Khan Academy P/S 300 pg doc

Reactivity

"Because the observer is a participant in the activities and events being observed, it is easy to influence other people's behavior, thereby raising the problem of reactivity -- influencing what is being observed."

Shaping

"I want to learn to do a headstand" - emphasize learn. Learning through successively reinforcing behaviors that approximate the target behavior is shaping.

Fad

"fleeting behavior" is something that becomes incredibly popular very quickly, but loses popular just as quickly. Last for short period of time, but reach influence of large # of people in that time. Not necessarily in line with normal behavior. Perceived as cool/interesting by large group of people.

Exurbs

Beyond suburbs, prosperous areas outside the city where people live and commute to city to work, like suburbs.

self serving bias

The tendency to assign internal attributes to successes and external factors to failures; tendency people have to credit their successes to themselves and their failures either to the actions of others or to situations

Conflict theory thesis, antithesis, synthesis

The thesis (existing generally accepted state) was that bourgeoisie ran factories and working class provided labour. Thesis causes the formation of the reaction - antithesis (opposed the accepted state). o Antithesis - Desire of working class to change was the thesis. The anti-thesis is the reaction to the thesis, the push-back from those unhappy with the status quo. § Thesis + antithesis can't coexist peacefully. Thesis is happy while antithesis is looking for change always. o Struggle would lead to a compromise - a synthesis of the two by creating a new state. Would eventually become new thesis.

Just noticeable difference

The threshold at which you're able to notice a change in any sensation. Generally measured at the point where it can be noticed 50% of the time.

Whole report technique

The whole report condition required participants to recall as many elements from the original display in their proper spatial locations as possible. Participants were typically able to recall three to five characters from the twelve character display (~35%). This suggests that whole report is limited by a memory system with a capacity of four-to-five items.

Bipolar

abnormal negative mood, but these may have periods of abnormally positive mood called mania § Mania is characterized by little sleep, talking quickly, making bad decisions due to impaired judgement, making bad decisions based on bad assessment of risk or abilities of a task. Can leads to social/legal problems.

Social Exchange Theory / Exchange-Rational Choice Theory

application of rational choice theory to social interactions. Exchange theory addresses decision making via cost benefit analyses; posits that interactions are determined by the rewards or punishments that we receive from others

Test-retest reliability

is shown by a high positive correlation between the first and second administration of a test. Retest reliability, or consistency when a measure is taken multiple times.

Dementia

is term for decline in memory and other cognitive functions to the point of interfering with normal daily life - results from excessive damage to brain tissue, ex. From strokes or other causes.

Transmission

is the electrical activation of one neuron by another neuron.

Joint attention

is the focusing of attention on an object by two separate individuals.

Source amnesia

is the inability to remember where, when or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge.

Processing

is the neural transformation of multiple neural signals into a perception.

Fecundity

is the potential reproductive capacity of a female.

Heterophily

is the tendency of individuals to collect in diverse groups; it is the opposite of homophily.

Society

is the way people organize themselves - bunch of people who live together in a specific geographic area, and interact more with each other than outsiders. Share a common culture over time.

primary socialization

learning of acceptable actions and attitudes during childhood, mostly from observation of our parents, siblings, friends, teachers, and other authority figures.

Resource mobilization

looks at social movements from different angle. Instead of looking at deprivation of people, focuses on factors that help/hinder a social movement like access to resources. Gathering together people of a shared idea is not allowed everywhere. Also, for a social movement you need money, materials, political influence, media, and strong organizational base to recruit members - charismatic figure needed (unite people/members/oppressed on a single idea) Ex. Martin Luther King Jr. in Civil Rights Movement (beacon to oppressed black population and gained support he needed.

Anterior chamber

space filled with aqueous humour, which provides pressure to maintain shape of eyeball; allows nutrients and minerals to supply cells of cornea/iris.

Negative symptoms

blunted emotions, loss of enjoyment "emotional abnormalities" refer to the absence of normal behaviors found in healthy individuals. Common negative symptoms of schizophrenia include: § Lack of emotional expression - Inexpressive face, including a flat voice, lack of eye contact, and blank or restricted facial expressions. • Affective flattening is the reduction in the range and intensity of emotional expression, including facial expression, voice tone, eye contact (person seems to stare, doesn't maintain eye contact in a normal process), and is not able to interpret body language nor use appropriate body language. § Lack of interest or enthusiasm - Problems with motivation; lack of selfcare. • Avolition is the reduction, difficulty, or inability to initiate and persist in goal-directed behavior; it is often mistaken for apparent disinterest. (examples of avolition include: no longer interested in going out and meeting with friends, no longer interested in activities that the person used to show enthusiasm for, no longer interested in much of anything, sitting in the house for many hours a day doing nothing.) § Seeming lack of interest in the world - Apparent unawareness of the environment; social withdrawal. § Speech difficulties and abnormalities - Inability to carry a conversation; short and sometimes disconnected replies to questions; speaking in monotone. • Alogia, or poverty of speech, is the lessening of speech fluency and productivity, thought to reflect slowing or blocked thoughts, and often manifested as short, empty replies to questions.

Substance induced disorders

conditions that are caused by substance. Can be substance induced mood disorders (high mood -mania/low mood - depression), or disorders related to anxiety, sleep, sexual function, psychosis (loss of contact with reality, characterized by seeing things, hearing voices, becoming paranoid).

Role conflict

conflict/tension between two or more different statuses, unlike role strain. The different statuses compete for someone's time. Ex. someone who's is a parent, friend, husband, and worker. Ex; as a husband he has an anniversary and a friend is calling for their monthly get-together. OR ex. Paper due for school and son is injured and at hospital. Or ex. as a worker has to go to work and as a husband wife wants him to clean the garage.

Reliability

consistency in answers across participants. Reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results. CONSISTENT RESULTS WITH REPEATED EXPERIMENTS.

Hypothalamus

controls the pituitary gland, the master gland that controls all other glands in body.

Cannon bard theory

disagreed with James-Lange, and found flaws in idea that physiological response triggered emotion. § Flaws they found: • They first said that you could experience physiological response w/o emotion ex. Your heart can race if you had a long run. If only physiological response was required to produce an emotion, shouldn't anyone with a racing heart feel afraid (an emotion where your heart races as well • Noticed many different emotions had same physiological responses. For example, heart racing shows feelings of anger and excitement. Two totally different emotions. • Physiological response system was too slow to produce emotion that seemed to happen almost instantly. Ex. Hearing a loud sound you would feel fear or surprise almost instantly and the physiologic responses of your HR/muscle tone increase come later. § They believed physiological response and emotion occurred simultaneously. • Ex: holding your cat (event) causes your heart rate (physiological response) to increase and feel joy (emotion) at the same time. • Ex2: A man, who is allergic to bees, encounters a bee. Simultaneously, the man's heart beat increases, he starts sweating, and he labels the emotion he is experiencing as fear. § Simultaneously experience arousal and aggression Event > Physiological Response + Emotion at same time. Acronym: C/B are next to each other in alphabet so it all occurs at the same time (physiologic response + emotion)

Babinski reflex

how baby will turn/unturn toes when bottom of the foot. Disappears before 12 months. (fans toes outwards).

Attribution theory

how do we explain the behavior of other people? o Split up into internal causes and external causes. o JWH overemphasizes/attribute people's actions to personal/dispositional/internal factors and underemphasise situational factors that are at play. § Ex; poor person = personal miss-failings instead of recognizing the complex situational/environmental causes.

Pheromone

is a chemical signal released by 1 member of the species and sensed by another species to trigger an innate response.

Visual agnosia

is a disorder of the ventral pathway, because it is an inability to recognize an image. (acronym: Visual = Ventral)

Perception

is conscious sensory experience of neural processing.

Anterograde amnesia

is inability to encode new memories.

Retrograde amnesia

is inability to recall info previously encoded.

Executive attention

is involved in goal-directed behavior, monitoring conflicts between internal processes, and anticipating the effects of behavior. Dopamine from the ventral tegmental area is associated with executing attention.

Mass hysteria

is large # of people who experience unmanageable delusions and anxiety at same time. Reactions spread rapidly and reach more people through rumors and fears. Often takes the form of panic reactions and negative news or potential threat.

Existential self

is most basic part of self-concept, the sense of being separate and distinct from others. Awareness that the self is constant/consistent throughout life (Ex: if someone says they are "tired" that isn't them All the time. This is NOT their self-concept because self-concept is Consistent) § Child as young as 2-3 months realize they exist as distinct entities due to the relationship child as with the world. When someone smiles, someone smiles back. They have a relationship with objects and they are separate/distinct from that.

Social desirability bias

the tendency to provide socially desirable rather than honest answers on questionnaries; tendency that people have to give socially approved responses to questions in the context of research

Hypothesis of relative depravation

upsurge in prejudice/discrimination when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to o Relative depreciation is the discrepancy of what they are entitled to and what they get) § Extent and how quickly this happens can lead to collective unrest - an upsurge in prejudice and discrimination. § Linked to Frustration Aggression Hypothesis

cognitive biases

ways in which our perceptions and judgments systematically differ from reality. They are generally thought to be unavoidable features of our cognitive system, and may in some cases be adaptive.

3x2 factorial design

we have three levels of the first variable crossed with two levels of the second variable. Such a design gives us 3x2=6 treatment conditions in the experiment. Two independent variables, 3 of first, 2 of 2nd.

Vehicular knowledge

what experimental group does without the directly desired impact

Cis gender and trans gender

(cis-gender- same biological sex and gender identity), or identify as female (trans-gender - biological sex and gender identity don't match).

Regression

(defence mechanism where one regresses to position of child in problematic situations),

Reaction formation

(defence mechanism where someone says or does exact opposite of what they actually want/feel),

Mimicry

(ex. monarch butterflies are poisonous to birds and colored in a specific way, but viceroy butterflies that are not poisonous to birds use same pattern/colors (they mimic) the monarch butterfly and this provides the butterfly lots of protection).

Hypothalamus

(hypo - below, thalamus, tiny structure) - for limbic system, it regulates the Autonomic nervous system (ANS) - (fight or flight vs. rest and digest). Controlling endocrine system by triggers hormones like epinephrine/norepinephrine.; responsible for hunger, sleep, thirst, sex

Stereotype threat

(negative consequence of stereotyping) - self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.

Projection

(projecting own feelings of inadequacy on another),

Schacter singer

(two-factor theory of emotion)- physiological and cognitive responses simultaneously form experience of emotion. If we become physiologically aroused, we don't feel a specific emotion until we're able to label/ identify reason for situation. § Ex: Holding your cat (event) à Physiological response of increase HR/or changes in NT level à label the situation and identify reason for physiological response and event (This is really nice, I like holding my cat, this makes me happy) à emotion (Happy) § EX2 A man, who is allergic to bees, encounters a bee. Simultaneously, the man interprets that his allergy to bees makes this encounter threatening, his heart beat increases, and he starts sweating. He labels the emotion he is experiencing as fear. Event à PR + Identify reason for the situation (PR) (consciously) > Emotion

GABA

*main inhibitory neurotransmitter of the CNS, and it hyperpolarizes cells to reduce action potential firing. Alcohol binds and activates GABA receptors (in other words, alcohol is a GABA agonist), so the effects of GABA are associated with alcohol intoxication. Glycine is another inhibitory neurotransmitter found in the spinal cord and brainstem that can work in conjunction with GABA. *(brain) and Glycine (spinal cord) - most common inhibitory NTs ] TWO other G's are inhibitory]

Serotonin

*regulates mood, appetite, arousal, and sleep in the brain, with low levels associated with depressive mood disorders; Serotonin - Released by lots of nuclei from all over the brainstem (midbrain, pons, and medulla) called raphe nuclei to cerebral cortex release serotonin. Raphe nuclei also send serotonin to other parts of the nervous system. [Like Sex= messy. From everywhere down low (brain stem)] *regulates intestinal movement in the gastrointestinal tract (PNS)

Which hemisphere is language present in?

90% of people, language is in left hemisphere (both right and left handed people!).

Index of dissimilarity

0 is total segregation, and 100 perfect distributions.

