concept, the sense of being separate and distinct from others. awareness that the self is constant/consistent throughout life

glutamate

most common excitatory NT. reticular activating system (required for consciousness - midbrain structures) has diffuse projection of glutamate to the cerebral cortex (GLU is exciting) glutamate associated with increased cortical arousal

GABA (brain) and Glycine (spinal cord)

most common inhibitory NTs, 2 other Gs are inhibitory

injection

most direct, intravenous means goes right to veins. takes effects within seconds. fastest. can be very dangerous (likely to inject bacteria and unexpected toxins), especially when using an infected needle

family

most important agent of socialization. when you are a child, totally depends on others to survive. your parents teach you how to care for yourself, how close relationships work, their beliefs/values/norms, how to talk to others.

cranial nerves

most of cranial nerves are attached to the brainstem, doing many things. 12 pairs. all sorts of functions

drive reduction motivation

motivation based on the need to fulfill a certain drive, like hunger or thirst

desires

motivations associated with pleasure or relate from displeasure. aren't necessarily bad

stapes

moves back and forth at same frequency as stimulus. it pushes the elliptical window back and forth

problem solving

moving from a current state to a goal state

neurochemical lesions

much more precise method!! exitotoxic lesions (excitotoxins are chemicals that bind to glutamate receptors and cause influx of calcium that causes so much excitement that kills the neurone/excites it to death - one examples is kainic acid. destroys cell bodies but doesn't influence axons passing by. don't severe connections like in knife cuts/radiofrequency lesions also oxidopamine (6-hydroxydopamine) selectively destroys dopamine and NE neurons. can model parkinson's diseases - oxidopamine is very similar to dopamine. in reuptake, the presynaptic cell takes the oxiopamine back for recycling (normal mechanism) but then this neuron is destroyed. it destroys substantia viagra neurons completely

hypnic jerks

muscle twitches you sometimes experience as you fall asleep

fungiform papillae are ___ shaped

mushroom

conversion disorder

must look like neurological symptoms only - like problems with speech, swallowing, seizures, paralysis neurological symptoms that we see are incompatible with any known neurological or mental condition. we cannot explain these symptoms based on test or clinical exam sometimes have a level of psychological stress or traumatic event resulting in manifestation of neurological symptoms the DSM5 criteria for conversion states the individual must exhibit at least one symptom of altered voluntary motor or sensory function that shows internal consistency, causes distress or impairment, and cannot be explained by another mental or medical disorder. the ICD-10-CM categorizes by symptom type, with weakness (or paralysis) and abnormal movement (tremor) listed as specific symptom types

what causes schizophrenia?

nature - genetic component nurture - environmental component goal of researchers is to isolate genes and the environments. look at one without the other to see what causes the disorder monozygotic twins vs dizygotic twins - can hold environment constant. examine effect of genes - if schizophrenia was genetic, we would expect to see different rates in identical vs. fraternal twins. higher in identical twins. - but if environmental, similar rates of disorder in both sets of twins. wouldn't matter if they were identical vs fraternal. they share 100% of the environment

geographical proximity

nearness is most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships

intramuscular

needle stuck into muscle. can deliver drugs to your system slowly or quickly quick delivery - epi pen slow delivery - vaccines (while muscles are sore)

slow adapting

neon fires in beginning of stimulus and calms down after a while

a photoreceptor is a specialized _____ that can take light and convert to neural impulse

nerve

the PTC makes the brain recognize that there is light entering the eyeball. the process of making light -> _____ ______ by turning off a rod. the neural impulse can turn on other cells and eventually be processed by the brain

neural impulse

non adapting

neuron consistency fires at a constant rate

timing

neuron encodes 3 ways for timing, non adapting, fast adapting, or slow adapting

fast adapting

neuron fires as soon as stimulus start, then stops, starts again when swim stops

retroactive interference

new learning impairs old info. refers to later information interfering with memory for earlier information

free recall

no cues in recalling. better recalling first items on a list (primacy effect) as well as last few (recency effect). harder to remember things in the middle of the list. recency effect is not as strong if there is an interpretation after list is called.

latent period

no focus on libdo. a period of exploration, libido present but directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. important in development of social and communication skills. children concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests. play is between same gender children - fixation doesn't develop into adult fixation

implicit memories are

non declarative unconscious

permissive parenting/indulgent parenting

non-directive and lenient. few behavioural expectations for child

assortative mating

nonrandom mating where individuals with certain phenotype/genotype/similarities/genes/physical appearance tend to mate with each other at a higher frequency, ex large animals mate with large animals and small animals mate with small animals - can result in inbreeding which is problem that occurs if animals too genetically similar mate. can be harmful to species overall. increase likelihood of harmful recessive traits being passed on to offspring.

sperm binding

when sperm comes in contact with zona pellucida. sperm binds to zona pellucida

mores

norms based on some moral value/belief (dependent on groups values of right and wrong). generally produce strong feelings. usually a strong reaction if more is violated ex truthfulness (tell true because its right thing to do, when public figures are not truthful causes outrage because the figure has done something wrong) don't have serious consequences

laws

norms still based on right and wrong, but have formal/consistent consequences. ex public figure lies under oath. done something morally wrong but also violate laws of court. there is a punishment for the crime. violating can be some (j walking) or severe (murder). there is not always outrage when a law is violated - depends on the law

frustration aggression hypothesis

not personality based, but more emotional display aggression towards other people - scapegoating. often seen in times of economic hardship

collective behaviour

not the same as group behaviour, because of a few reasons first, it is time limited, and involves short social interactions while groups stay together and socialize for long periods of time collectives can be open, while groups can be exclusive collectives have loose norms (which are murkily defined) while groups have strongly held/well defined norms

blastocyst

now the inside = cluster more and you develop an inner cell mass and blastocoel (hollow space). zona pellucida disintegrates the inner cell mass then make an amniotic cavity and the bottom cells of the inner cell mass differentiate into hypoblasts. the cells above hypoblasts are called epiblasts bilamar disk (epiblast + hypoblast) primitive stream forms: where the epiblast cells start to migrate

acetylcholine

nuclei (basilis and septal nuclei) in frontal lobe (frontal lobe = start so A) that released it to cerebral cortex, released for LMNs and autonomic nervous system

neglect syndrome

occurs when damage to the brain causes a change or loss in the capacity of the spatial dimension of divided attention

attentional capture

occurs when attention is attracted by the motion of an object o stimulus

closure

objects are grouped together are seen as a whole. mind fills in missing information

proximity

objects that are close are grouped together, we naturally group the closer things together rather than things that are farther apart.

mesopic vision

occurs at dawn or dusk and involves both rods and cones

photopic vision

occurs at levels of high light

scotopic vision

occurs at levels of very low light

fundamental attribution error

occurs when a person assigns too much weight to internal causes rather than external factors when looking for causes of another person's behaviour

groupthink

occurs when maintaining harmony among group embers is more important that carefully analyzing problem at hand. happens in very cohesive, insulated groups. often have important/respected leaders, and in the interest of group "unity" individuals suppress/sensory their own opinions - first suggestion proposed by leader is adopted. especially if there is little hope finding a batter solution. not the most effective way to make a decision and can explain whats wrong with congress in the US to avoid group think: bring in outsiders/experts, have the leader of the group not disclose opinion, discuss what should be done in smaller groups

substance use disorders

occurs when use of the drug causes a serious/real degree of impairment in functioning in life, at work, school, or home. not everyone experiences this

transduction

occurs whenever energy is transformed from one form to another, in this case, light energy is transformed to electrical energy by rods and cones

independent stressor

occurs without the person's influence. equal amounts.

light comes in, goes through pupil, and hits rod. normally rod is turned on, but when light hits it turns it ____

off

when rod is ___, it turns on a bipolar cell, which turns on a retinal ganglion cell, which goes into the optic nerve and enters the _____

off brain

prestige

often based on occupation. minority group members have lower paid jobs typically

smell is also known as _____

olfaction

above the cribriform plate is an extension from the brain ____ _____ - a bundle of nerves that sends little projections through cribriform plate into the olfactory epithelium, which branch off

olfactory bulb

area in nostril called the ____ _____ (olfactory sensory cells). separating the olfactory epithelium from the brain in the ____ plate.