3 main characteristics that impact on how we are persuaded for/against a message:

1) Message characteristics - message itself, clarity, was it logical, how well thought message it. Also includes how well written it was, does speaker have good grasp of grammar, appropriate vocabulary, length of talk, etc. o 2) Source characteristics - the environment around the message and the speaker's background. What is their level of expertise of speakers around us - do they seem knowledgeable, trustworthy, and is information credible or not. Where does the information come from - internet poll, street poll, or a psych journal. Physical environment, venue of event (campus or a bar). o 3) Target characteristics -characteristics of listener such as mood, self-esteem, alertness, intelligence, etc. How we receive a message.

form

1) relative size: when an object is perceived as being bigger, we perceive it as being closer to us 2) interposition: perception that one object is in front of another; an object that is in front is closer 3) relative height: things higher are perceived to be farther away than those that are lower 4) shading and contour: using light and shadows to perceive form of object

Sound pathway

1. First hit outer part of ear, known as the pinna. 2. Then the sound gets funneled from the pinna to the auditory canal (also known as external auditory meatus). 3. Then from the auditory canal they hit the tympanic membrane (also called the eardrum). 4. As pressurized wave hits eardrum, it vibrates back and forth, causing 3 bones to vibrate in this order: i. malleus (hammer) ii. incus (anvil) iii. stapes (stirrup) *[acronym: MIS] *Three smallest bones in the body. *These bones combined are also referred to as the ossicles. 5. Stapes is attached to oval window (aka elliptical window). The oval window then vibrates back and forth. 6. As it gets vibrated, it pushes fluid and causes it to go in/around cochlea (a round structure lined with hair cells). 7. At tip of cochlea (inner most part of circle), where can the fluid now go? It can only go back, but goes back to the round window (circular window) and pushes it out. 8. The reason doesn't go back to oval window, is because in middle of cochlea is a membrane - the organ of Corti (includes the basilar membrane and the tectorial membrane). 9. As hair cells (cilia) move back and forth in the cochlea - electric impulse is transported by auditory nerve to the brain. o Place theory is a theory of hearing which states that our perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane. By this theory, the pitch of a musical tone is determined by the places where the membrane vibrates, based on frequencies corresponding to the tonotopic organization of the primary auditory neurons. Place theory posits that one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea's basilar membrane. 10. The above process of fluid going around the cochlea keeps occurring till the energy of the sound wave dissipates and stops moving. Occurs more = more hair cells vibrate.

Overconfidence bias

1. Overconfidence - ex. Going into test without knowing a lot of info. Could be due to fluency (ease of processing) during studying. Ex. Can happen in a test if you never tested yourself to see if you really knew the answers. Can overestimate ability to produce answers when you need too. Can also experience overconfidence in an argument.

Needs for a social movement

1. Relative deprivation: Those who join social movements are not necessarily worst off. What's important is how people perceive their situation. [Ex. Someone making 100k can be not happy while someone making very little can be happy]. Feeling of discrepancy between legitimate expectations and reality of present. § 2. Feeling of Deserving better § 3. Conventional means are useless -a belief conventional methods are useless to get help.

Arcuate Fasciculus

2 areas (Wernicke's and Broca's) are connected by a bundle of nerve areas are connected by bundle of nerves fibers called the arcuate fasciculus, also found in deaf people who know sign language. Not specific to spoken language, but brain adapts to whatever modality is needed for communication.

Areas that become atrophied with stress

2 areas of brain with most glucocorticoid (secreted in response to stress) receptors are the hippocampus and frontal cortex • Hippocampus - learning and memory. Frontal cortex responsible for impulse control, reasoning, judgment, planning. We do see atrophy in these areas subjected to stress.

Difference between broca's and wernicke's area in terms of location and function?

2 main areas are Broca's area (speak/language expression, frontal lobe) and Wernicke's area (temporal lobe (sound processing), understand)

Belief perseverance

2. Belief perseverance - ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts, ex. During elections learned about and then ignore facts about someone you like.

Co-variation model

3 cues of Kelley's co-variation model: consistency (time), distinctiveness (situation), consensus (people) o Ex. Take flaky friend, friend forever cancels on us. Consistent behavior over time. High level of consistent behavior over time, we are more likely related to them as a person as opposed to the world working against them in this situation. § When consistency is high = attribution to internal factors o Ex. Very nice friend Jim, but one day he gets so mad at the pizza place. Out of character and distinctive. So much more likely to be related to the environment. Distinctiveness = situational. § Distinctiveness of a situation = attribution to external factors o Third factor in co-variation model - "group lateness" - if you arrive late at meeting but if you are with 20 other people are late too, high degree of consensus. When a lot of people demonstrate same behavior, we are more likely to attribute behavior to situational cause. § Consensus of people = attribution of external factors

Triarchic theory of intelligence

3 independent intelligences • based on real world success: analytical (problem solving ability), creative intelligence, and practical intelligence.

3 types of nerve fibers

3 types of nerve fibres - fast, medium, slow. [Acronym: fast to slowest alphabetically AB, A-D, C] o A-beta fibres - Fast ones are thick and covered in myelin (less resistance, high conductance) o A-delta fibres -- smaller diameter, less myelin. o C fibres - small diameter, unmyelinated (lingering sense of pain).

Theory of primary mental abilities

7 factors of intelligence: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial reasoning, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and memory.

Concrete operational

7-11 years old- Concrete operational "(operational = mental operations". Learn idea of conservation. § Can do test to find out if they're in this stage - take 2 identical glasses with same amount of water, and kids will tell you they have the same amount. Then, pour one into short fat glass and other into tall skinny glass in front of the child and ask child which one has more. Before this stage will say tall glass, because the water is higher, but once they reach concrete operational stage and understand amount of water doesn't change just because the glass size changes then they will tell you that they have the same amount of water even though they look different. Also begin to learn empathy; begin reasoning of math skills. § The concrete operational stage describes children who are able to grasp concrete (real) events logically, conversion, and reversibility (refers to the ability to recognize that numbers or objects can be changed and returned to their original condition.

Confidence interval

A confidence level refers to the percentage of all possible samples that can be expected to include the true population parameter. For example, suppose all possible samples were selected from the same population, and a confidence interval were computed for each sample. A 95% confidence level implies that 95% of the confidence intervals would include the true population parameter.

Confounding variable

A confounding variable is a hypothetical or real third variable that is often not taken into account during analysis and can adversely affect the study. : A confounding variable is one which is not typically of interest to the researcher but is an extraneous variable which is related to BOTH the dependent and independent variables. o IV is not CAUSING the confounding variable is the difference between a COUNFINDING VARIABLE and a MEDIATING VARIABLE (In a mediating variable the mediating variable CAUSES a confounding variable).

feminist theory

A contemporary approach of looking at world from macro-perspective, developed from feminism movement originating from conflict theory by focussing on stratifications/inequalities in society. It examines women's social roles/experience in education, family, and workforce; oppression, discrimination, objectification, stereotyping

Manic episode

A manic episode is a period of abnormally elevated mood and abnormally increased energy lasting at least 7 consecutive days; however, the episode is severe enough to cause impairment in functioning or to require hospitalization

Mediating variable

A mediating variable specifies a given cause (original predictor variable, independent variable) that works indirectly through a more direct cause (mediator variable) to a final effect (outcome variable, dependent variable). The mediator adds to the overall variance accounted for in the data and can explain how the dependent and independent variables are related. A mediating variable is one which explains the relationship between two other variables. "RELATIONSHIP between two variables" EXPLAINS WHY OR HOW the relationship o Explains the relationship between IV and DV o IV accounts for variations in DV o IV variations account for variations in mediator o Mediator variation account for variations in DV o When mediator is added to the mode, the relationship between the IV and DV decreases

Moderating variable

A moderating variable is a variable that specifies conditions under which a given predictor is related to an outcome. The moderator explains 'when' a dependent and independent variable are related. A moderator variable is one that influences the strength of a relationship between two other variables. o Changing the strength or direction of the relationship between IV and DV o Does not explain why there is a relationship between IV and DV

Quasi-experimental design

A quasi-experimental design is similar to an experimental design but lacks random assignment. This type of design describes an effect on a specific cohort of the population.

Limbic system

A set of structures in the brain, and many structures play an important role in regulating emotions. Experts can't agree on what structures make up the entire limbic system. • Responsible for storage/retrieval of memories, especially ones tied to emotions. • Structures of the limbic system: Acronym: hippo wearing a HAT (HAT Hippo): Hypothalamus, Amygdala, Thalamus, and Hippocampus.

Subculture vs. microculture

A subculture is culture (ideas) of a meso-level (medium) sub-community (small community) that distinguishes itself from the larger dominant culture of larger society/community. o Subculture smaller than a nation but unlike a micro-culture, it is large enough to support people throughout their entire lifespan. § Subcultures affect your life on a longer period than a micro-culture o Meso-level = population size falls between micro and macro levels. They are medium sized groups such as communities, organizations, cities, states, clans, and tribes. o It is a sub-community = smaller community in larger one. § Subcultures are unique to the larger society but still share some of the culture of the dominant society. • A micro-culture can't support people throughout their lifespan, refers to groups/organizations only affecting limited period of one's life. Ex. Girl scouts, college sororities, boarding school.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - A pyramid. We have needs that must be fulfilled from bottom to top. These needs must be fulfilled in a specific bottom > top order. o Basic needs are most fundamental and at bottom. o There are 5 needs. § Acronyms: Please Stop Liking Stupid Shit § Please Safely Love (OR) Else Suffer • 5. Self-actualization - one reaching their maximal potential, achieving the most one can be. They were moral to their own principles and mastered the other needs. Differs from person to person. Different from person to person. Maximum Potential o One can want to be ideal-parent, or ideal athlete or ideal-artist • 4. Self-esteem -feel confident and sense of achievement, recognition, competence of skill. Respect. • 3. Love - need to belong, acceptance from friends/family intimacy, love. Social needs/Belonging • 2. Safety - safety of employment, health, resources, property. Can only be fulfilled after physiological needs are met. Basic need. o Safety needs are associated with stability, security, protection, and freedom from threats. •1. Physiological - food, water, breathing, sleep. Essential to survive. Basic need

Mature defense mechanisms

Acronym: Mature HASS o Humor - expressing humor/jokes to be truthful and alleviate feelings but make them socially acceptable. o Sublimation - channeling negative to positive energy. Ex. Violent energy, instead of expressing violence you become a boxer. Transform into socially acceptable behaviors. o Suppression - conscious thought get pushed to unconscious but can access thoughts at a later time. o Altruism - in service of others - we feel fulfilled and gain pleasure/satisfaction.

Prefrontal cortex during dreams

Activity in prefrontal cortex during REM sleep is decreased - part responsible for logic. Why things in our dreams can defy logic and don't seem weird.

Cross's Nigrescence Model

African-Americans are described as progressing through five stages of cultural awareness. 1. Pre-encounter: African-Americans tend to view the majority Caucasian culture as being more desirable and would view a doctor of this race as being more skilled 2. Immersion-Emmersion: Someone in this stage would view the majority Caucasian culture with resentment and distrust and prefer to be treated by someone of his or her own race. 3. Internalization Stage: integrated aspects of his own culture with that of the majority culture and is working to rectify past racial injustices. 1. PRE-ENCOUNTER: absorbed many beliefs and values of the dominant white culture, including the notion that "white is right" and "black is wrong"; de-emphasis on one's racial group membership; largely unaware of race or racial implications 2. ENCOUNTER: forced by event or series of events to acknowledge the impact of racism in one's life and the reality that one cannot truly be white; forced to focus on identity as a member of a group targeted by racism 3. IMMERSION/EMERSION: simultaneous desire to surround oneself with visible symbols of one's racial identity and an active avoidance of symbols of whiteness; actively seek out opportunities to explore aspects of one's own history and culture with support of peers from one's own racial background 4. INTERNALIZATION: secure in one's own sense of racial identity; pro-black attitudes become more expansive, open, and less defensive; willing to establish meaningful relationships with whites who acknowledge and are respective of one's self-definition 5. INTERNALIZATION-COMMITMENT: found ways to translate one's personal sense of blackness into a plan of action or a general sense of commitment to concerns of blacks as a group, which is sustained over time; comfort with one's own race and those around them

Theory of 3 intelligences

Also support for theories of multiple intelligences. 3 types of intelligences - analytical intelligence (Academic abilities - to solve well defined problems), creative intelligence (ability to adapt to new situations and generate novel ideas and adapt) and practical intelligence (solve ill-defined problems, such as how to get a bookcase up a curvy staircase) - proposed by Robert Sternburg. o IQ score measures only analytical intelligence. Scales are scored so average person score is 100. Depending on where you are in relation to 100 - it effects where you are at large. o Standard Deviation = 15. o High analytical intelligence = tend to do better at school. 80 o Those who have high IQ, creative, and/or practical intelligence do not tend to have better marriages, achieve greater physical/mental wellbeing/raise their kids better

Amygdala

Amygdala - aka aggression center. If you stimulate amygdala, produces anger/violence and fear/anxiety. o If you destroy it, get mellowing effect. KluverBucy syndrome - bilateral destruction (destruction of both) of amygdala can result in hyperorality (put things in mouth a lot), hypersexuality, and disinhibited behaviour. These are all drunken behaviours. Damaged amygdala à patients given Benzos (acts like alc.). Those who have anxiety, whom are given Benzos, and you see these behaviors.

Left superior temporal sulcus.

Anger has been associated with the left superior temporal sulcus. (acronym: ANGRY budda w/ LEFT toe missing @ The SUPERIOR TEMPLE Sucks/sulcs " o Damage to the basal ganglia causes problems recognizing angry facial expressions.

Anomia

Anomia /anomic aphasia- inability to name things Acronym: n = Think Name or prefix "anom-aly" § Anomic aphasia is characterized by problems difficulties in naming objects or in retrieving words.