olfactory epithelium cribriform

when dark, rod turned ___ ->, ON CENTRE bipolar cells ____, OFF CENTRE bipolar cells ______

on inactive active

the phototransduction cascade is the process of rod turning from ____ to ___

on to off

adrenal glands

on top of kidney (adjacent to kidney): ACTH acts on adrenal cortex (steroids (fluid volume; stress resp) glucocorticosteroids like cortisol) and medulla (catecholamine's hormones) the adrenal gland plays a supportive role in development of muscle and bones

each post acute withdrawal (PAW) episode usually last for a few days

once you've been in recovery for a while, you will find that each post acute withdrawal episode usually lasts for a few days. there is no obvious trigger for most episodes. you will wake up one day feeling irritable and have low energy. if you hang on for just a few days, it will lift just as quickly as it started. after a while you will develop confidence that you can get through post acute withdrawal, because you'll know that each episode is time limited

opitates/opioids

opitates - natural opioid - synthetic like depressants: decrease CNS function, decrease HR/BP, cause relaxation, induce sleep (hence can be used to treat pain and anxiety) but it is NOT a depressant. work on different mechanisms at the neurochemical level Analgesic - reduce perception of pain ex. heroine, codeine, morphine, oxycodone used to treat pain because they act at body's receptor sites for endorphoines

dis-assortative mating (non assortative mating)

opposite of assortative mating - situation where individuals with individuals with different or diverse traits mate with higher frequency than with random mating

inside rod are a lot of ____ disks stacked on top of one another

optic

social cognitive theory

originally called social learning theory theory of behaviour change that emphasizes interaction between people and their environment. unlike behaviourism (where environment controls us entirely). condition is also important - social factors, observational learning, and environmental factors (ex opinions/attitudes of friends and family) can influence your beliefs

impression management

our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage. do this because we want to be viewed in a positive way. there are multiple social situations which require different scripts from you as an actor and hence there are multiple front stages, and you have to play a different front stage role every time. we manage our sense of self in social interactions

constancy

our perception of object doesn't change even if the image cast on the retina is different. different types of constancy include size constancy, shape constancy, colour constancy

sensory adaptation

our senses are adaptable and they can change their sensitivity to stimuli

ectoderm

outer layer of skin, sweat glands, hair skin, nervous system

heredity

passing traits from parents/ancestors to offspring through genes.

Factitious disorder

patients want to be sick. the patient will falsify or disease their signs or symptoms to get a diagnosis/treatment ex. they might injure themselves, falsify tests. this is often called munchausen's syndrome muchausen's by proxy - when one person makes another person look ill so medical attention/treatment provided further for another individual people do this to be in sick toll (not for money)

sleep debt

paying back sleep

conformity

peer pressure tendency for people to bring behaviour in line with group norms. powerful in social situations. we use social situations (especially ones with peers) to determine what is acceptable, when to question authorities, and get feedback on behaviour. - this is why it is important for people to have positive peers. if group behaviour is positive, then there will be peace, harmony, happiness, negative peers = negative behaviours, which can be catastrophic

anger

penetrating stare, eyelids tense, lips pressed together

socio cultural cause of aggression

people act more aggressively in groups (ex riots) - deindividuation you gain an anonymous status when you are with large group of people. if people around individual act poorly, individual might act poorly too. this also explains why there is poor behaviour on the internet (they are anonymous here, and those around them model poor behaviour) deindividuation: when an individual loses self awareness social scripts: when people are in new situations they rely on social scripts, or instructions provided by society on how to act. ex violent video games, model aggressive behaviour for them, viewing media can give them example of how they should act.

kin selection

people act more altruistically to close/kin than distant/non kin people - same when people share last names (especially if rare names) morphing face as increase trust we have in other person

reciprocal altruism

people are also more cooperative if they will interact with that person again in the future. giving with expectation of future reward. -we feel more obliged to help someone else if they have helped us. - this is why charities send out small gifts.

division of labour

people are trained to do specific tasks

flashbulb memories

people claimed to remember detail of what they were doing when they received news about an emotionally arousing event

social influence theory

people do and report whats expected f them, like actors caught up in their roles

recency bias

people place a lot of emphasis on your recent actions/recent performances, more than ones before

optimum arousal theory

people want to reach full arousal/alertness. drive to get full arousal, and natural high - a state we enjoy. ex why people go to amusement park

sleep apnea (1/20 people)

people with it often unaware. stop breathing while asleep - body realizes you are not getting enough oxygen, wake up just long enough to hasp for air and fall back asleep without realizing. can happen 100X a night. don't get enough N3 snoring/fatigue in morning after long night of sleep

emotional intelligence

perceive, understand, and manage and use emotions in interactions with others

define interposition (overlap)

perception that one object is in front of another. An object that is in the front is closer

produce

period of time before schizophrenia before symptoms are actually present - deterioration in person's behaviour and functioning. some of the signs of schizophrenia and one starts to go downhill. - schoolwork suffers or work can suffer - relationships might suffer (paranoia or suspiciousness towards other people) delusional ideas (people are working agains me), start to act differently prodrome leads to schizophrenia

rods are found primarily in _____

periphery

primary auditory cortex

receives all info form cochlea. it is separated by regions which detect different frequencies (0.5 kHz - 16 kHz)

learned behavioural traits

persistent changes in our body that result our experiences. not present at birth, but acquired after experiences with the environment. have the following characteristics: non inherited - acquired only through observation/experience extrinsic - absent when animals are raised in isolation, ex social skills permutable - pattern/sequence that is changeable adaptable - capable of being modified in response to changing conditions progressive - subject to improvement or refined through practice over time.

cognitive flexibility

perspective change is huge in our perception of what is stressing us out. good way is working with counsellor

deutch and deutch's late selection theory

places broadband selective filter after perceptual processes. this means that you DO register and assign everything meaning but then selective filter decides what you pass on to conscious awareness -moved the selective filter from before perception to after perceptual processes sensory register -> perceptual processes -> selective filter -> conscious some problems - this whole process has to occur quickly, but given limited resources of attention and knowing our brains are super efficient it seems wasteful to spend all that effort assigning meaning to things first which you won't ever need

in attentional blindness is the inability to recognize an unexpected object, event or stimulus that is in _____ _____

plain sight -- this is due to a psychological lapse in attention, rather than a defect or deficit in sensory perception

McDonaldization

policies of fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society. primarily, principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, uniformity, and control - these principles have come to dominate everything, from medicine to sporting events to entertainment.

power

political power, economic (unfair hiring policies to minorities), personal (laws can limit where someone lives/etc)

somatosensation includes 5 main ones

position sense vibration touch pain temperature

differences in axons

position/vibration/touch have large diameter axons. have thick myelin sheath - fast rest have small diameter axons, slower touch is both. fine touch travels fast in neurons, less precise info travels in slower ones

reflexes:

pre programmed motor skills. involuntary motor movement/automatic over time, there are voluntary movements that developed. this happens quickly 2-4 months: heads up/chest up 2-5 months: roll over 5-8 months: sit up 5-10 months: stand with support (furniture/people) 6-11 months: pull up to standing position 7-12 months: children are able to crawl 7-13 months: wall while holding onto furniture 10-14 months: stand on their own 11-15 months: walk alone skill can develop in wide range of time. there are many individual differences. 50% will develop before, 50% after. (its usually a median number that is given)

three levels of moral reasoning, each have 2 subparts:

preconventional conventional postconventional

secondary trait

preferences or attitude, ex love for modern art, reluctance to eat meat

activity in ______ _______ during REM sleep is decreased - part responsible for logic

prefrontal cortex

specific changes during puberty:

prefrontal cortex: developed during adolescence. responsible for higher order cognition (thinking about future, planning, decision making, ability to inhibit certain behaviour and focus on long term goals). develops into early 20s. explains why teenagers show poor judgment limbic system amygdala: responsible for emotions/emotional responses. explains why teenagers are moody and have emotional outbursts (yelling at parents, slamming door) hypothalamus: regulates endocrine system (hormones) limbic system also includes other structures, but these top 2 are important corpus collosum connects right/left hemisphere. changes to connections associated with language/language learning. these connections develop until puberty

as we grow up, our belief on how others perceive us is more important, this happens through 3 stages

preparatory play stage game stage

priming

previous experiences influence current interpretation of an event. refers to the change in the response towards a stimulus due to a subconscious memory effect. an implicit memory effect in which exposure to one stimulus (perceptual pattern) influences the response to another stimulus

bureaucratization

process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy.