Olfactory epithelium and olfactoy bulb

Area in nostril called the olfactory epithelium (olfactory sensory cells). Separating the olfactory epithelium from the brain is the cribriform plate (bone with little holes that allow olfactory sensory to send projections to the brain). Above the cribriform plate is an extension from the brain - olfactory bulb - a bundle of nerves that sends little projections through cribriform plate into the olfactory epithelium, which branch off. o At end of each connection are receptors, each sensitive to 1 type of molecule. o Molecule travels into nose, binds one of receptors on nerve endings. • Zoom in on olfactory bulb o Imagine there's olfactory cell sending projection to olfactory bulb. There are thousands of types of olfactory epithelial cells, each with diff receptor. These olfactory epithelial cells are located within the other epithelial cells. One, let's say is sensitive to (has a receptor for) benzene rings. o When it binds to receptor, triggers cascade of events that cause cell to fire. AP will end up in olfactory bulb. All cells sensitive to benzene will fire to one olfactory bulb - called a glomerulus - designation point for various sensory olfactory cells that are sensitive to the same molecule. For example, a benzene glomerulus. o At the glomerulus, the receptors then synapse on another cell known as a mitral/tufted cell that project to the brain. This organization is there because it's easier for one cell to send a projection to the brain instead of thousands.

Light at the fovea vs. periphery

At the fovea (dimple in retina) - there no axons in way of light so get higher resolution. At the periphery - light has to go through bundle of axons and some energy lost. So at fovea light hits cones directly. At the periphery, less light gets to the rods.

Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory

Attention, Memory, Imitation, Motivation. Acronym: "AM I Motivated?" o Ex. Want to teach you to draw a star. In order to learn it, need a long enough attention span, the memory to remember it, and be able to imitate it. Question is, are you motivated enough to do it? If you are, you do the action (draw the star).

Attribution

Attribution is the process of inferring causes of events/behaviours. o Attribution can either internal or external, our focus will be on external. o Everyday, we make tons of attributions on environment, our own behavior, and those around us o Inference a person is behaving a certain way based on situation they're in. o 3 main parts of external attribution: consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus § Consistency (does person usually behave this way), § Distinctiveness (does person behave differently in different situations), and § Consensus (do others behave similarly in situation?). • If person behaves different in different situations (distinctive) and others behave similarly in the same situation (consensus) then we know the behavior is due to the situation (external). Situation is effecting behavior. o If person is consistent in all situations, then maybe not external/environment, and more internal. Their behavior is not dependent on situation. § Ex. Situation matters. Your friend behaves differently to snakes at a zoo (where snakes are caged) than to a snake in her living room (where snake might be a danger). § If we see someone in more circumstances, we find out more about them as a person. • To determine the attribution of a behavior, one must determine if the behavior is consistent. Does the person typically behave this way? One must determine if them behavior is distinctive. Is this behavior different than it would be in other situations? Finally, one must determine if the behavior has consensus. Do others behave the same way in similar situations?

Attribution theory

Attribution theory - how we explain behaviors of others around us. o Explain the behavior of other people by breaking down our understanding/explanation of their behaviors to factors about them, and factors related to their environment/surroundings. o Internal (dispositional attribution) - about them o External (situational attribution) - environment o Behavior of others often have a combination of internal and external factors. o Attribution theory relates to the ways in which people attempt to explain various behaviors and events. o Fundamental attribution error occurs when a person assigns too much weight to internal causes rather than external factors when looking for causes of another person's behavior.

Availability heuristic

Availability heuristic - using examples that come to mind. Helpful, but our easily memorable experiences don't match real state of the world; tendency to make decisions about how likely an action or event is based upon how readily available similar information is in our memories. o The availability heuristic is a decision making heuristic where choices are based on quick, easily accessible examples. o Ex. More shark attacks on news so you think a shark attack = more fatal. But, firework accidents are more fatal (have a higher risk) but are less available (less publicized).

Aversive conditioning

Aversive conditioning is usually used to stop a particular behavior. The process involves pairing a habit a person wishes to break, such as smoking or bed-wetting, with an unpleasant stimulus such as electric shock or nausea. If I wanted to stop Shanikwa from smoking I could shock her every time she smokes. The shock is the UCS and the pain is the UCR. Once the smoking becomes associated with the electric shock (acquisition), Shanikwa will experience pain when she smokes, even without the shock. Thus the smoking will become the CS and the pain the CR (but only if the shock is no longer given).

Avoidance learning

Avoidance - signal is given before aversive situation. The behavior is to avoid the situation, which results in continued avoidance because it is reinforced by the removal of the pain/undesirable stimuli. Ex. A fire alarm allows you to avoid the fire and you are able to "Avoid" the situation. § Avoidance behaviors are incredibly persistent. This is true even when there is no longer anything to avoid. The reason is that an animal that performs an avoidance reaction never experiences the aversive stimulus. But it receives negative reinforcement in the form of relief. Because of this, avoidance behavior is self-reinforcing. Negative reinforcement. o Side note: § Drive-reduction - negative reinforcement § Incentive - positive reinforcement

Bottom up

Begins with stimulus. Stimulus influences what we perceive (our perception). o No preconceived cognitive constructs of the stimulus (never seen it before) o Data driven. And the stimulus directs cognitive awareness of what you're looking at (object) o Inductive Reasoning. Always correct.

Biopsychosocial model for depression

Biological factors - • genetic component (from family/twin studies) o Depression is super complicated though: 5-HTTLPR Gene associated with depression, but ONLY if individual is in a stressful environment. If someone is in a low stress environment, they have a decreased risk for depression. • Decreased activation in prefrontal cortex (associated with difficult in generating actions and decreased decision making capacity) • Lower levels of activity in reward circuit in the brain. • Associated with NT - fewer receptors for serotonin (monoamine) and NE (monoamine/catecholamine). § Psychological factors -In depression the following occur: • Behavioral theory - "learned helplessness" - begin to feel powerless if they have no control over the environment they are in repeatedly/ external locus of control "uncontrollable exposure to an aversive stimulus "independent to intensity of punishment • "Cognitive theory" - cognitive distortions - getting trapped in negative thought pattern. When you continue to think about negative thoughts. • Cognitive theory - attribution. These form a pessimistic /negative attributional style which makes people vulnerable to depression o Individuals with depression link negative experiences to internal causes. They think negative experiences will continue to occur in the future. They also think negative experiences are global § Ex: a friend doesn't call you back, you start thinking it is because you are unlikeable, you start thinking this will happen in the future and also that another friend doesn't like you. o Are pessimistic attribution style individuals more likely to have depression or is it the other way around. Not always clear. • Coping style and self-esteem might have to do with depression. Do these cause depression or are they a result? § Sociocultural/Environment factors • Co-rumination/Empathy: having a friend/roommate/partner with depression can increase likelihood of individuals around you getting depression. Might be due to people talking about problems and the negatives of them instead of how to solve them. You also take on the (empathize) with the emotions of those close to you. This empathy might cause depression. • Low Socioeconomic status or those who lost a job/struggling to keep a job have a higher risk of developing depression • Social isolation/child abuse • Internalization of prejudice = higher likelihood of depression o Ex. You grow up in a household that has negative attitudes toward homosexuality and you start to like people of the same sex. This can lead to depression

Bipolar I disorder

Bipolar I disorder - when hypomania becomes manic w/ or w/o major depressive disorder o An individual diagnosed with bipolar II has never had a manic episode. o Although it is possible for an individual diagnosed with bipolar I to never experience hypomania, it is extremely unlikely.

Bipolar II disorder

Bipolar II disorder - when it remains hypomania + one major depressive episode

Global aphasia

Both Broca's Aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia are damaged. Acronym: Globally affects language. § Global aphasia is a combination of impaired comprehension and production of speech.

Are temperature and pain slow or fast senses?

Both temperature and nociception are SLOW

Central sleep apnea

Brain - which regulates respiratory center of the lung Central Sleep Apnea- central (brain is part of CNS)), sleep (at night), apnea (effects airflow). • Looking for apnea without obstructions. Looking at 5+ apneas/hour during sleep. • Problem with the brains control system for ventilation (that control brain for breathing) • Cheynes-Stroke breathing - crescendo then decrescendo breathing followed by stop in breathing. Normal breathing pattern is inhale/exhale changes from a normal fixed pattern. • Believed heart failure/stroke/renal failure is the cause.

Schizophrenia disorder recap

Brain disorder that is neurodevelopmental - combination of genetics and the environments. Can notice difference in brain scans but diagnosed via clinical interview. Affects how people act and preceded by a prodrome period. Decrease in functioning. Social repercussions of schizophrenia - stops people in engaging in society, high risk of suicide, incarceration (risk being in jail), homelessness

Brain function measurements

Brain function (acronym: Electro (EEG) - think electricity can tell you about function, MEG rhymes with EEG)

Contralateral control

Brain has contralateral organization: left visual field info gets proceed by right side and vice versa. If you see an object and it gets sent to your left, it is sent to your right hemisphere. You won't be able to name it because the right hemisphere information can't communicate with the left hemisphere language parts. You would be able to pick up the object however since your right hemisphere controls your left body movements. However, if the object was in your right visual field, you would be able to process it.

Brain structure measurement methods

Brain structure (acronym: CATs (the company) and Magnets (MRI) used to make buildings (a structure). Take x-ray of a CAT (the animal) to know CAT uses x-rays). Great for determining size of brain.

Basilar tuning

Brain uses basilar tuning - there are varying hair cells in cochlea and allows brain to distinguish between high and low frequency sounds. Hair cells at base (start of cochlea) of cochlea are activated by high frequency sounds, and those at apex (end of cochlea) by low frequency sounds. THNK: long wavelengths can travel farther. § As sounds of different frequencies reach the ear, they will stimulate different parts of the basilar membrane. § Apex = 25 Hz (low freq, HIGH wavelength) § Base = 1600 Hz (high freq, LOW wavelength) § As sound enters the cochlea, it travels and activates the hair cell that matches its frequency and it is mapped to a particular part of the brain. The primary auditory cortex (part of temporal lobe...acronym: hear Time Ticking = Temporal Lobe) receives all info from cochlea. It is separated by regions which detect different frequencies (0.5 kHz - 16 kHz). § If this didn't occur, brain wouldn't be able to distinguish between different sound frequencies. § So with basilar tuning, brain can distinguish diff frequencies - tonotopical mapping.

Spontaneous recovery

But suddenly she hears refrigerator door open later, and makes a response (a milder form like feeling intrigued more than usual instead of a strong feeling of excitement)- spontaneous recovery (when old conditioned stimulus elicits response). Don't know why it happens, usually infrequently, doesn't persist for a long time, and less strong.

CAT scan

CAT (Computerized Axial Tomography) scans (CT scan). X-rays to create image of the brain (tumor/abnormal swelling/bleeding...but it can't tell us anything about what areas of the brain are active in a given time.) • CT scans are a computerized composite of X-ray images that are slightly lower resolution than MRI and are not as good for soft tissue but are faster than MRIs. Sometimes CT scans are combined with a radioactive dye (like a PET scan) to show structure and activity imposed in one image.

Alcohol

CNS depressant; It works by stimulating the production of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), an inhibitory neurotransmitter associated with reduced anxiety, and dopamine, which promotes euphoria. Alcohol slows the activity of the frontal lobe, reducing judgment and lowering inhibitions. While drinking, people can become unable to recognize the consequences of their actions, and their speech may be slurred and motor skills diminished.

Nicotine

CNS stimulant by working as a acetylcholine agonist.

Caffeine

Caffeine inhibits an enzyme that breaks down cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). The increase in cAMP increases glutamate production. This increase in cellular activity results in action potentials that are briefer and released in bursts. (just remember cAMP = ON/SIGNALLING). Broken by phospodiester to AMP (a nucleotide)

Cultural capital

Can also expose you to cultural capital, ex. If parents exposing, you to trips abroad and learning foreign languages. Or cultural items in house you know a lot about. With this knowledge you may gain some reward. o Cultural capital - The term cultural capital refers to non-financial social assets that promote social mobility beyond economic means. Examples can include education, intellect, style of speech, dress, or physical appearance. Refers to knowledge, skills, education, and similar characteristics that are used to make social distinctions and that are associated with differences in social status.

Dependency ratio

Can look at dependency ratio, an age-based measurement takes people <14 and >65 who are not in the labour force, and compares that to # of people who are (15-64) o Higher the ratio, more dependent people there are. o Living longer = older residents can contribute to workforce for longer time

Long term memory

Capacity is unlimited. 2 main categories: explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative). It is unlimited.

Unconditioned stimulus and response

Carrot is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because no one had to teach guinea pig to like carrots. The UCS triggers a response, called an unconditioned response (UCR). The response in this case was an excitement in guinea pig (a normal physiological response. o Unconditioned means it's innate, already do naturally, and not learned. o While conditioned means it's a learned behavior.