positive feedback

process that increase production of product. one product stimulates production of another produce. ex domino effect

vigilance attention and signal detection

processes that attempt to detect a signal or target of interest. this allows responses to be primed and quick actions undertaken in response to the signal or target of interest. ie a pothole in the road is detected and avoidance actions are undertaken

working memory

processing anything that you are thinking about at this particular moment 7+/- 2

parkinson's disease

progressive neurological disorder involving motor abnormalities and mental dysfunction (neural) too. most common neurological problems are slowed movements, a type of tremor, increased muscle tone, abnormal walking, and poor balance (leading to falls). muscles are stiffer and slow with tremor. later in disease when motor abnormalities of cognitive, emotional, and autonomic functions

projection

projecting own feelings of inadequacy on another

immature defence mechanisms

projection - throw your attributes to someone else - like accusing another person of being jealous when you are the one being jealous - can cause projection identification 0 that person targeted with projection can start believing, feeling, having thoughts of the attributes that were projected to them. ex the person now actually feels jealous and the person can believe " im jealous" passive aggression - aggressively doing something for someone and filing to do it or doing it slowly. passive way to express anger

convergent intelligence

proposed by Guilford to describe IQ test related intelligence, such as puzzles, vocabulary words, and arithmetic

hans eysenck

proposed extroversion level is based on differences in the reticular formation (controls arousal and consciousness) - introverts are more aroused than extroverts so they seek lower levels of stimulation

raymond cattell

proposed we all had 16 essential personality traits that represent basic dimensions of personality. turned this into the 16 personality factor questionnaire

information processing model

proposes our brains are similar to computers. we get input form environment, process it, and output decisions. doesn't describe where things happen in the brain. INPUT -> PROCESS -> OUTPUT

hormones can be:

protein/polypeptide (small-large) steroid: from cholesterol (lipid - not charged and can pass freely through membrane) tyrosine derivative: from tyrosine. thyroid hormones and catecholamines (adrenal medulla produces this)

LSD

prototypical hallucinogen. interferes with serotonin, which causes people to experience hallucinogens hallucinogens are visual instead of auditory

written rules and regulations

provides clear expectations but stiffens creativity and rules become too important

cognitive behavioural therapy

psychological treatment for drug treatment. addresses both cognitive and behavioural components of addiction. patients learn to recognize problematic thought patterns and develop more positive thought patterns and coping behaviours. they learn to anticipate problematic situations and to self monitor for cravings so they can apply their coping strategies early.

positive symptoms of schizophrenia

psychosis - hallucinations, delusions (characteristic of psychotic disorders including schizophrenia) "perceptual abnormalities", disorganized speech/thinking, disorganized behaviour, catatonic behaviour

prototype

psychotic category of disorders. prototype of psychosis - specific abnormalities in cognition and perceptions of realty - hallucinations, deductions

andrew meltzoff

published study that questioned theory that understanding between self and others happens soon after birth. in his experiment he suggested that babies are born with a built in capacity to imitate others

negative feedback

rate or process that needs to be controlled to decrease product. ex in our body - negative feedback is put into place to inhibit production of product

modified semantic network

rather than hierarchal, says every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge. means all ideas in head are connected together. when you activate one concept, you pull related concepts with it. called spreading activation (can explain false memories, or remembering wrong but related info)

pragnanz

reality organized reduced to simplest form possible. ex. olympic rings, where the brain automatically organizes these into 5 circles, instead of more complex shapes

egg cell

really big. not made for motility. cell = 10X more massive. egg has genetic material and a thick outer coating (zona pellucida that is a thick layer of glycoproteins - protein with branching sugar chains). deep to zona pellucida - plasma membrane. once sperm gets through plasma membrane = fertilization. egg cell has mitochondria (200K mitochondria) but also other organelles

decline

recall becomes more difficult (although recognition is stable), episodic memories impaired (forming new episodic memories is difficult, old memories stable). processing speed (older people have a harder time outputting a response) and divided attention (becomes harder to switch attention between task and become easily distracted. also prospective memory (remembering to do thins in future) is decreased.

drugs

substances that include alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, opioids, stimulants, hallucinogens, inhalants, sedatives, caffeine

frontal cortex

reconcile for impulse control, reasoning, judgement, planning. we do see atrophy in these areas subjected to stress

3 types of cones:

red, green, blue

perceived behaviour control

refers to a person's ability to carry out intentions to perform a certain behaviour

anterograde memory

refers to ability to form long term memories after brain injury

crystallized intelligence

refers to accumulated knowledge and verbal skills. fluid intelligence tends to decrease s we move into older adulthood, while crystallized increases or stays the same. cattell defined crystallized intelligence as the ability to retrieve and acquire knowledge crystallized intelligence based on fact, experience, prior learning and accumulates as one ages

intoxication:

refers to behavioural and psychological effects on the person. these are qdrug-specific

lexical access

refers to identifying a word and connecting it to its meaning, which has been stored in long term memory

agents of socialization

refers to parts of society that are important for socialization (the process of learning the norms and values in a society)

low effort syndrome/low effort coping

refers to the coping responses of minority groups in an attempt to fit into the dominant culture. for example, minority students at school may learn to put in only minimal effort as they believe they are being discriminated against by the dominant culture

transformationalist grammar:

refers to the different ways that words can be arranged to convey the same information language is an innate ability

3 main types of innate behaviour

reflexes - sensory and motor nerve loop response without thinking (ex. knee jerk response) orientation behaviours - regulating specially in our environments ex kinesis, our change in speed (orthokinesis), change in rate turning (klinokinesis). can be in response to a stimulus (like tripping on a sidewalk - your body would change speed/kinesis) ex positive taxis and negative taxis - movement towards/away from stimulus respectively. ex insects and light. insects have positive taxis towards light (phototaxis) fixed action pattern (FAP) - sequence of coordinated movement performed without interruption. similar to a reflex, but more complicated. ex praying mantis. any prey-sized movement preying mantis experiences elitists a strike response, once strike initiated - cant be changed/altered at all.

thyroid

regulate body metabolism T3/T4 the thyroid gland affects the growth and development of the brain and regulates growth rates

pancreas

regulates blood sugar. not tied to pituitary gland

hypothalamus

regulates how much fluid in blood volume in any given time

group meetings

such as AA, involve 12 step program that help people go through process of recovery

variable ratio

reinforcement is delivered after an average number of right responses has occurred. similar to fixed ratio, except number changes for each reward most effective .

fixed ratio

reinforcement only occurs after a fixed number of responses

operant conditioning (self control)

reinforcing good behaviours with rewards. positive/negative reinforcing or punishment.

when things are far, muscles of eyes ______ when things are close, muscles of eyes _____

relaxed contracted

serotonin

released by lots of nuclei from all over the brainstem (midbrain, pons, and medulla) called raphe nuclei to cerebral cortex release serotonin. raphe nuclei also send serotonin to other parts of the nervous system (like sex = messy. from everywhere done low (brain stem)

minnesota study

religiosity in monozygotic twins has a coefficient of correlation value of 0.49 based on minnesota twin studies reared apart data personality in monozygotic twins has a coefficient of correlation value of 0.50 based on the minnesota twin studies reared apart data information processing speed in monozygotic twins has a coefficient of correlation value of 0.56 based on the minnesota twin studies reared apart data intelligence in monozygotic twins has a coefficient of correlation value of 0.69 based on the minnesota twin studies reared apart data

intuition

relying on instinct. high chance of error

deprivation

removing the object of temptation completely is problematic. can make you want it more, and leads to ego depletion (takes lot of effort to deprive of yourself something completely). this is probably why those on strict diets likely to fall to temptation

partial report technique

report one part of a whole field in cued recall. the partial report condition required participants to identify a subset of the characters from the visual display using cued recall. the cue was a tone which sounded at various time intervals (50ms) following the offset of the stimulus. the frequency of the ton (high, medium, or low) indicated which set of characters within the display were reported. due to the fact that participants did not know which row would be cued for recall, performance in the partial report condition can be regarded as a random sample of an observer's memory for the entire display. this type of sampling revealed that immediately after stimulus offset, participants could recall most letters (9/12) in a given row suggesting that 75% of the entire visual display was accessible to memory

conjunction fallacy

representativeness heuristic can lead to this this means co-occurence of 2 instances is more likely than a single one. people tend to think the probability of 2 events occurring together is higher than the probability of one alone