Change blindness

Change blindness - fail to notice changes from a previous to a current state in environment. (Different from in-attentional blindness, a subtle but importance difference) ex: don't notice when your mom gets a haircut. o Ex. Famous study done where a person asks a stranger in a big city to give directions. The person is swapped with another person and the direction giver does not notice that this was a different person that they were now giving directions too

OCD

Characterized by obsessions and compulsions 165 o Obsessions: Unwanted repetitive thoughts o Compulsions: Unwanted repetitive actions o These obsessions and compulsions persistently interfere with everyday life. Ex. Continuously watching your hands through multiple times throughout the day to the point your skin becomes rock. § For normal people, once you perform the action the worry goes away and doesn't interfere with your life. The worry doesn't continue to occupy the brain. Ex. Checking if door is locked, or washing your hands shortly after touching something gross. o Common obsessions: dirty, bad future (something terrible is about to happen, ex. Someone in your family is about go get sick to the point that they don't think about other things), need for symmetry (feel uncomfortable unless things around them are ordered to the point they continue thinking about it ex. A book is slanted and you think about it till you fix it, if you don't something bad will happen) § Remember: these must invade your everyday life and the obsessions are an extreme. o Common compulsions: washing (intense need to wash hand, to bathe, or groom), check doors/appliances (constantly/repeatedly), movement ritual (feeling the need to repeatedly sit down/stand up, leave room and come back, tap on a desk). o 2-3% of people. Typically, teen and young adult.

Looking glass self

Charles Cooley used the term "looking glass self" to describe this process - idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others.

Rooting reflex

Check stroking = baby turns head. Allows for orientation to mothers nipple or bottle. Disappears in few weeks of life - then baby turns head voluntarily

Major motor development milestones

Children come into the world with Reflexes: Pre-programmed motor skills. Involuntary motor movement/automatic. • Over time, there are voluntary movements that developed. This happens quickly. o 2-4 months: heads up/chests up o 2- 5months: roll over o 5-8 months: sit up o 5-10 months: stand with support (furniture/people) o 6-11 months: pull up to standing position o 7-12 months: children are able to crawl o 7-13 months: walk while holding onto furniture o 10-14 months: Stand on their own o 11-15 months: walk alone o Skill can develop in a wide range of time. There are many individual differences. 50% will develop before, 50% after! (it's usually a median number that is given)!

Cluster A personality disorders

Cluster A has three personality disorders: (Acronym: PSS: Psych &Sociology Section) o Paranoid: profound distrust + suspicion of other people. [paranoid of others] o Schizoid: emotionally detached in relationships and shows little emotion. (what people sometimes incorrectly consider as antisocial) [DISTANT, can spell as DiZtant. D and Z in schizoid and D and Z in distant] o Schizotypal: odd beliefs/ magical thinking (t in typical = think of magical hat)

Cluster B personality disorders

Cluster B has four personality disorders: (Acronym including B and C clusters: ABHNADO) o Antisocial: little or no regard for others. Commit crimes and show no remorse. Inconsiderate of others. [Self-explanatory. Hates/ANTI society] o Borderline: Unstable relationships, emotions are unstable, variable self-image and compulsive (which can put them in danger). People at the borderline are at the brink of an emotional/relationship issue. Ex. Displays characteristics of a stereotypical teenager. [acronym: 13 year old Borderline Brenda] o Histrionic: Are very attention seeking. Display emotions outwardly, wear bright clothes. Ex. [H for Hollywood Actresses] o Narcissistic: huge egos, need for admiration and praise, grandiose. ex. Dr. House (in TV show House...House is a show that is on Netflix), Hitler, his documentary is also on Netflix

Cochlear implants

Cochlear Implants: A surgical procedure that attempts to restore some degree of hearing to individuals with sensorineural narrow hearing loss - aka `nerve deafness` o Individuals who have a problem with conduction of sound waves from cochlea to brain. o Receiver goes to a stimulator, which reaches the cochlea. Receiver receives info from a transmitter. Transmitter gets electrical info from the speech processor. Speech processor gets info from microphone. o Sound -> microphone -> transmitter (outside the skull) sends info to the receiver (inside skull). Then it sends info to the stimulator, into the cochlea, and cochlea converts electrical impulse into neural impulse that goes to brain. Restores some degree of hearing.

Cognitive dissonance

Cognitive Dissonance: Cognitive Dissonance is the discomfort experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting cognitions (ideas, believes, values, emotional reactions). o 1. Modify our cognitions - Change/alteration in the cognition (thinking process) in a person's action/behavior to reduce the discomfort a person has with that attitude/behavior. § ex. smoker might say, I really don't smoke that much. (went from "I smoke" to "I really don't smoke that much") o 2. Trivialize - make less important/make trivial, change the importance of their cognition § ex. Smoker might say, evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer. o 3. Add - adding more cognitions, to make contradictions more comfortable. § ex. I exercise so much it doesn't matter (cognition 3). You added another cognition to deal with cognitive dissonance. o 4. Deny - denying the facts, § ex. Smoker might say, there is no evidence that smoking and cancer are not linked.

Comparative research

Comparative research According to D.E Sanga (2004) Cooperative research is a research methodology in the social sciences that aims to make comparisons across different countries or cultures. A major problem in comparative research is that the data sets in different countries may not use the same categories, or define categories differently (for example by using different definitions of poverty).

Complex behavior

Complex behavior - combination of innate and learned behavior. Relationship between genes and environment in adaptation. Can be a spectrum, most behaviours fit between innate and learned. o Ex. ability of insects to fly, starts off as innate but through learning become more efficient in ability to fly.

Compliance

Compliance -situations where we do behavior to get a reward or avoid punishment. Tendency to go along with behavior without questioning why. Compliance goes away once rewards/punishments removed. § "Compliance refers to a change in behavior that is requested by another person or group; the individual acted in some way because others asked him or her to do so (but it was possible to refuse or decline.)

Constancy

Constancy - Our perception of object doesn't change even if the image cast on the retina is different. Different types of constancy include size constancy, shape constancy, color constancy. 1) Size Constancy: One that appears larger because it's closer, we still think it is the same size. 2) Shape Constancy: a changing shape still maintains the same shape perception. o Ex. A door opening means the shape is changing. But we still believe the door a rectangle 3) Color Constancy: despite changes in lighting which change the image color falling on our retina, we understand (perceive) that the object is the same color.

Construct validity

Construct validity describes the extent to which the theory is supported by the data or results of the research. "Does the test have results that's supported by what is expected" construct validity- how the terms are defined. o § Convergent Validity: tests that constructs that are expected to be related are, in fact, related. § Discriminant validity tests that constructs that should have norelationship do, in fact, not have any relationship. (also referred to as divergent validity)

Correlations

Correlations: Strength of a correlation is based on how close the correlation coefficient is to 1 or -1. Correlations can only range between 1 and -1. o Negative Correlation: <0, >-1, -1 = strong negative correlation. A negative correlation is a relationship between two variables in which one variable increases and the other decreases. o Positive Correlation >0, <1, +1 = strong positive correlation. A positive correlation is a relationship between two variables: as one increases, the other also increases. o A correlation coefficient that is below -1 is likely the result of an error by the experimenter when computing the correlation between developmental dyslexia and illiteracy. • Regression to the mean is a phenomenon in which, over time, scores become more average.

Counterconditioning

Counterconditioning (also called stimulus substitution) is a form of respondent conditioning that involves the conditioning of an unwanted behavior or response to a stimulus into a wanted behavior or response by the association of positive actions with the stimulus.

Covert behavior

Covert behavior is behavior that is not observable.

Criterion validity

Criterion Validity assesses whether a test reflects a certain set of abilities. "IS the test valid" Criterion validity refers to whether a variable is able to predict a certain outcome. § Concurrent validity measures the test against a benchmark test and high correlation indicates that the test has strong criterion validity. Concurrent validity measures how well a test matches up with a benchmark test, which is usually another valid measure of the same construct. • Predictive validity is a measure of how well a test predicts abilities. It involves testing a group of subjects for a certain construct and then comparing them with results obtained at some point in the future. Predictive validity, or the extent to which an assessment is able to predict something it should be able to predict

Cued recall

Cued recall (Recall cues)- Having extra clues to remember the words. Still have to produce an answer but still get more cues to help you. The added cues help you retrieve the information from your long term memory. Get more retrieval cues, tend to do better than free recall. For example, giving you the cue of "pl____" and asking for what word was on a list and you answer "planet". This would be easy.

Cultural assimilation

Cultural assimilation is interpenetration and fusion of ethnic minorities into the dominant culture.

Sleep cycle

Cycle through these 4-5 times per sleep, each one 90 minutes. Order within cycle goes from N1 -> N2 -> N3 -> N2 -> REM > N1. How long each stage lasts depends on how long you've been asleep and your age (babies spend more time in REM sleep)

Neuroleptics

Decrease positive symptoms of schizophrenia but can increase negative symptoms. First generation.

Dependent variable

Dependent Variable: A dependent variable is expected to change based on the manipulation of the independent variable. • Independent Variable: what is manipulated

Depressants

Depressants are drugs that lower your body's basic functions and neural activity, lower CNS activity (decrease arousal/stimulation in areas of our brain) ex. Decrease Heart rate, decreased BP, decreased processing/reaction time (makes us act/think slowly), etc. Three categories: alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines o Vasodilate at low, vasoconstrictor at high o The most popular depressant is alcohol. § Decreased inhibitions, so decreasing cognitive control § Lack of coordination, slurring of speech § Think more slowly, disrupt REM sleep (and form memories) o Barbiturates - used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety (calm them down) Depress your CNS. Anesthesia or anticonvulsant (drugs that reduce seizures) § Not often prescribed due to negative side effects such as reduced memory, judgement and concentration, with alcohol can lead to death (most drugs w/ alcohol are bad) § -barbital o Benzodiazepines are the most commonly prescribed suppressant. Subscribed for same things as barbiturates - sleep aids (to treat insomnia) or anti-anxiety or seizures (anticonvulsant) § Enhance your brain's response to GABA. They open up GABA-activated chloride (Cl-) channels in your neurons, and make neurons more (-) charged. § 3 types: short, intermediate, and long-acting. Short and intermediate are usually for sleep, while long acting is for anxiety. § -zelam, -zolam § Benzodiazepines and alcohol bind to a site on the GABA receptor complex that regulates the sensitivity of the receptor complex.

Depression/Major depressive disorder

Depression/Major Depressive Disorder - characterized by prolonged feeling of helplessness and discouragement about the future. Individuals with this disorder have the following: o Has physical and emotional component. Sadness + SIG: E CAPS: (Acronym) § Suicidal thoughts: low self-esteem, low mood § Interests decreased: lack of interest (anhedonia) § Guilt: § Energy decreased - lethargy (feeling fatigued) § Concentration decreased - trouble making decisions § Appetite disturbance (increased or decreased) § Psychomotor changes/symptoms (agitation or retardation) § Sleep disturbances (increased or decreased) § + Weight gain or loss.

Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders

Distress/disability from symptoms similar to those that may occur to illness unrelated to mental disorder, but of psychological origin with or without having a general medical condition at the same time. § Example is someone that has abdominal pain, caused by psychological disorders such as stress without any physical signs.

Drugs and dopamine

Drugs like marijuana and heroin mimic neurotransmitters of our brain. Cocaine causes the abnormal release of natural NTs like dopamine - affects our limbic system. • Dopamine overstimulates/activates our brain limbic system (which controls movement, emotion, motivation, pleasure). Why we perceive emotions and mood altering properties of drugs. We become in a state of euphoria - total happiness. o If we continue to use a drug, we abuse the drug. Reinforcing effect - we want to constantly stimulate the brain by using drugs.

Stress effect on metabolism

During stress, body secretes cortisol and glucagon, which converts glycogen to glucose. Glucose increases in our blood which remains floating around in blood vessels (we don't need all this extra glucose, which can exacerbate metabolic conditions like diabetes). o Too much blood sugar can also cause heart disease

EEG

EEG (Electroencephalogram) - external, can't tell us about activity of individual/groups of neurons. Can only look at sum total. Can tell us about seizures, sleep stage, cognitive tasks. Not invasive! We don't get a picture of a brain from this method, but we get an EEG. Easier set up than MEG.

Early symptoms of Alzheimers disease

Earliest symptoms are memory loss, particularly difficulty to retrieve or decode recent memories. • In the early stages of Alzheimer's disease, most patients have difficulty remembering the name of a person they just met.(loss of short term memory) • In early stages of Alzheimer's disease, most patients with Alzheimer's can still remember details about their childhood, most patients can still remember how to use objects, most patients can still remember general information that they've learned throughout their life.(procedural memory (implicit memory on how to do things), episodic memory (explicit memory about events), semantic memory(explicit memory about words)

Ecological validity

Ecological validity is a type of external validity which looks at the testing environment and determines how much it influences behavior.

Encoding

Encoding is transferring information from the temporary store in working memory into permanent store in long-term memory. o Working Memory: processing anything that you're thinking about at this particular moment. 7+/- 2 o If you want to remember more than 7 things, need to process that info so it stays in long-term memory.

Encoding specificity

Enhanced memory when testing takes place under the same conditions as learning.

epinephrine and norepinephrine

Epinephrine stimulates the fight-or-flight response, and norepinephrine is used in post-ganglionic connections in the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. It also increases arousal and alertness and focuses attention.

Ash's labelled lines

Ex. Participant in study, many other participants too. The experiment explains a boring experiment to you - he holds up a card with a target line and 3 comparison lines, and the participants need to figure out which comparison line matches target line. This occurs 18 times (12 trials where the confederates give wrong answer, 6 where they give correct answer).

Shadowing task

Experiment that studies selective attention. In this task you are wearing headphones and they have two different sounds in each. Left ear hear one thing, right ear another thing. Told to repeat everything said in one ear and ignore the other. Focus on one ear and ignore the other (selective attention). Based on the unattended information that we do and don't end up comprehending - we can learn about how selective attention works by seeing what they filter out in other ear.

Major components of personality PEN

Eysenck says we have 3 major dimensions of personality, which encompass all traits we all possess, but the degrees to which we individually express them are different. We all express varying degress of neuroticism and extraversion, but we all don't necessarily have psychoticism. These 3 are: o Psychoticism -degree to which reality is distorted. o extroversion (vs. introversion) - degree of sociability o neuroticism -emotional stability § We do not all necessarily have psychoticism.

Fertility

Fertility is natural ability of human beings to have babies, which add to the population.

Fluid vs. crystallized intelligence

Fluid Intelligence - is ability to reason quickly and abstractly, such as when solving novel logic problems. § fluid intelligence is the ability to think on one's feet, be adaptable, and solve problems using deductive and inductive reasoning. § Cattell defined fluid intelligence as: in novel situations, the ability to recognize and reason relationships between objects or ideas independent of previous experience. § Fluid intelligence helps one see patterns, organize and identify feature and spatial relationships to solve complex problems. o Crystallized Intelligence - refers to accumulated knowledge and verbal skills. § Fluid intelligence tends to decrease as we move into older adulthood, while crystalized increases or stays same. § Cattell defined crystallized intelligence as the ability to retrieve and acquire knowledge § Crystallized intelligence is based on fact, experience, prior learning and accumulates as one ages.

Semi circular canals

Focus on inner ear - in particular the semicircular canals (posterior, lateral, and anterior; each orthogonal to each other) • Canal is filled with endolymph, and when we rotate the fluid shifts in the semicircular canals - allows us to detect what direction our head is moving in, and because we can detect how quickly the endolymph is moving we can determine the strength of rotation.

d'

For any signal, have noise distribution (background). And get a second graph - the signal distribution. o The difference between means of the two is d'. So if signal shifted to right, d' would be big and easy to detect. If left, d' very small and more difficult to detect.

Amino acid neurotransmitters

GABA (CNS) + Glycine (PNS)

Gates theory of pain

Gate control theory of olfaction is a theory of the processes of nociception. The gate control theory of pain asserts that non-painful input closes the "gates" to painful input, which prevents pain sensation from traveling to the central nervous system. Therefore, stimulation by non-noxious input is able to suppress pain. "Fast blocks slow" Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall.

Types of gender

Gender also not binary some people are gender queer (don't identify as either male or female), and can present (gender expression) as gender queer or male/female. • Agender - rejecting gender categories • Gender fluid - moving across genders • Non-binary - not identifying w/ any specific gender • Third gender - cultures that recognize non-binary gender

Generalizing to a population

Generalizing to a population. Sometimes when scientists talk about generalizability, they are applying results from a study sample to the larger population from which the sample was selected. For instance, consider the question, "What percentage of the Canadian population supports the Liberal party?" In this case, it would be important for researchers to survey people who represent the population at large. Therefore they must ensure that the survey respondents include relevant groups from the larger population in the correct proportions. Examples of relevant groups could be based on race, gender or age group.

Group meetings

Group meetings such as AA (alcohol anonymous) or NA (narcotics anonymous) involve 12-step program that help people go through process of recovery. o Three categories of 12 steps: o Acceptance -acknowledge addiction is a chronic progressive diseases that you can't control on your own. "I have a problem" o Surrender - give yourself over to higher power and accept help offered through that power and group o Active Involvement in meetings/activities - can include helping other addicts o Evidence they're helpful, particularly for alcohol o Steps are sequential but one can experience certain steps repeatedly over time. o Sometimes there are parallel group meetings for families of recovering addicts. Can help people in addicts life understand problem and also help their loved one

Discrimination

Guinea pig doesn't respond to dresser drawer, which makes a sound that is different from refrigerator, this is called discrimination, when you learn to make a response to some stimuli but not others. Also has an adaptive value because you want to respond differently to related stimuli.

Hallucinogens

Hallucinogens (referred to as psychedelics): o Distorted perceptions/hallucinations - seeing or hearing things different from how things actually are. o Heighted sensations. Based on reality but is different from what's going on in the world around o Can give them energy or calm them down o Emotional responses - Feeling of connectedness and mood swings (changing moods) o Exact effect can be different depending on an individual's personality or who they are/who they are win § Examples:, mescaline, peyote, PCP, LSD, psilocybin (active ingredient in mushroom) o LSD modifies serotonin neurotransmission, especially the 5-HT2 receptor family. o Dilation of pupil (mydriasis) *Hallucinogens, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and ketamine, distort perception, enhance sensory experiences, and cause introspection, all while increasing heart rate and blood pressure, increasing body temperature, and dilating the pupils.

Stepping reflex

Hold an infant upright and their feet touch a flat surface, they will start to step as if they are trying to walk. Disappears in first two months.

Sucking reflex

How a baby will suck on any object that is placed in its mouth. Disappears at 3-4 months

Proprioception vs. Kinasthesia

How can you walk in a pitch-black room? You rely on your sense of balance/position proprioception. o Tiny little receptor/sensor (known as a spindle) located in our muscles sends signals that go up to spinal cord and to the brain. Spindle has a protein that is sensitive to stretching. o Sensors contract with muscles - so we're able to tell how contracted or relaxed every muscle in our body is. o Cognitive awareness of your body in space. Subconscious. Not always thinking about it. • Kinaesthesia is talking about movement of the body. Kinaesthesia is more behavioural. o You teach yourself how to move to successfully complete the task at hand. o Ex: "If I move in this direction, I will hit the baseball." • Recap: Not the same, but share a lot in common - both help tell you where your body is in space. o Proprioception includes sense of balance/position, while kinesthesia includes sense of movement. (acronym Kinetics/similar to kinesthesia = movement) o Proprioception is cognitive, kinesthesia is behavioral

Hypnotism

Hypnotism usually involves getting person to relax and focus on breathing, and they become more susceptible to suggestion in this state - but only if they want to. More alpha waves in this stage - an awake but relaxed state. o Some use hypnosis to retrieve memories, very dangerous because memories are malleable. Can create false memories (False memory)- memories that incorporate hypnotizers expectations even when not intended. o Some people feel that hypnosis can control pain. Might help us inhibit our attention to painful stimuli. Only works if you think it will work. o 2 theories for how it works: Dissociation Theory (hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness) and the Social Influence Theory (people do and report what's expected of them, like actors caught up in their roles) o Refocused attention, so sometimes it's used to treat pain. Reduced activity in areas that process sensory input. Although it doesn't block it out, it might inhibit attention that inhibit.

Hypomania

Hypomania - mild forms of mania is sometimes not that bad. Lots of energy and don't need to sleep a lot so you get lots of work done. You also feel good. Creativity. Results in mania at times, but sometimes does not develop into a mania. • A hypomanic episode is a period of abnormally elevated mood and abnormally increased energy lasting at least 4 consecutive days; however, the episode is not severe enough to cause impairment in functioning or to require hospitalization.

Extinction

If you open refrigerator door and give the Guinea pig get a carrot anymore, over time she would no longer react - extinction. When a CS does not elicit a CR anymore.

Long term potentiation

In LTP, the same presynaptic stimulation will elicit a stronger and stronger response in the postsynaptic neuron. This mechanism is what allows for facilitated recollection. o In this mechanism, equal levels of presynaptic stimulation result in greater postsynaptic potential o The greater the postsynaptic potential, the more ion channels will open in the neuron. This will result in a stronger neural response.

Observational study

In an observational study, the researcher is unable to control the assignment of groups.

Operant extinction

In operant conditioning it results from some response by the organism no longer being reinforced (for example, you keep getting your dog to sit on command, but you stop giving it a treat or any other type of reinforcement. Over time, the dog may not sit every time you give the command).

Method of limits

In the ascending method of limits, some property of the stimulus starts out at a level so low that the stimulus could not be detected, then this level is gradually increased until the participant reports that they are aware of it. For example, if the experiment is testing the minimum amplitude of sound that can be detected, the sound begins too quietly to be perceived, and is made gradually louder. In the descending method of limits, this is reversed. In each case, the threshold is considered to be the level of the stimulus property at which the stimuli are just detected.

Main neurotransmitters in PNS?

In the peripheral nervous system: the two main Neurotransmitters are acetylcholine and epinephrine. Acetylcholine is the main (and is involved in CNS and also the ANS- -- most neurons release acetylcholine and they release...).

In-attentional blindness

In-attentional blindness - aka Perceptual Blindness - we aren't aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field. "miss something right in front of you" o In-attentional blindness is the inability to recognize an unexpected object, event, or stimulus that is in 'plain sight'. This is due to a psychological lapse in attention, rather than a defect or deficit in sensory perception. o Ex: you can't say where the nearest fire extinguisher is because you fail to notice it because your attention is typically elsewhere. This is true even though fire extinguishers are brightly colored and essential to survival (which should bring them to your attention)

Incentive theory

Incentive Theory - Reward, intangible or tangible is presented after the occurrence of an action w/ intention of causing the behavior to occur again. This causes a positive association and meaning toward a behavior. Focuses on conditioning/incentive to make a person happier. Incentive theory argues that individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors that produce rewards or incentives. Incentive theory focuses on Positive reinforcement is done through continuous positive stimulation. A positive reinforce is given after a response to increase the response. You need to be constantly given positive reinforces. • A negative reinforcement - removal of a stimuli to encourage a response would, is not what incentive theory is focussed on. (this was drive-reduction theory)

Stress effect on heart

Increased B.P, B.V distend, so they build up more muscle and become more rigid. Can lead to hypertension (HBP) and vascular disease (disease of blood vessels - get damaged with higher force of blood movement). Spots attract fat and narrow blood vessels. Worst place to experience this is coronary arteries - coronary artery disease.

Information processing model

Information processing model proposes our brains are similar to computers. We get input from environment, process it, and output decisions. Doesn't describe where things happen in the brain. INPUT > PROCESS > OUTPUT o The information-processing model is a bottom-up or stimulus driven model. o The information-processing model assumes limited storage capacity. o The human brain is believed to have a limited capacity for attention. o The information-processing model assumes serial processing; however, the human brain has the capacity for parallel processing. First stage is getting the input - occurs in sensory memory (sensory register). Where you first interact with information in your environment. Temporary register of all information your senses you're taking in.

Optic discs

Inside rods are optic discs, which are large membrane bound structures - thousands of them. In membrane of each optic disc are proteins that fire APs to the brain.

Treisman's Attenuation Theory

Instead of complete selective filter, have an attenuator - weakens but doesn't eliminate input from unattended ear. Then some gets to perceptual processes, so still assign meaning to stuff in unattended ear, just not high priority. Then switch if something important. § Treisman's Attenuation theory replaced the selective filter with an attenuator, which selectively allows the attended message to be processed to a greater extent than the unattended message. § Sensory register à attenuator à perceptual process àà Conscious § Acronym: Triessman is SHARP as a T. He is smart enough to only attenuate and then perceive.

Instinctual drift

Instinctual drift: it is the phenomenon whereby established habits, learned using operant techniques, eventually are replaced by innate food-related behaviors. So the learned behavior "drifts" to the organism's species-specific (instinctual) behavior. o Instinctive drift or instinctual drift is the tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response. The concept originated with B.F. Skinner's former students Keller Breland and Marian Breland when they tried to teach a raccoon to put tokens into a piggy bank. Instead, the raccoon drifted to its instinctive behavior of putting the tokens on the ground or turning them over in its paws, as they often do with food.

Interactionist approach

Interactionist approach - Sometimes called social interactionist approach. Believe biological and social factors have to interact in order for children to learn language. Children's desire to communicate with others - such as adults in their life, makes them motivated to learn language. Associated with Vygotsky.

Internal capsule

Internal capsule - contains many important pathways, including the corticospinal tract

Internal vs. external validity

Internal validity describes the extent that a study is able to show a cause-effect relationship between the variables tested in the study. External validity describes the extent that the results of a study can be generalized or repeated in multiple settings.

Fixed interval

Interval = TIME. ex. receives pay check every 2 weeks - in this case, time is constant. Pay doesn't change if he sells 1 car or 100 cars. Less incentive to sell cars. Response rate is slower.