happiness

represented by, raised cheeks, elevated concerns of mouth (sometimes wrinkles on outer corner of eyes, and teeth exposed)

damaging effects of stress on our reproductive

reproduction huge energy expense in women, so this gets shut down during stress repose in women - FSH/LH and then estrogen/progesterone can be inhibited which reduce reproductive abilities boys have a reduced testosterone as well, but precise levels of testosterone not required so never really reduced to the point of infertility. impotence/erectile dysfunction also often caused by stress because your blood vessels are being constricted (less blood flow to penis) and allows more blood to remain in core. impotence usually due to stress in US

endogenous cues/internal cues

require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it. ex, a mouse arrow, would need internal arrow of what an arrow is to follow it and to know its not just a random line - endogenous attention is driven by top-down or internal events, ie the cocktail effect

inpatient treatment

require residence at a hospital or treatment facility

whole report technique

required participants to recall as many elements rom the original display in their proper spatial locations as possible. participants were typically able to recall 3-5 characters from 12 character display (35%). this suggests that whole report is limited by a memory system with a capacity of 4-5 items

anchoring and adjustment heuristic

requires a person to create a set point or anchor. the answer is adjusted based on comparing new information to the anchor

sensation

requires a physical stimulus to be converted into a neural impulse

at fovea, there are no axons in way of light so we get higher _____

resolution

habituation

response to alarm decreases over time

variable interval

responses are reinforced after a variable amount of time has passed, regardless on amount ex bonus can come randomly on different days.

dividing into functional divisions - focus on prefrontal cortex

responsible for many higher-order functions, everything that distinguishes humans. executive control - solve problems, make decisions, how you act in social situations undergoes most development from birth helps manage how you behave in social situations. phineas gage had iron rod penetrate his prefrontal cortex. after incident, rude and rough, behaved inappropriately

parasympathetic

rest and digest, opposite effects of Sympathetic pupils constrict increased salvation decrease respiratory rate/decreased hear rate (back to normal) increase glucose storage (digesting food) decrease in adrenaline increase digestion

sympathetic

result due to fear pupils dilate decrease in salivation increase respiration rate increase heart rate increase glucose release increase adrenaline and norepinephrine decrease in digestion

sleep wake disorders

result in distress/disability from sleep related issues. insomnia and breathing related sleep disorders, abnormal behaviours during sleep

when _____ changes shape, rhodopsin changes shape

retinal

binocular cues also gives humans ______ _______

retinal disparity

incentive theory

reward, intangible or tangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action with intention of causing the behaviour to occur again. this causes a positive association and meaning toward a behaviour. focuses on conditioning/incentive to make a person happier. incentive theory argues that individuals are motivated to engage in behaviours that produce rewards or incentives ex doing well at work and getting promotion (tangible). or intangible - job satisfaction ex. incentive for football team is wining a game and getting recognition

a lot of proteins on the discs. one is ____ (on a cone the same protein is called photopsin), a multimeric protein with 7 discs, which contains a small molecule called retinal (11-cis retinal)

rhodopsin

rods contain ______, cones have similar protein ______

rhodopsin photopsin

clonus

rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle. ex foot goes involuntarily up and down. cause is hyperreflexia, because if doctor pulls on foot activates muscle stretch reflex, so triggers antagonist muscles

all light from the nasal side of both eyes cross to the other side so left nasal info goes to ___ side and vice versa

right

light enters the pupil and goes to the retina, which contains ______ and _____

rods and cones

evolutionary approach (motivation)

role instincts play in motivation. what do humans do to survive? what is not learned and just instinct ex think about baby, cries, sleep, eat. basic instincts that all humans have

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

same image from MRI but can look at which structures are active! neurons that are active require oxygen. measuring relative amounts of oxygenated vs deoxygenated blood in the brain - we can figure out what brain areas are being used for certain task. fMRI is more popular. MRI registers magnetic changes via radio waves and fMRI is a calculated composite of several MRI images registering the changes (shows activity as coloured areas over MRI). MRIs are slow but offer high resolution of soft tissue, such as the brain

norms are reinforced by sanctions --

sanctions are rewards/punishments for behaviours in accord with or against norms respectively positive sanction - a reward for conforming to norms negative sanction - a punishment for violating norms formal sanctions - officially recognized and enforced informal sanction - unofficially recognized and does not result in specific punishment

neural networking theory

sates that there are innate language mechanisms that can be activated by experiences

rote rehearsal

say the same thing over and over. least effective technique. simply repeating information. it requires the least amount of cognitive effort

spreading activation

says all ideas in your brain are connected together. pulling up one memory pulls up others as well

the dual coding hypothesis

says its easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone. can use the method of loci - imagine moving through a familiar place and in each place leaving a visual representation of topic to be remembered

psychoanalytic theory

says personality is shaped by childhood experiences person's unconscious thoughts/desires, feelings, and past memories (particularly experiences in childhood) personality has memories, beliefs, urges, drives and instincts that we are not always aware of that make up the unconscious. says childhood experiences and unconscious desires

behaviouralist theory

says personality is the result of learned behaviour patterns based on a person's environment - its deterministic, in that people begin as blank states and the environment completely determines their behaviour/personalities. do not take thoughts and feelings into account. environment -> behaviour focuses on observable and measurable behaviour, rather than mental/emotional - the psychoanalytic theory would be most opposite of this theory (focuses on mental behaviour)

cognitive economy principle

says that our brain is efficient. evidence: how long it takes people to verify certain statements. for example, it takes people little time to verify a chancy is a canary, more time to verify canary is a bird, and even more time to verify canary is an animal

sometimes info we receive is based on a _____ instead of reality

schema (mental blueprint containing common aspects of the world

negative reinforcement

taking something away to increase tendency behaviour will occur again

compulsive stimulation-seeking

seeks excitement or distraction through compulsive shopping, sex, gambling, risk taking, physical activity, novelty, etc

daily hassles

seemingly minor events/hassles of daily life. ex, long store lines, forgetting car keys, aggravating roommates, email spam. daily hassles often accompany low SES - inadequate income or employment for minorities daily hassles might include racism many consider (Mike Lazarus, connor mcdonald) the most important form of stress

we modify our cognitions traduce cognitive discomfort, we don't change our behaviour

selective exposure: would most likely refer to avoidance or reduce dissonance post decision dissonance often follows an impulsive purchase that is difficult to return when someone does something and there is minimal justification for them doing it, this creates more dissonance than if they can explain it through a significant rationale. the dissonance then acts to make them internally justify the action saying "i wanted to do it anyway because i like doing that sort of thing" change vs compliance - small rewards change cognitions, large rewards - just compliance minimum justification principle: when someone does something and there is minimal justification for them doing it, this creates more dissonance than if they can explain it through a significant rationale. can occur after buying something you didnt want to. need to introduce a new cognition to create cognitive dissonance - this is best done through action of the participant which affirms a second cognition (new information would NOT do this... as a cognition needs to be developed and internalized)

first theorist of the humanistic theory was abraham maslow, who formed hierarchy of needs. must first fulfill physiological needs of pyramid and work our way up, then safety, then love, self esteem, and finally self actualization

self actualization is rarely achieved, only 1% of people ever reach it. self aware, caring, wise, and interests are problem entered. they have a higher purpose that is focused on larger causes and less about basic aspects of life. they are striving to think of larger causes. average person seeks to self actualize but we don't achieve it

improve

semantic memories improved until around age 60. so older adults have better verbal skills. also crystallized IQ is improved (ability to use knowledge and experience, typically tested by analogy tests and reading comprehension). also better at emotional reasoning

cognitive improvements

semantic memory (improves until 60 years) (verbal skills) crystallized intelligence (use knowledge and experience) (using reading comprehension to test) emotional reasoning

VTA

sends dopamine to the amygdala (controls emotions), nucleus accumbent (NAcc, controls motor functions), prefrontal cortex (focus attention and planning) and hippocampus (part of the temporal lobe, involved in memory formation) NAcc, amygdala and hippocampus are part of the mesolithic pathway

proprioception

sense of balance/position

rods are 1000X more _______ to light than cones

sensitive

thalamus

sensory relay station, everything you hear/taste/etc. senses come through your nerves and end up in thalamus, which directs them to appropriate areas in cortex, and other areas of the brain. emotions contingent on senses. smell is only one that bypasses the thalamus - goes to areas closer to amygdala

detoxification (detox)

separating addict from the drug. sometimes require strong medications for strong addictions (have to break the addiction cycle). often have to address symptoms such as vomiting, nausea, pain, etc.