Sour and salty rely on which receptor type?

Ion channels

Is MDMA a stimulant or hallucinogen

It can be either

Medications for depression

Medications that affect serotonin, NE, and dopamine often improve symptoms. Ex. monoamine oxidase inhibitors (increase amount of monoamines in synapse) o Monoamines include adrenaline (epinephrine), norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and melatonin (involved in onset of darkness). § Catecholamine (Subclass) includes dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine (2 OH groups on phenyl)

James lange theory of emotion

James-Lange theory - Experience of emotion is due to perception of physiological responses. § Ex. Holding pet cat (Event) > increased HR/neurotransmitters/smile (Physiological response) > Interpretation of Physiological response > happiness (emotion). It's not the cat making you happy...its something the cat is doing to your body makes you happy. When sad, don't cry because you're sad, you're sad because you cry. § Ex2: A man, who is allergic to bees, encounters a bee. The man's heart beat increases, he starts sweating, and he interprets these physiological changes as the emotion fear. § Ex. physiological arousal followed by aggressive emotions (not simultaneous). Awareness of physiological processes occurring that make you happy. Event > Physiological Response (PR) > Interpretation of PR > Emotion Acronym: J/L are one (1) apart on the alphabet, so they have a physiologic response first (1st) which leads to emotion.

Korsakoff's syndrome

Korsakoff's Syndrome - caused by lack of vitamin B1 or thiamine. Caused by malnutrition, eating disorders, and especially alcoholism. These groups don't process or absorb all the nutrients they need. o Most cases Not caused by brain injuries o Thiamine is important because converts carbohydrates into glucose cells need for energy. Important for normal functioning of neurons. o At first, damage to certain areas causes poor balance, abnormal eye movements, mild confusion, and/or memory loss. At this stage called Wernicke's encephalopathy - precursor to Korsakoff's syndrome. If Wernicke's encephalopathy is diagnosed in time it can reverse the damage or at least prevent further damage. If untreated, will progress to Korsakoff's Syndrome, which has a main symptom of severe memory loss, accompanied by confabulation (patients make up stories, sometimes to fill in memories). o Korsakoff's syndrome is not progressive, unlike AD. If people are diagnosed and treated, they can better. o Treatment typically includes thiamine injections, staying on a healthy diet, abstain from alcohol, take vitamins, and relearn things. Effectiveness depends on how well patient follows the treatment guidelines and how early it is diagnosed. o Individuals with Korsakoff syndrome have problem forming new memories and recalling old memories.(anterograde and retrograde amnesia respectively)

Linguistic determinism

Language has an influence on thought. They are called the Weak and Strong hypothesis - referring to ho much influence they think language has on thought.

Lazarus

Lazarus Theory - experience of emotion depends on how the situation is cognitively appraised (labelled). § If we label emotion as good, it is positive § If we label emotion as bad, it is negative § How we label event is based on cultural/individual differences. § Event is the same and depending on label it produces two very different emotions • Ex: activity of jumping off a plane is terrifying for some but exhilarating for others depending on label. • Ex2: A man, who is allergic to bees, encounters a bee. Simultaneously, the man interprets that his allergy to bees makes this encounter threatening, his heart beat increases, and he starts sweating. He labels the emotion he is experiencing as fear. § Ex. Event (holding cat) --> labelling situation/appraising (cognitive) happiness > emotion (joy) + physiological response. Event > Label the event (appraisal) à emotion + PR based on appraisal. + if label is + - if appraisal is - about the event. Lazarus - "LAzarus" = "LAbel" leads to emotion and physiologic response

Learning (behaviorist) theory

Learning (Behaviorist) theory - children aren't born with anything, they only acquire language through operant conditioning. Child learns to say "mama" because every time they say that, mom reinforces child. But doesn't explain how they can produce words they've never heard before or unique sentences. Associated with BF Skinner. Language is learned.

Cochlea

Let's unroll the cochlea. Stapes - moving back and forth at same frequency as stimulus. It pushes the elliptical window back and forth. o There's fluid inside the cochlea, which gets pushed around cochlea, and comes back around. Organ of Corti splits cochlea into 2 - the upper and lower membrane.

Lexicon

Lexicon - A set of vocabulary items. entire set of morphemes in a language o ASL that would mean the total combinations of hand movements, locations, facial expressions, and body language that help them to form meaningful words. o Lexical access refers to identifying a word and connecting it to its meaning, which has been stored in long-term memory.

Limbic system and emotion

Limbic system is involved in emotion: the amygdala is conductor of emotional experiences, communicating between the hypothalamus (physiological) and prefrontal cortex (behavioural). Amygdala plays key role in fear/aggression. o Emotions associated with memories are encoded in the hippocampus. o Prefrontal cortex involved in decision making, and reducing emotions. It also has executive functions - higher order processes such as planning/organizing/inhibiting/etc.

Linguistic universals theory

Linguistic universals theory states that there are characteristics that remain consistent across all languages of different cultures.

Neurocognitive disorders

Loss of cognitive/other functions of the brain after nervous system has developed. Big categories within this, one is delirium (reversible episode of cognitive/higher brain problems, many causes - drugs/abnormalities in blood/infections). Dementia and its milder versions are usually irreversible and progressive (usually caused by Alzheimer's disease or stroke).

Lower motor neuron

Lower motor neurons (LMN) - efferent neurons of the PNS synapse on control skeletal muscle. Skeletal muscle cells it contacts is the other end of the motor unit. Form a neuromuscular junction. • Abnormalities can occur in the motor unit - weakness. • Abnormalities of LMN can cause the lower motor neuron signs (LMN signs), which can happen in addition to weakness. o Signs: atrophy of skeletal muscle, fasciculations (involuntary twitches of skeletal muscle), hypotonia (decrease in tone of skeletal muscle - how much muscle is contracted when person is relaxed), hyporeflexia (decreased muscle stretch reflex)

Hypo ventilation disorder

Lungs or chest walls - stops lungs from being able to expand § Hypoventilation Disorder - When we are not able to ventilate our lungs fully and remove all CO2. Results in a buildup of CO2, and a decrease in O2. Can occur due to medications that repress respiratory functions (narcotic pain killers such as opioids) or if there is a problem with the lungs or chest wall. A common occurrence is due to obesity. • High CO2 can cause right sided heart failure • Low O2 effects all organs/tissues of bodies. Cognitive impairment, heart problems (arrhythmias - abnormal heart rhythms), and polycythemia (elevated RBC in blood)

MEG

MEG (Megnetoencephalogram) (aka SQUIDS - Superconducting quantum interference device)- better resolution than EEG, but rarer because requires a large machine and special room to shield it. Records the magnetic fields produced by electric currents in the brain. Measured by using SQUIDS. (acronym: MEGa SQUIDS are invasive)

Melodic Intonation Therapy (MIT).

MIT works best with non-fluent forms of aphasia.

MRI

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)- This method uses radio waves and they are exposed to a magnetic field. The radio waves are then added to the magnetic field and disrupts orientation of atoms. As atoms move back to alignment with magnetic field they release signals and those are used to create image. This also doesn't tell us anything about brain function either.

Meditation

Meditation - training people to self-regulate their attention and awareness. Can be guided and focused on something in particular, like breathing, but meditation can also be unfocussed - mind wanders freely. o More alpha waves than normal relaxation in light meditation. o In deep meditation have increased theta waves in brain (only experts typically) o No long term studies. But those who regularly go to deep meditation, have shown increased activity in prefrontal cortex, right hippocampus, and right anterior insula - increased attention control (the goal of meditation). o Can be helpful for people with ADHD, or in aging.

Method of adjustment

Method of Adjustment- method of average error - The method of adjustment asks the subject to control the level of the stimulus, instructs them to alter it until it is just barely detectable against the background noise, or is the same as the level of another stimulus. This is repeated many times. This is also called the method of average error. In this method the observer himself controls the magnitude of the variable stimulus beginning with a variable that is distinctly greater or lesser than a standard one and he varies it until he is satisfied by the subjectivity of two. The difference between the variable stimuli and the standard one is recorded after each adjustment and the error is tabulated for a considerable series. At the end mean is calculated giving the average error which can be taken as the measure of sensitivity.

Method of constant stimulation

Method of Constant Stimulation- Instead of being presented in ascending or descending order, in the method of constant stimuli the levels of a certain property of the stimulus are not related from one trial to the next, but presented randomly. This prevents the subject from being able to predict the level of the next stimulus, and therefore reduces errors of habituation and expectation. For 'absolute thresholds' again the subject reports whether he or she is able to detect the stimulus. For 'difference thresholds' there has to be a constant comparison stimulus with each of the varied levels.

Monoamine neurotransmitters

Monoamine neurotransmitters (biogenetic amines): amino group and aromatic group connected by 2-carbon chain. Cognition/thinking/emotion/attention. Drugs o Subgroup: catecholamine's (benzene w/ 2 hydroxyl groups)

Insomnia

More serious form - insomnia (persistent trouble falling asleep or staying asleep). Various medications but taking them too long leads to dependence and tolerance. If you rely on medication, you become more habituated to it and need more to get the same effects. o Treatments can involve psychological training and lifestyle changes (exercising regularly or relaxing before bed). This is a better alternative to medication.

Morphology

Morphology: refers to the structure of words. Many words are composed of multiple building blocks called morphemes (smallest significant unit of meaning of a word). "A grammatical system, which puts meaningful elements together into 'words'. § In ASL, when hand shape and location are combined, they form morphemes.

Alzheimers Disease overview

Most common form is Alzheimer's Disease (AD). Exact cause unknown. Neurons die off over time and as neurons die off, cerebral cortex shrinks in size. § Alzheimer's disease is a progressive brain disorder that affects different aspects of memory over time.

Implosive therapy

Most of the time, systematic desensitization occurs gradually, but some therapists use a technique called implosive therapy. Here they throw Akira in a room with thousands of spiders with the idea that if they face their fear and survive, they will realize their fear is irrational. This technique often produces a lot of anxiety.

N1 stage of sleep

N1 (Stage 1): Dominated by theta waves. § Strange sensations - hypnagonic hallucinations, hearing or seeing things that aren't there ex. seeing flash of light, or someone calling your name, doorbell, etc. § Or the Tetris effect - if you play Tetris right before bed, you might see visual images of blocks during sleep. OR Ex. Been on a boat all day, you might still feel like you are on water even when on dry land § Also a feeling of falling - hypnic jerks- muscle twitches you sometimes experience as you fall asleep.

N2 stage of sleep

N2 (Stage 2) - deeper stage of sleep. People in N2 are harder to awaken. We see more theta waves, as well as sleep spindles and K-complexes. § Sleep spindles are a burst of rapid brain activity. Some researchers think that sleep spindles help inhibit certain perceptions so we maintain a tranquil state during sleep. Sleep spindles in some parts of brain associated with ability to sleep through loud noises. § K-complexes - supress cortical arousal and keep you asleep. Also help sleep-based memory consolidation (some memories are transferred to long term memory during sleep, particularly declarative/explicit memories). Even though they occur naturally, you can also make them occur by gently touching someone sleeping. "that touch was not threatening, stay asleep brain"

N3 stage of sleep

N3 (Stage 3) - slow wave sleep. Very difficult to awaken. Characterized by delta waves. Where sleep walking/talking in sleep happens. Declarative Memory consolidation. "regular breathing and regular slow brain waves"

Operationalization

Operationalization /operationalized - is the process of strictly defining variables into measurable factors. The process defines fuzzy concepts and allows them to be measured, empirically and quantitatively. Allows for the establishment of a causal relationship between variables. You want to manipulate the variable at varying levels for this to occur.

Nativist perspective on language

Nativist (innatist/Biological) perspective - children are born with ability to learn language. Associated with Noam Chomsky. Thought humans had a language acquisition device (LAD) that allowed them to learn language. Idea that this ability exists - all languages shared universal grammar (same basic elements like nouns, verb, etc.) So LAD enables child to pick up on understand/pick up on those types of words and their organization within a sentence for any language. o Goes along with idea there's a "critical period" (also called sensitive period), thought to be from birth to age 8-9, the period of time a child is most able to learn a language. After that, becomes harder because LAD only operates in that critical period. Once you start using it, LAD starts specializing for your language and unable to detect others. o Critical Period/Sensitive period definition: a point in early development that can have a significant influence on physiological or behavioral functioning in later life. o Investigates Transformationalist Grammar: refers to the different ways that words can be arranged to convey the same information. o Language is an innate ability

Neurochemical lesions

Neurochemical lesions - MUCH MORE PERCISE METHOD. Excitotoxic lesions (excitotoxins are chemicals that bind to glutamate receptors and cause influx of calcium that causes so much excitement that kills the neuron/ excites it to death. § One example is kainic acid. Destroys cell bodies but doesn't influence axons passing by. Don't severe connections like in knife cuts/radiofrequency lesions. § Also oxidopamine (6-hydroxydopamine) selectively destroys dopamine and NE neurons. Can model Parkinson's Disease. • Oxidopamine is very similar to dopamine. In reuptake, the presynaptic cell takes the oxiopamine back for recycling (normal mechanism) but then this neuron is destroyed. It destroys substantia niagra neurons completely.