information support

sharing information with us or giving us advice. can come from family, friends, or even articles online

avoidance

signal is given before aversive situation. the behaviour is to avoid the situation, which results in continued avoidance because it is reinforced by the removal of the pain/undesirable stimuli.

compliance

situations where we do behaviour to get a reward or avoid punishment. tendency to go along with behaviour without questioning why. compliance goes away once rewards/punishments removed

both nociception and thermoception are _____

slow

nocireceptors and thermoreceptors =

slow

rods have ___ recover time, cones have ___ recovery time

slow fast

N3 (Stage 3)

slow wave sleep. very difficult to awaken. characterized by delta waves. where sleep walking/talking in sleep happens. declarative memory consolidation. "regular breathing and regular slow brain waves"

theta (4-7Hz)

slower/lower frequency than alpha waves drowsiness- right after your fall asleep/when you are sleeping lightly

delta (0.5-3Hz)

slower/lower frequency than theta waves. deep sleep or coma

C fibres

small diameter, unmyelinated (lingering sense of pain)

oligarchy

small group of people having control of a country, organization, or institution

sound

sound can convey a lot of information even though they do not have language. ex mating calls or warning calls.

temporal cortex

sound, wernicke's area

1) social stigma

social stigma can be fuelled or associated with several other key concepts: stereotypes, prejudices, discrimination. relationship/overlap between stigma and these is unclear and is variable depending on source - derive from symbolic interactionist on source -calls attention to how certain individuals or groups face social disapproval. often, the social disapproval is associated with a behaviour, identity, or other attribute that is considered deviant by others" associated with an attribute that is devalued

symbolic interactionism

society is a product of everyday interactions of individuals. looking at how people behave in normal everyday situations and helps us to better understand and define deviance

insight learning

solve a problem using past skills, the aha moment is insight learning

parietal lobe

somatosensory cortex (touch/pressure/pain), spatial manipulation (orient in 3D) somatosensory cortex: motor cortex (frontal) + somatosensory cortex (parietal). somatosensory cortex - involved in receiving sensory signals from the skin

positive punishment

something is added to decrease tendency something will occur again

positive reinforcement

something is being added to increase tendency of behaviour

negative punishment

something taken away in effort to decrease tendency it will occur again

proactive interference

something you learned in past impairs learning in future. earlier information interferes with later information.

tend and befriend response

sometimes better response to stress is to have support systems. oxytocin is important for this - peer bonding and moderates the stress response. oxytocin is strongly linked to estrogen (a major sex hormone in women), so why this response is stronger in women) so why this response is stronger in women

interactionist approach

sometimes called social interactionist approach. believe biological and social factors have to interact in order for children to learn language. children's desire to communicate with others - such as adults in their life, makes them motivated to learn language. associated with vygotsky

spacing

spreading out study sessions overtime in sorter periods rather than cramming them into one study session (spacing effect)

Sensorimotor stage

stage 1, 0-2 years old. (sensory = senses - children gather information about the world via sight, smell, taste, hearing, touch, etc + motor - active, as you develop how to use senses you learn t move your body around). main task.awareness develops is object permanence: objects exist even if they can't see them..

preoperational stage

stage 2. 2-7 years old. (operations = mental operations like imagining thins). when children are going to develop/engage in pretend play. start to use symbols to represent things. words symbolize objects and children start understanding symbols. also, very egocentric - only concerned about themselves, no empathy (they don't understand that other people have a different point of view than they do). associated with the inability to understand the perspective of others

concrete operational

stage 3, 7-11 years old. concrete operational (operational - mental operations". Learn idea of conservation. begin to learn empathy, begin reasoning of math skills. the concrete operation stage describes children who are able to grasp concrete (real) events logically, conversion, and reversibility (refers to the ability to recognize that numbers or objects can be changed and returned to their original condition

norms

standards for what behaviours, set by groups of individuals, are acceptable and which are not. rules that dictate how person should behave around certain group of people - and are defined by that group and usually guided by some sort of moral standard or ethical value is easily understood and internalized by all members of the group. provide structure and standards of how people can behave

game stage

start to understand attitudes/beliefs/behaviour of "generalized other" (society as a whole). with this comes whole new understanding of society. children start to realize that people perform in ways not only on what they personally believe but what also in the ways society more broadly expects of them and they understand that people can take on multiple roles (people can be more than just moms, doctors, or teachers- they can be multiple things at once). also realize others have opinions about them and those perceptions others have are based on how they act and what they say. they begin to be influenced by these perceptions and are concerned by reactions of others to what they do. but don't care about reactions of everyone, only significant others (people with important relationships to individual ex parents/teachers/close peers) this stage led to I and Me

differential association

states that deviance is a learned behaviour that results from continuous exposure to others whose violate norms and laws - learn from observation of others. rejects norms/values and believes new behaviour as norm - relationships a person forms are very important - if strong relationship to someone deviant, the person is more likely to learn deviance than someone not. known as monkey see monkey do

linguistic universals theory

states that there are characteristics that remain consistent across all languages of different cultures

physiological components of emotion

when surprised, heart rate might increase, muscles tense, temperature increases

mechanoreceptor

stimuli: mechanical stress pressure changes (baroreceptors) sound waves gravity Location: skin blood vessels ear - tend to have large diameter and thick myelin sheath; therefore they conduct fast. noci and thermo have small and have thin myelin or no myelin -> slow

richard lazarus

stress arises less from physical events but more from the assessment/interpretation of those stresses/events. appraisal. this is appraisal theory of stress. there are 2 stages of the cognitive stages - the primary appraisal and secondary appraisal

substantial nigra also projects to area of basal ganglia called the _____, and loss of dopamine neurons protecting from substantial nigra tot he striatum causes most of motor abnormalities of parkinson's

striatum

skinner

strict behaviourist, associated with concept of operant conditioning. uses rewards/punishment to increase/decrease behaviour, respectively

broca

studied a patient with the loss of speech (but not other mental disorder). this patient (along with others who he studied) had a specific part of the frontal lobe that was damaged (broca conducted autopsies to figure this out). the brain region was involved in speech production. this area is called the broca's area. broca's aphasia: loss of ability to express speech - in this method you have to wait till someone dies to figure out what brain area it damaged - in this time, a patient can have more brain injuries that occur - patient can outlive scientist - patient could move away. family could refuse autopsy/access to brain and body

ethnography

study of particular people and places. it is more of an approach than a single research method in that it generally combines several research methods including interviews, observation, and physical trace measures. good ethnography truly captures a sense of the place and peoples studied

subcortical cerebrum

subcortical cerebral nuclei that are located deep part of the cerebrum internal capsule - contains many important pathways, including the corticospinal tract corpus collosum - connects right and left cerebral hemispheres basal ganglia - major role in motor functions, dnt have UMNs but help motor areas to perform proper movements. also, cognition + emotion thalamus - sensory functions, because all senses have pathways that travel to the thalamus. also higher functions of brain such as cognition and emotion hypothalamus - controls the pituitary gland, the master gland that controls all other glands in the body

stress reaction

subsequent physical and emotional response

panic disorders

sudden burst of sheer panic and intense fear panic attacks - sudden, intense, might be in response to any stimuli - heart palpitations or sweating or chest pain or shortness of breath panic attacks are in response to situations that typically don't warrant that level of stress - there are situations where a high level of panicking is appropriate ex if you are being attacked by someone, someone breaks into your house there are physical symptoms as well

empathy altruism hypothesis

suggests some people are altruistic due to empathy high empathy = high in altruistic behaviours. those who score higher on empathy are more altruistic

triarchic theory of intelligence (robert sternberg)

summary 3 independent intelligences based on real world success: analytical (problem solving ability), creative intelligence and practical intelligence strength/evidence reliable, easy to study by research problems research shows that scores of all intelligences vary together. are these 3 sides of the same coin?

theory of multiple intelligence (howard gardner)

summary explained ideas of what can be included in intelligence gardner divided into 7 then 9 independent intelligence (they don't depend on each other and hence intelligence in 1 area does not predict intelligence in another) logical mathematical intelligence, verbal linguistic, spatial visual, bodily kinaesthetic, interpersonal, interpersonal, musical. later added 2: naturalist and existential intelligence strength/evidence: you can have different strengths independently. intelligence is more than just "book smarts" problems: no way to test this theory (not supported by research) intelligence vs. talents/abilities (but maybe this is just a labelling)