Slow vs. fast receptors

Nocireceptors and thermoreceptors = slow § Position/Vibration/Touch (Mechanoreceptors) = Fast

What are norms reinforced by?

Norms are reinforced by sanctions rewards/punishments for behaviours in accord with or against norms respectively. § Positive sanction - a reward for conforming to norms. § Negative sanction - a punishment for violating norms. § Formal sanction - officially recognized and enforced. § Informal sanction - unofficially recognized and does not result in specific punishment. 192 o Formal norms are written down, informal norms are understood but less precise and have no specific punishments.

Norms

Norms are standards for what behaviours, set by groups of individuals, are acceptable, and which are not. Rules that dictate how person should behave around certain group of people - and are defined by that group and usually guided by some sort of moral standard or ethical value that is easily understood and internalized by all members of the group. Provide structure and standards of how people can behave.

Stress reaction and depression

One of major emotional responses of stress is depression (problem is anhedonia - inability to experience pleasure, so perceive more stressors). o Biological backing: The anterior cingulate (anterior part of the frontal cortex) stops responding to serotonin. (acronym: anterior cingulate responds to serotonin - Anterior designers are CINGLEate (single) and love SEXetonin....when they get stressed they stop having SEXetonin (stop responding to serotonin) o Learned helplessness - you learn from having control ripped out of hands that you don't have control, so lose ability to identify coping mechanisms because taking less control of outcome of your life. Cycle continues downward into major depression.

Spearman view of intelligence

One theory is there's 1 general intelligence. - Spearman o Evidence comes from fact people who score well on one test also tend to score well on other types of test, ex. Verbal and math skills. relative to other people, you tend to equal in both skills, although relative to oneself they might be different o Factor underlying these consistent abilities is called g factor (acronym: g = general intelligence)

Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning ALSO CALLED Instrumental Conditioning/ learning focuses on the relationship between behavior and their consequences, and how those in turn influence the behavior (classical conditioning no change in behavior) • In operant conditioning, behaviours have consequences - two types: reinforcement (increase a behavior) and punishment (decrease a behavior). Two types of reinforcement (positive and negative) and two types of punishment (positive and negative).

Basal forebrain function in attention

Orienting attention involves the capacity to change the focus of attention from one stimulus to another stimulus. This network is predominantly modulated by acetylcholine produced in the basal forebrain. o Basal forebrain: The basal forebrain is a collection of structures located to the front of and below the striatum. It includes the nucleus accumbens, nucleus basalis, and medial septal nuclei. These structures are important in the production of acetylcholine, which is then distributed widely throughout the brain. The basal forebrain is considered to be the major cholinergic output of the central nervous system (CNS).

Narcolepsy

Other end of spectrum is narcolepsy - can't help themselves from falling asleep. Various fits of sleepiness, going into REM sleep. Have fits (usually 5 minutes) that can occur any time. 1 in 2000. o Cause is not completely known. Indications that it is genetic, and linked to absence of alertness neurotransmitter. o Neurochemical interventions can cause someone to overcome narcolepsy potentially.

What is priming?

Other is priming - previous experiences influence current interpretation of an event. refers to the change in the response towards a stimulus due to a subconscious memory effect. Priming is an implicit memory effect in which exposure to one stimulus (i.e., perceptual pattern) influences the response to another stimulus.

Otolithic organs

Otolithic organs (utricle and saccule) help us to detect linear acceleration and head positioning. In these are CaCO3 (Calcium carbonate) crystals attached to hair cells in viscous gel. If we go from lying down to standing up, they move, and pull on hair cells, which triggers AP. These would not work very well w/o gravity! Buoyancy can have effects as well, particularly without visual cues on which way is up/down.

PET scan

PET (Positron Emission Tomography) scans - can't give us detail of structure, but can combine them with CAT scans and MRIs. Inject glucose into cells and see what areas of brain are more active at given point in time. (Active cells = use most glucose). More invasive. (acronym: PETs like glucose). Three-dimensional images of tracer concentration within the body are then constructed by computer analysis § PET require swallowing a radioactive tracer and shows activity, with low resolution.

Capsaicin

Pain also changes conformation of receptors - capsaicin binds the TrypV1 receptor in your tongue, and triggers the same response.

Parenting styles

Parenting styles can be authoritarian, permissive, or authoritative (best). § Authoritarian parenting: very strict, break will of child. Punishment. § Authoritative: also strict, consistent and loving but more pragmatic and issue-oriented and listen to children's arguments. Balance responsibility with rights of child. Discipline. § Permissive parenting/Indulgent parenting: non-directive and lenient. Few behavioral expectations for child.

Parietal lobe overview

Parietal lobe - somatosensory cortex (touch/pressure/pain), spatial manipulation (orient in 3D) o SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX: motor cortex (frontal) + Somatosensory cortex (parietal). Somatosensory cortex - Involved in receiving sensory signals from the skin

6 universal emotions

Paul Ekman found 6 main universal emotions which can be identified by everyone around the world - happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger and surprise. Consistent facial expressions across culture and easily recognizable. (acronym: 6 universal emotions are: FAHDSS) o Happiness: represented by, raised cheeks, elevated corners of mouth (sometimes: wrinkles on outer corner of the eyes, and teeth exposed) o Sadness: represented by, uplifted inner corner of eyebrows, downturned lips o Surprise: raised eyebrows, eyes open wise, jaws dropped/open mouth and teeth parted, horizontal wrinkles across forehead, upper lip raised, lower lid drawn down, o Fear: eyebrows raised and drawn together, wrinkles in middle of forehead, eyes open intense, mouth open, lips drawn back slightly. o Disgust: raised cheeks, wrinkled cheeks, eyebrows are lowered. o Anger: penetrating stare, eyelids tense, lips pressed together.

Reciprocal altruism

People are also more cooperative if they will interact with that person again in the future. Giving with expectation of future reward. § We feel more obliged to help someone else if they have helped us. § This is why charities send out small gifts. By helping you out now, they hope you respond by giving them a larger gift in the future.

Yerkes dodson model

People perform best when they are moderately aroused - the Yerkes-Dodson Law, a bell shaped curve. o The relationship between long term memory and fear follows a Yerkes-Dodson curve. o This means that extreme emotional responses usually impact memory negatively. o Moderate emotions, like mild fear, are associated with optimal memory recall. *Yerkes-Dodson law, which states that performance of a behavior tends to be negatively impacted at high and low levels of arousal. The optimal level of arousal is somewhere between the two, creating an upside-down U-shaped function when arousal is graphed on the x-axis and performance on the y-axis. In other words, with too little arousal, the individual won't be sufficiently interested in the task at hand, but with too much, her efforts may be impaired by anxiety. Her performance would be best if she attained a level of moderate arousal instead. For example, imagine a student who is about to perform at his first piano recital. If he is completely unaroused - falling asleep, for example - he clearly won't perform at his best. But if he is extremely aroused to the point of being agitated, nervous, and jumpy, his performance at the recital is also likely to suffer. Note that the optimal level of arousal can vary depending on the particular task or behavior. Highly cognitive actions, like playing chess, have lower optimal levels of arousal, while less cognitive and more physical actions, like playing basketball, typically require higher levels of arousal.

Peptide neurotransmitters

Peptide neurotransmitters: opiods (endorphin). Perception of pain

Permanent reflexes

Permanent reflexes: Important for newborns and also present throughout life § Breathing reflex - inhalation and exhalation § Eyeblink reflex - involuntary blinking of eye when something comes near head/bright light § Pupillary reflex - constrict pupil when bright light § Swallowing reflex - swallowing food happens automatically

Phonology

Phonology: phonetic component, actual sound of a language. "a sound system" § 40 phonemes (smallest unit of sound) in English language § Distinction between sounds: categorical perception. Children must learn to do this! • In ASL - hand movements and locations are analogous to sound in spoken language, they are classified as phonemes (smallest unit of language) § Acronym: Phone = sound

Phobias

Phobias: irrationally afraid of specific objects or specific situation. Focused anxiety o Can be debilitating (ex. Phobia of leaving your home) or can have a normal life (ex. Phobia of snakes) o Tend to form a pattern. People tend to have phobias of specific subtypes of things typically § Generally associated with fear of animals, insects, blood, heights, or enclosed spaces. These are common but there are more. § People get by by avoiding the source of their phobia o Social Phobias: Fear of different social situations. not as easy to avoid. § Ex; shyness, or intense fear of being scrutinized by other § People avoid talking to people or places where they might be judged or situations that might lead to embarrassment

What did piaget believe in?

Piaget argued children weren't miniature adults. Believed they actively construct their understanding of world as they grow. As their bodies grow, their minds grow as well.

Polygamy

Polygamy = more than one spouse (broader definition), polygyny = more than one wife, polyandry - woman has multiple husbands

Population validity

Population validity is a type of external validity which describes how well the sample used can be extrapolated to a population as a whole. Generalizability.

Positive vs. negative emotions side of the brain

Positive emotions evoke more activity on left side, (Acronym: Right handed people are positive, and remember contralateral brain set up) § Evidence: Videos of positive emotions = left hemisphere increased activity on EEG. More activity on left. § Evidence with children: Little kids playing in group - more social kids had more activity in left hemisphere, and isolated kids more activity in right. § More positive, joyful, interest, enthusiastic, cheerful people had more activity in left o Negative emotions evoke more activity on right side. § Videos of negative emotions = right hemisphere increased activity on EEG. More activity on right. § More timid, fearful, depressed had more activity in right § Isolative

Positive punishment

Positive punishment means something is added to decrease tendency something will occur again. Ex. giving a speeding ticket (adding) to decrease behavior of speeding (behavior).

Positive symptoms schizophrenia

Positive symptoms- "psychosis" - hallucinations, delusions (characteristic of psychotic disorders including schizophrenia) "perceptual abnormalities", disorganized speech/thinking, disorganized behavior, catatonic behavior § Catatonic schizophrenia: Catatonic schizophrenia is a type (or subtype) of schizophrenia that includes extremes of behavior. At one end of the extreme the patient cannot speak, move or respond - there is a dramatic reduction in activity where virtually all movement stops, as in a catatonic stupor.

Pragmatics

Pragmatics: Dependences of language on context and pre-existing knowledge. § Pragmatics are affected by prosody - the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices.

Primary and secondary appraisal of stress

Primary appraisal - assessing stress in present situation. 3 categories of response to this primary appraisal - irrelevant, benign/positive, or stressful/negative. If primary appraisal is negative (stressful), move forward with secondary appraisal. § Irrelevant - I see the stress but it's not important. § Benign/Positive - Ex: a dinosaur takes out the dog - the rabbits enemy § Stressful/Negative - the stressor is actually threatening. Ex. Rabbit having to run away from the dog. o Secondary appraisal - Evaluation of the individual's ability to cope with the situation. What is the individual's material preparedness to deal with stressor? Appraisal of harm, threat, and challenge (how to overcome it). § Harm: what damage has already been caused § Threat: How much damage could be caused § Challenge: How can the situation be overcome or conquered.

Primary vs. secondary deviance

Primary deviance - no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild and does not affect person's self-esteem. Individual is able to continue to behaves in same way without feeling immoral/wrong. Ex. All athletes of team use steroids, so the act of a player is not labeled as deviant and his actions go unnoticed. § Secondary deviance - more serious consequences, characterized by severe negative reaction that produces a stigmatizing label and results in more deviant behavior. Ex. Teammates of an athlete label players behavior as deviant and they exclude him from practices and call him a terrible player. Reaction will be he needs to continue to use steroids to be a better player. Reaction might be to use steroids more frequently or try more dangerous forms of drug. Repeated deviance gives him a reputation of deviance and the stigma of deviance stays with him for the rest of his career

Primary vs. secondary reinforcers

Primary reinforcers are innately satisfying/desirable, like food, water, sexual activity • Secondary reinforcers are those learned to be reinforcers, such as previously neutral stimuli. Requires a pairing or association with a primary reinforcer for it to have value. Ex. money

Psychoactive drugs

Psychoactive Drugs: Drugs that can alter our consciousness, and perceptions. They can alter our perception, increase our mood, calm us down, make us feel more alert, etc. Classified by action and effects they have on our bodies.

Cognitive behavioral therapy

Psychological treatment for drug treatment. Addresses both cognitive and behavioural components of addiction. Patients learn to recognize problematic thought patterns and develop more positive thought patterns and coping behaviors. They learn to anticipate problematic situations (ex. Going to a party where there is alcohol for an alcoholic) and to self-monitor for cravings so they can apply their coping strategies early. Used successfully for patients addicted to alcohol, cocaine, methamphetamine, and nicotine o Skills people learn in CBT are long-lasting! Last after therapy ends.