MEG (magnetoencephalggram)

superconducting quantum interface device - better resolution than EEG, but rather because requires a large machine and special room to shield it. records the magnetic fields produced by electric currents in the brain. measured by using SQUIDS

K complexes

suppress cortical arousal and keep you asleep. also help sleep based memory consolidation (some memories are transferred to long term memory during sleep, particularly declarative/explicit memories). even though they occur naturally, you can also make them occur by gently touching someone sleeping. "that touch was not threatening, stay asleep brain"

tissue removal

surgical removal, surgical aspiration (sucking out brain tissue), or severing the nerve with a scalpel (this allows for a destroying of the brain tissue in place... less invasive)

ANS has 2 divisions:

sympathetic (fight or flight) parasympathetic (rest and digest)

token economy

system of behaviour modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behaviour, reinforcers are "tokens" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers

trial + error

take random guesses until something finally works. not efficient

side effect discrimination

talks about how one institution/organization/sector can influence another negatively.

filiform papillae do not contain ____ _____, and exist all over the tongue

taste buds

peers

teach us to develop our social behaviours. peers values and behaviours contradict values of our families/parents at times, and influence us. peer pressure. how our values of our peers influence us

mass media

television, internet, radio, books, magazines. when you are young you learn things through mass media that parents would not approve of. today, children are exposed to a lot of content intended for mature audiences - violent tv shows. enforces gender and other stereotypes ex children books are another agent of socialization

the central executive

tells the visuospatial sketchpad + phonological loop to coordinate. the central executive supervises the cognitive process of memory

evolutionary game theory

tells us those with best fit to environment will survive and pass on to offspring, and those genes will become more common in successive generations reproduction and environment are central to evolutionary game theory -reproduction important to game theory because its can't happen in isolation and it needs to involve others environment - how organism fits in with social and physical environment. work with router organisms to find food, raise young, deal with predators

touch

temperature receptors desensitized over time

wernicke's area

temporal lobe (sound processing), understand.

unconscious mind

the bottom part of the iceberg is the larger part of the mind (most of the mind is unconscious just like most of an iceberg is beneath water). consists of primitive, instinctual wishes and information that cannot be accessed - not to be confused with subconscious mind/precocious mind: consists of information that become accessible once you direct your attention to it (memory recall for example)

social loafing

tendency to put forth less effort in group task if the individual contributions aren't evaluated. social loafing is the tendency for individuals to put forth less effort when part of a group

generalization

tendency/ability of a stimulus similar to conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response, and more similar the stimulus is to original conditioned stimulus - the greater the conditioned response - has an adaptive value - generalization allows us to make appropriate response to similar stimulus. ex meeting someone new who smiles, reminds us of other smiles (both enjoy feelings of joy)

stressors like threats and dangers trigger our fight or flight system

the NS (sympathetic NS) (part of the ANS) and the endocrine response sympathetic response: fight or flight the triggers our "get out of danger mode" see increased heart rate and increased respiration (more energy + oxygen in blood + more CO2 expelled), increased peripheral vasoconstriction (push more blood to our core area/vital organs that it is hard to live without. we take blood out of the extremities like our legs/arms which are less essential for our survival), and turn off digestion/immune/ovulation (less crucial)

dissociation

the ability of the mind to separate and compartmentalize thoughts, memories, and emotions. this is often associated with post traumatic stress syndrome

cocktail part effect

the ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd. or when someone calls your name (endogenous cue: meaning of name draws attention)

self control

the ability to control our impulses and delay gratification. influences how we behave

the specialized part of the olfactory epithelium in animals -

the accessory olfactory epithelium

covert orienting

the act of bringing the spotlight of your attention of an object or event without body or eye movement

endocrine response: Adrenal Glands

the adrenal medulla release catecholamines (epinephrine/adrenaline and norepinephrine/noradrenaline) catecholamine's are tyrosine derivatives. developed from ectoderm. the adrenal cortex release glucocorticoid (cortisol) - steroid hormone redistributes glucose energy in body suppressing immune system. developed by endoderm. acronym: COTisol is released by CORTex play a role in development of muscles/bones

Limbic system is involved in emotion:

the amygdala is conductor of emotional experiences, communicating between the hypothalamus (physiological) and prefrontal cortex (behaviour). Amygdala pays key role in fear/aggression

what connects the observable (behavioural) to mental approach (psychoanalytic) approach?

the cognitive theory, a bridge between classic behaviourism and other theories like psychoanalytic. because cognitive theory treats thinking as a behaviour, and has a lot in common with behaviour theory (albert bandura comb)

contextual effects

the context in which stimuli are presented and the processes of perceptual organization contribute to how people perceive those stimuli (and also that the context can establish the way in which stimuli are organized)

social potency trait

the degree to which a person assumes leadership roles and mastery of roles in social situations. common in twins reared separately

transmission

the electrical activation of one neuron by another neuron

source characteristics

the environment around the message and the speaker's background. what is their level of expertise of speakers around us - do they seem knowledgeable, trustworthy, and is information credible or not. where does the information come from - internet poll, street poll, pr a psych journal. physical environment, venue of event (campus or a bar)

joint attention

the focusing of attention on an object by 2 separate individuals

cultural component of bias

the fundamental attribution error occurs more in individualistic societies who place an emphasis on individual achievement

at the upper membrane

the hair cells/cilia are called the hair bundle and it is made of little fragments. each filament is called a kinocilium. tip of each kinocilium is connected by a tip link which is attached to gate of K+ channel

curve is called the serial position curve/effect

the overall tendency to recall first few items well, last few items well, and middle ones not so great

proximal stimuli

the patterns of stimuli from these objects and events that actually reach your senses (eyes, ears, etc). it is the light that is actually falling on the retina

reciprocal determinism

the interaction between a person's behaviours, personal factors (motivation/cognition) and environment are all determined by one another

superego

the internalization of cultural ideals and parental sanctions. "morals" interjection/internalization. the superego inhibits sexual and aggressive impulses, and tries to replace reality with morality, striving for perfection. the superego has subsystems: the conscious - what you should not be "wrong" - the ego ideal - what you should/want to be "right" - if you think about this theory, its the classic angel(super ego) and devil (id) on the shoulder telling you what to do. it is up to you to decide (ego) but if your conscious self (ego) is weak, you';; end up having one of the other 2 take over - leading to an imbalance. this is why psychoanalytic therapy focuses on raising the intrapsychic conflicts to the conscious level

law of past experiences

the law of past experience implies that under some circumstances, visual stimuli are categorized according to past experience. if 2 objects tend to be observed within close proximity, or small temporal intervals, the objects are more likely to be perceived together. for example, the english language contains 26 letters that are grouped to form words using a set of rules. if an individual reads an english word they have never seen, they use the law of past experience to interpret the letters "L" and "I" as 2 letters beside each other, rather than using the law of closure to combine the letters and interpret the object as an uppercase U

abnormalities of LMN can cause:

the lower motor neuron signs (LMN signs) which can happen in addition to weakness (abnormalities in the motor unit) signs: atrophy of skeletal muscle, fasciculations (involuntary twitches of skeletal muscle), hypotonia (decrease in tone of skeletal muscle - how much muscle is contracted when person is relaxed), hyporeflexia (decreased muscle stretch reflex)

Mead developed the idea of social behaviourism:

the mind and self emerge through the process of communicating with others (beginning of symbolic interactionism)

symmetry

the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a centre point

absolute threshold of sensation

the minimum intensity of a stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

how does a molecule bind to a receptor and cause an AP?

the molecule binds to the GPCR receptor on odour molecule -? GPCR on olfactory epithelia -> G protein dissociates and causes a cascade of events inside the cell -> G protein binds to ion channel which allows cells outside the cell to come inside -> opens and triggers an AP -> goes to cribriform plate -> glomerulus -> activate mitral/tufted cell -> synapse to brain

benzodiazepines

the most commonly prescribed suppressant. subscribed for same things as barbiturates - sleep aids (to treat insomnia) or anti-anxiety or seizures (anticonvulsant) - enhance your brains response to GABA. they open up GABA-actovated chloride channels in your neurons, and make neurons more (-) charged 3 types: short, intermediate, and long acting. short and intermediate are usually for sleep, while long acting is for anxiety -zelam, -zolam benzodiazepines and alcohol bind to a site on the GABA(A) receptor complex that regulates the sensitivity of the receptor complex

processing

the neural transformation of multiple neural signals into a perception

"in" group

the one we are connected with. US. stronger interactions with the in the in-group than those in the out-group. interactions are more common and more influential as well within in-group

pupil

the opening in the middle of the iris. the size of the pupil can get bigger/smaller based on the iris relaxing/contracting respectively. the pupil modulates the amount of light able to enter the eyeball

meaning-focused coping

the person concentrates on deriving meaning from the stressful experience

cultural relativism

the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lends of ones own culture. judge and understand another culture from within their culture

stress

the process by which we appraise and cope with the environmental threads and challenges. it encompasses both the stressor and the stress reaction

people perform the best when they are moderately aroused -- the Yerkes-Dodson Law

the relationship between long term memory and fear follows a Yerkes-Dodson curve this means that extreme emotional responses usually impact memory negatively moderate emotions, like mild fear, are associated with optimal memory recall

bureaucracy

the rules, structures, and rankings that guide organizations (does not mean something negative, lines, or red tape)

foreign

the search for food in animal's environment. can't survive or reproduce without it

stressful/negative

the stressor is actually threatening. ex rabbit having to run away from the dog

false alarm

the subject perceived a signal when there was none present

site

the subject responded affirmative when a signal was present

in brainstem (parkinson's)

the substantia nigra (means black substance, usually darker than surrounding black tissue in normal patients) is less dark or not dark at all in PD patients. suggests only one type of neuron is involved. these cells/neurons lost are ONLY dopaminergic neurons (NT dopamine releasing). motor abnormalities related to loss of dopaminergic neurons lost at the substantia nigra - dopaminergic neurons in other areas are lost as well - substantial nigra is one part of the basal ganglia, if we section a brain from top to bottom and we look at deep area of cerebrum, near the centre there will be a collection of structures called the basal ganglia. one part of this is the substantial nigra. basal ganglia is located at base of forebrain. - basal ganglia plays a role in motor functions and some mental functions. receives info from many places in NS, particularly the outermost layer of the cerebrum (cerebral cortex) - basal ganglia processes that info and sends it back to areas of cerebral cortex to influence areas of activity such as motor cortex

companionship support

the type that gives someone sense of social belonging. companionship while you engage in an activity

brain uses basilar tuning

there are varying hair cells in cochlea and allows brain to distinguish between high and low frequency sounds. hair cells at base (start of cochlea) of cochlea are activated by high frequency sounds, and those at apex (end of cochlea) by low frequency sounds.

neonatal reflexes

these disappear as a baby ages. some are survival reflexes (help us live) while others might be evolutionary holdovers or precursors. help doctors assess if something is not developing correctly rooting reflex: check stroking = baby turns head. allows for orientation to motors nipple/bottle. disappears in few weeks of life - then baby turns head voluntarily babinski reflex: how baby will turn/unturn toes when bottom of the foot. disappears before 12 months (fans toes outwards) mono reflex: startle reaction. fan out arms then back. disappears in 5-6 months age tonic neck reflex (aka fencing posture) - how when a baby's head is turned, the arm on that side straightens while the arm on the side that is opposite bends. disappears at 6 months palmer grasp reflex: children close their hands on anything that comes in their palm. disappears at 3-4 months, then child grasps things voluntarily sucking reflex: how a baby will suck on any object that is placed in its months. disappears 3-4 months stepping reflex: hold an infant upright and their feet touch a flat surface, they will start to step as if they are trying to walk. disappears in first 2 months swimming reflex: infants in water move legs/arms in a swimming motion. involuntarily hold breaths. allows a small infant to swim/float for a short period of time. disappears at 6 months

relative height

things are perceived to be farther away than those that are lower

if you go through period of not having the drug, you experience withdrawal symptoms

things less strong as cocaine won't give you as strong an effect, so dopamine levels decrease and you feel depressed, highly anxious, etc will do whatever it takes to get high once you've built your tolerance, need drug to feel normal again, not euphoric -- addicted

personal identity

things unique to each person like personality traits

self referencing

think about new info and how it relates to you personally.

PAW usually lasts for 2 years

this is one of the most important things you need to remember. if you are up for the challenge you can get through this. if you think PAW will only last a few months you will get caught off guard. -- disappointment can trigger relapse

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

this method uses radio waves and they are exposed to a magnetic field. the radio waves are then dded to the magnetic field and disrupts orientation of atoms. as atoms move back to alignment with magnetic field they release signals and those are used to create image. this also doesn't tell us anything about brain function either

deindividuation

those in group are more likely to act inappropriately because crowd conceals person's identity. good example is behaviour of some on black friday. prince of large group there is violence (shoppers trample employees, shot shoppers, stolen goods from stores). presence of large group decreases their inhibition/guilt, hence increases antisocial/deviant behaviour

secondary reinforcers

those learned to be reinforcers, such as previously neutral stimuli. requires a pairing or association with a primary reinforcer for it to have value

cognitive (rational and decision making ability)

thought processes drive behaviour. ex light bulb going off in ones head

evolutionary biology (dreams)

threat simulation, to prepare for real world problem solving no purpose

stressor

threatening/challenging event

fixed interval

time is constant. pay won't change if you see 1 or 100. response rate is slower

conscious mind

top of iceberg is the conscious part of the ind (small, tip of the iceberg). these are the mental functions you are aware of

when light hits, comes through pupil and hit the retinal, then it hits rods, some of the light hits rhodopsin (which contains the retina) and causes the retinal change conformation from bent to straight conformation (11-______ ______)

trans retinal

when the rhodopsin changes shape, ____ breaks from rhodopsin and alpha subunit binds to another disk protein called phosphodiesterase (PDE)

transducin

adolescence:

transition period between childhood and adulthood begins with puberty: a 2 year long sexual maturation (end of which you can reproduce). start time males 13 yo, females 11 yo. can start earlier/later depending on individual. puberty milestones/landmarks: males (first ejaculation - 14 yo), females (first menstrual cycle 12-13 yo)

retrieval

trying to remember/call up a memory of something you learned before. successful retrieval depends on being able to use cues around you and to recognize the association between cues present at encoding and cues present at retrieval. best types of cues are the associations that form when you are actually encoding

personality

unlike psychological characteristics/abnormalities, it is believed to be constant over a person's lifetime - is our personality hard wired and persistent as we age? what about our gender identity? or intelligence?

availability heuristic

using examples that come to mind. helpful, but our easily memorable experiences don't match real state of the world. decision making heuristic where choices are based on quick, easily accessible examples

source monitoring can be improved by

using more retrieval cues discovering and noting relations and extended reasoning

sclera

usually absorbs by the time the light gets to this. the whites of the eye, thick fibrous tissue that covers posterior (5/6th) of the eyeball (cornea covers the anterior 1/6). attachment point for muscles. extra layer of protection and structure of eyeball. lined with conjunctiva

hypnotism

usually involves getting person to relax and focus on breathing, and they become more susceptible to suggestion in this state - but only if they want to. more alpha waves in this stage - an awake but relaxed state

aversive conditions

usually used to stop a particular behaviour. the process involves paring a habit a person wishes to break with an unpleasant stimulus such as electric shock or nausea.

heritability

variability of traits can be attributed to differences in genes percentage of variation of traits due to genes heritability estimates define the amount of variance that can be attributed to genes in specific subgroups of individuals

cognitive

vary person to person, they're mental assessments that can include appraisal of what is happening, thoughts and expectations about the situation. cognitive experiences result from emotions, and can cause emotions. ex someone might enjoy surprise party because of your previous cognition, or someone might hate surprise party

phonological loop

verbal info (any words, numbers in both iconic and echoic memory) is processed. ex repeating a phone # to yourself. the phonological store is believed that the phonological store capacity is around 2 seconds

authoritarian parenting

very strict, break will of child. punishment

negative emotions evoke more activity on right side

videos of negative emotions = right hemisphere increased activity on EEG. more activity on right more timid, fearful, depressed had more activity in right isolative

social cognitive theory

view behaviours as being influenced by people's traits/cognition and their social context. talking about interactions between individual and situation they are in cognition -> environment -> behaviour (the order can change as well)

defence mechanism

ways to protect ourselves - a psychological shield against anxiety or discomfort of unconscious psychological processes. a way to protect ourselves when we have to deal with unconscious wants, feelings, desires, and impulses classified into 4 categories

hans eysenck

we all possess all traits which express to different degrees. (allport said we have diff unique subsets, while eysenck says we all have them but just express them in different degrees - eysenck says we have 3 major dimensions of personality, which encompasses all traits we all possess, but the degrees to which we individually express them are different. we all express varying degrees of neuroticism and extraversion, but we all don't necessarily have psychoticism. these 3 are: pyshcoticism: degree to which reality is distorted extraversion (vs introversion) degree of sociability neuroticism: emotional stability - we do not all necessarily have pyschoticism

out group derogation

we are super friendly to our in group, but not friendly to our group - we discriminate. happens if we feel that the out group in threatening to or undermine in group's success

actor observer bias

we are victims of, but others are wilful actors. (same thing as saying; circumstance (we attribute out personal behaviour but others behaviour of internal factors)

in attentional blindness aka perceptual blindness

we aren't aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field. "miss something right in front of you"

ideal self

we can't live up to that is bounded by conditions

sociocultural factors

we eat for different occasions, time, desire, appeal, availability

in group favouritism

we favour/friendly to people in our own group, but those in out-grup we are neutral - we don't give them favours we do to our in group

chunking

we group information we are getting into meaningful categories we already know to ease memorization

foot in the door phenomenon

we have a tendency to agree to small actions first. eventually over time comply with much larger actions basic concept of how people are brainwashed too. door is eventually pushed completely open over time society behaviours strongly feed into your attitude

resource model of attention

we have limited resources in attention, resources that are easily overtasked if we try to pay attention to multiple things at once. - both models say something about our ability to multitask - not very good at it.

roles

we have many different roles that define what we do and who we are. we adopt social norms - the accepted standards of behaviour of a social group, use it to guide behaviours (what behaviour is appropriate). norms provide order in society and we use them to conform to expectations of that role/expectations of others. we respond to their approval when we play our roles well, and we get disapproval when we play roles badly. expect people to behave in way that fits that role, and have them fit the role even more when roles are stereotyped

Me

what we learn through interactions with others. how individual believes generalized other perceives us, the social self, and learned through interactions with others. socialized and conforming aspect of self - way to remember: the me, the conforming, socialized person who tries to not do any dick moves. societal views ex me thinks about people go from high school to college in US

ideal self

what we wish/aspire to be

important agents of socialization

whats used to transmit (pass around) culture, values, beliefs about acceptable behaviours, and beliefs. agents include people, organizations, and institutions that help us learn about our social world

extinction

when a CS does not felicity a CR anymore

relapse

when a patient can slip and go back. depends on environmental triggers and drug they were addicted to. more addictive substances with the drug makes relapse more likely as well. this is why its hard for people to stay clean

anxious avoidance

when a person avoids anxiety provoking situations by all means. this is the most common strategy

PTSD

when a person has lingering memories and nightmares about a past event that it impacted them in daily life (haunting/bad memories/repeated nightmares_ includes physical symptoms like insomnia have a trigger that leads to the disorder described as PTSD if symptoms persist for over 4 weeks after an event TRAUMA traumatic event re-experience avoidance unable to function month or more symptoms arousal increased - repressed memories/memory

obstructive sleep apnea

when airways are obstructed. soft tissues around our neck can relax at night and potentially cause obstruction of airflow for a short period of time. gets worse as people get older - at nighttime, this causes snoring or gasping or pauses in breathing at daytime, people are tired/sleepy and unrefreshed - diagnosed by: sleep study (a polysomnopgrapy) and looking for 15+ apneas/hour (apnea = lack of airflow)

extinctive burst

when an animal no longer receives regular reinforcement, its original behaviour will sometimes spike (meaning increase dramatically) - this is known as an extinction burst

Bipolar I disorder

when hypomania becomes manic with or without major depressive disorder an individual diagnosed with bipolar II has never had a manic episode although it is possible for an individual diagnosed with bipolar I to never experience hypomania, it is extremely unlikely

2) self stigma

when individual can internalize all the negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory experiences they've had, and may being to feel rejected by society, avoid interacting with society

feature detection

when looking at an object, you need to break it down into its component features to make sense of what you are looking at. there are 3 things to consider when looking at any object: colour, form, motion

front stage

when people are in a social setting. "putting on a front and acting for an audience"

addition

when searching for coping mechanisms there are good options and bad options. these terrible options lead to addiction often. ex alcohol, tobacco, etc - impairment to frontal cortex (reasoning), so impaired judgement can increase likelihood of inappropriate coping mechanisms

fertilization

when sperm and egg meet. steps of fertilization are: sperm binding -> acrosome reaction -> cortical reaction -> genetic transfer

hypoventilation disorder

when we are not able to ventilate our lungs fully and remove all CO2. results in a buildup of CO2, and a decrease in O2. can occur due to medications that repress respiratory functions (narcotic pain killers such as opioids) or if there is a problem with the lungs or chest wall. a common occurrence is due to obesity - high CO2 can cause right sided heart failure - low CO2 effects all organs/tissues of bodies/ cognitive impairment, heart problems, (arrhythmias) and polycythemia (elevated RBC)

false consensus

when we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not

projection bias

when we assume other share the same beliefs we do

reality principle

when we become mature, you need to sacrifice short term reward and replace it with long term gratification. not always going to get what you want and the outside world might tolerate your behaviour. you have to place by the rules of the real world and might have to compromise "play your role in the real world"

informational social influence

when we conform because we feel others are more knowledgeable than us, because we think they know something we don't

role strain

when you can't carry out all obligations of a status, tensions within one status. causes individual to be pulled many directions by one status

withdrawal

when you stop after using for prolonged time. we get withdrawal symptoms. can become sick or ill, or it can be fatal 2 stages: acute, post acute

blind spot

where optic nerve connects to retina -- no cones or rods

backstage

where you work on impression management

for brain, ____ on inside and _____ on outside. axons go down tracts of white matter

white grey

circadian rythms

why you get sleepy in afternoon. regular body rhythms in a 24 hour period. controlled by melatonin produced in pineal gland

CAT (computerized axial tomography)

x rays to create image of the brain (tutor/abnormal swelling/bleeding... but it can't tell us anything about what areas of the brain are active in a given time) - CT scans are a computerized composite of X ray images that are slightly lower resolution than MRI and are not as good for soft tissue but are faster than MRIs. sometimes CT scans are combined with a radioactive dye (like a PET scan) to show structure and activity imposed in one image

selective attention:

you are selecting one at a time. its like a flashlight on your attention - you can move it around at any spot. at any given moment, illuminating attention while being presented with masking or interfering stimuli

learned helplessness

you learn from having control ripped out of your hands that you don't have control, so lose ability to identify coping mechanisms because taking less control out of your life.cycle continues downward into major depression

alertness

you're awake, aware of who you are, whats going on in the environment, focus your attention, engage in conformation, code info to your memory

publicly conform

you're outwardly changing but inside u maintain core beliefs. u only outwardly agree with the group

sleep stages:

your brain goes through distinct brain patterns during sleep. 4 main stages that occur in 90 min cycles

state dependent

your state at the moment you encode. when you are in a certain mood when you encode you can then remember it when you are in the same mood

blastocyst stage

zona pellucida is disintegrating while the endometrium lining its proliferating (forming valleys called crypt). apposition is when the blastocyst attached to the endometrium - outer trophoblasts divide into endometrium (adhesion). endometrium is also dividing endometrium has blood vessels that are getting bigger. trophoblasts are getting larger and they start to fuse (syncitiotrophoblast) + cytotrophoblast (the ones that used to be trophoblast) synciotrophoblasts form villi and the endometrium is growing (which is uterine blood) synciotrophoblasts that formed vill form blood vessels - which are close contact to uterine blood. lines inside of uterine cavity - placenta

embryogenesis

zygote after fertilization has occurred then splitting occurs in zona pellucida (which still exists, in the previous stem the zona pellucida hardens to prevent sperm binding - now its back) cleavage happens (splitting without growth): splitting from 1 cell -> 2 cell -> 4 cell -> 8 cell -> 16 cells -> morula: 32 cells. the cells become tighter (cells get closer together and the outside become different). differentiation is occurring. the outside is trophoblast and the inside is an embryo blast blastulation occurs