REM sleep

REM (rapid-eye movement) stage. Eyes move rapidly beneath your eyelids but most of your other muscles are paralyzed. Most dreaming occurs during REM sleep, so paralysation inhibits actions. Most important for memory consolidation. Formation of episodic memories. Combination of alpha, beta, and dyssynchronous waves, similar to beta waves seen when awake. Acronym: BATS-Drink Blood (beta alpha theta sleepspindle/K-complex delta beta) o Sometimes called paradoxical sleep, because brain is active and awake but body prevents it from doing anything o Waking up during REM sleep allows you to remember your dream o REM sleep more before you wake up o More N3 sleep right as you go to bed o Consolidate procedural memories

Fixed ratio

Ration = RATION = AMOUNT (of responses). FIXED = Consistent ex. car salesman gets bonus every 5 cars he sells. Reinforcement only occurs after a fixed # of responses. Contingent on # of cars sold regardless of how long it takes (so the salesman will probably try to sell as fast as possible). Jobs that demand someone to work in a fast paced manner typically pay workers on fixed-ratio (ex. Factory workers, fruit pickers)

Dependency theory

Reaction to Modernization theory. Uses idea of Core + Periphery countries to look at inequalities between countries. Periphery countries (3rd world countries) export resources to Core countries (first world). This is not because they are in an earlier stage of development but because they have been integrated into the world economy as an undeveloped countries. They don't have means to become a developed nation. They will remain poor and dependent on wealthier nations.

Aphasia types

Receptive aphasia is a fluent aphasia. A person will be able to read or hear; however, she will be unable to understand the meaning of the communication. = Wernicke's aphasia is a fluent aphasia. The person will be able to produce language; however, the words will come out as 'word salad' or fluently connected speech that lacks meaning. § A global aphasia is often the result of damage to a large portion of the left hemisphere. This person will have difficulty producing speech, understanding speech, and will likely be unable to read or write. § Broca's aphasia is a non-fluent form of aphasia. A person with Broca's aphasia will be unable to produce speech, but will be able to understand verbal speech.

Reciprocal determinism

Reciprocal determinism is the interaction between a person's behaviours, personal factors (motivation/cognition), and environment are all determined by one another

Validity

Refers to the extent to which a measure reflects the phenomenon being studied. Should not use proxy measurements (should be direct). Should measure construct directly.

Somatosensation

Refers to the process that conveys information regarding the body surface and its interaction with the environment.

Conditioned stimulus and conditioned response

Refrigerator door (neutral stimulus) becomes the conditioned stimuli, because it elicits a conditioned response (excitement). The excitement was previously a UCR elicited by UCS (the carrot).

Reliability

Reliability is one of the most important elements of test quality. It has to do with the consistency, or reproducibility, or an examinee's performance on the test. For example, if you were to administer a test with high reliability to an examinee on two occasions, you would be very likely to reach the same conclusions about the examinee's performance both times. A test with poor reliability, on the other hand, might result in very different scores for the examinee across the two test administrations. If a test yields inconsistent scores, it may be unethical to take any substantive actions on the basis of the test. There are several methods for computing test reliability including test-retest reliability, parallel forms reliability, decision consistency, internal consistency, and interrater reliability. For many criterion-referenced tests decision consistency is often an appropriate choice.

Partial report technique

Report one part of a whole field in cued recall. The partial report condition required participants to identify a subset of the characters from the visual display using cued recall. The cue was a tone which sounded at various time intervals (~50 ms) following the offset of the stimulus. The frequency of the tone (high, medium, or low) indicated which set of characters within the display were to be reported. Due to the fact that participants did not know which row would be cued for recall, performance in the partial report condition can be regarded as a random sample of an observer's memory for the entire display. This type of sampling revealed that immediately after stimulus offset, participants could recall most letters (9 out of 12 letters) in a given row suggesting that 75% of the entire visual display was accessible to memory

Representativeness heuristic

Representativeness heuristic- a heuristic where people look for the most representative answer, and look to match prototype - a given concept to what is typical/representative; tendency to make decisions about actions or events based upon our standard representations of those events. o Ex: Linda is outspoken and very bright, majored in philosophy and as a student she participated in antinuclear demonstrations and organizations that fought discrimination. What is more likely? Linda is a Feminist bank teller or a bank teller. Most people will say she is more like a feminist bank teller even if they don't know feminists or anyone like Linda. She fits you prototype of how a feminist would act (she is representative of a feminist). o Can lead to a conjunction fallacy: which means co-occurrence of two instances is more likely than a single one. People tend to think the probability of 2 events occurring together is higher than the probability of one alone (ex. Linda being a bank teller and feminist is greater than just being a bank teller. However statistically speaking there are more bank tellers than feminist bank tellers so it's more likely she is just a bank teller than a feminist + bank teller, which your instincts might be telling you). o When a decision's probability is judged based on how similar or representative the aspect is to a specific person, group, or population and the degree that it reflects the features of the population as a whole, this is described as the use of a representativeness heuristic.

Stress effect on reproduction

Reproduction huge energy expense in women, so this gets shut down during stress response. o In women - FSH/LH and then estrogen/progesterone can be inhibited which reduce reproductive abilities o Boys have a reduced testosterone as well, but precise levels of testosterone not required so never really reduced to the point of infertility. Impotence /erectile dysfunction also often caused by stress because your blood vessels are being constricted (less blood flow to penis) and allows more blood to remain in core. § Impotence usually due to stress in the US!

Variable interval

Responses are reinforced after a variable amount of time has passed, regardless on amount Ex. bonus can come randomly on different days.

Rote rehearsal

Say the same thing over and over remember. least effective technique. Ex. Remembering someone's name is bob that you just met, and you can't after a while. Doesn't require you to process the information.

Mass society theory

Scepticism about groups that were involved in social movement, said social movements would only form for people seeking refuge from main society. Ex. Nazism, Fascism, Stalinism (social movements in 20th century that destroyed millions of lives). [People who joined social movements were dysfunctional, irrational, and dangerous]. Theory did not persist. People only join to satisfy a psychological need for involvement.

Spotlight model of attention.

Selective attention - takes info from 5 senses, but don't pay attention to everything. o Aware of things on an unconscious level - ex. Priming, where exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus, even if we haven't been consciously paying attention to it. o We're primed to respond to our name. Why it's a strong prime for pulling our attention.

Selective attention

Selective attention is the ability to maintain attention while being presented with masking or interfering stimuli. o 2 types of cues that can direct our attention - exogenous and endogenous § Exogenous /External Cues: Don't have to tell ourselves to look for them in order for them to capture our attention Ex. Bright colors, loud noises, "pop-out effect") • Exogenous attention is driven by bottom-up or external events, i.e. pop-out. § Endogenous Cues / Internal Cues - Require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it Ex. A mouse arrow, would need internal arrow of what an arrow is to follow it and to know it's not just a random line. • Endogenous attention is driven by top-down or internal events, i.e. the cocktail effect. • Cocktail party effect - ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd. Or when someone calls your name (endogenous cue: meaning of name draws attention)

Self esteem

Self-esteem is the respect and regard one has for oneself o Self worth vs self esteem: greater than all of those things". It is a deep knowing that I am of value, that I am loveable, necessary to this life, and of incomprehensible worth. It is possible to feel "high self-esteem," or in other words, to think I'm good at something, yet still not feel convinced that I am loveable and worthy. Self-esteem doesn't last or "work" without self-worth.

Self referencing

Self-referencing - think about new info and how it relates to you personally. Ex: Imagine learning something about history, you then learn the information by talking to the general.

Sensation

Sensation requires a physical stimulus to be converted into a neural impulse.

Non-associative learning

Sensitization and Habituation are the two forms of non-associative learning - learning where no punishment/rewarding is occurring with increase/decrease of response. You are simply noticing how response changes in relationship to the same stimuli over time.

Sensorimotor stage

Sensorimotor Stage (sensory = senses - children gather information about the world via sight, smell, taste, hearing, touch etc. + motor = active, as you develop how to use senses you learn to move your body around). Main task/awareness develops is object permanence: objects exist even if they can't see them.

Thalamus

Sensory functions, because all senses have pathways that travel to the thalamus. Also higher functions of brain such as cognition and emotion.

Sleep apnea

Sleep apnea - 1 in 20 people. People with it are often unaware. Stop breathing while sleeping - body realizes you're not getting enough oxygen, wake up just long enough to gasp for air and fall back asleep without realizing. Can happen 100x/night! o Don't get enough N3 (Stage 3; slow-wave) sleep. o Snoring is an indication, or fatigue in morning after full night of sleep.

Sleep walking

Sleepwalking/sleep talking - mostly genetic, occur during N3 (stage 3; slow wave) and are harmless. Occur more often in children (partly because they have more N3 stage sleep than adults).

Which sense does not synapse in the thalamus?

Smell/taste

Social capital

Social Capital: the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively. § Social Networks provide a valuable resource. Social capital is believed to result in various health benefits for the individual, including reductions in the health risk of chronic inflammation. Partly related to social support, social capital emphasize the tangible resources provided by network members (whereas social support tends to focus on emotional resources). Both social support and social capital suggest that social contracts will be beneficial to individual health and well-being. Social Network -> Health

Social cognitive theory

Social Cognitive Theory (originally called social learning theory) is theory of behaviour change that emphasizes interactions between people and their environment. Unlike behaviourism (where environment controls us entirely), cognition is also important. o Social factors, observational learning, and environmental factors (ex. opinions/attitudes of friends and family) can influence your beliefs.

Social facts

Social facts are ways of thinking and acting formed by society that existed before any one individual and will still exist after any individual is dead. Unique objects that can't be influenced and have a coercive effect over individual only noticed when we resist. Ex. the law. Others are moral regulations, religious fates, and social currents like suicide/birth rate (one person committing suicide has no effect of suicide on society). Facet of society itself and a necessary structure.

Social potency trait

Social potency trait - the degree to which a person assumes leadership roles and mastery of roles in social situations. Common in twins reared separately.

Cohort

Sociology looks at different age cohorts (groups), specifically at age groups/generations, because they all live through the same events in certain time.

Olfaction

Specialized part of olfactory epithelium in animals - the accessory olfactory epithelium. It sends projections to the accessory olfactory bulb which then sends signals to the brain. o Within the accessory olfactory epithelium, you have a structure called the vomeronasal system. o In vomeronasal system, there are basal cells and apical cells. They have receptors at tips. o Molecule will come in and activate receptor on basal cell/apical cell here. Basal cell sends axon through accessory olfactory bulb to glomerulus, then mitral or tufted cell which eventually goes to the amygdala (part of the brain) o Amygdala is involved with emotion, aggression, mating etc. In temporal lobe, also involved in memory/decision making, emotional reactions o Signal transduction is where signal binds to receptor, which binds to GPCR. Depolarization. Signal goes to brain. o In humans have vomeronasal organ, but no accessory olfactory bulb. As a result, we rely very little on pheromones.

Preoperational stage

Stage 2: 2-6/7 years old (approx.) Preoperational stage (operational = mental operations like imagining things") - When children are going to develop/engage in pretend play. Start to use symbols to represent things. Words symbolize objects and children start understanding symbols. Also, very egocentric - only concerned about themselves, no empathy (they don't understand that other people have a different point of view than they do) (ex. A child might not understand that sitting in front of you while you watch TV will prevent you from seeing TV, since they can see). Stage of "I can't see you, you can't see me"

Formal operational

Stage 4: 12+ years old - Formal operational stage - reason abstract consequences, and reason consequences; moral reasoning. At this point children are reasoning more like adults and they continue to develop that overtime. § In the formal operational stage, a child will be able to think logically about abstract ideas, hypothetical situations, and use abstract thinking to solve novel problems. § Acronym: Stage 4 - "4 is a door" and Formal Operations: picture a very wide door and behind that door are "four males" with excellent abs (for abstract thinking, which is possible at this stage).

Stereotyping

Stereotyping is attributing a certain thought/cognition to a group of individuals, and overgeneralizing; prevalent but oversimplified idea or set of ideas about a certain group. This stereotyped group typically consists of people with similar characteristics (gender, race, sexual orientation, etc.). Stereotypes may sometimes be accurate, but since they are generalizations, even the most "harmless" stereotypes tend to obscure the nuances between individuals in the stereotyped group. In other instances, stereotypes are harmful outright, such as stereotypes that paint groups of people as unintelligent or lazy. A stereotyped individual who is aware of the stereotype may intentionally try to avoid fulfilling it, which can lead to stress and anxiety. Ironically, this sometimes causes the individual to unintentionally fulfill the stereotype, making it an example of a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Subcallosal cingulate

The recognition of facial expressions associated with sadness have been linked to the

Stimulants

Stimulants are drugs that excite your CNS, increase HR/BP, alertness, more awake, more energetic. Can cause people to feel glittery. Examples include: o Caffeine, Amphetamines (Adderall), Methamphetamines (Meth), MDMA (Molly/Ecstasy), Cocaine, Nicotine, THC (Marijuana/Cannabis - also a hallucinogen/depressant) o Cocaine - can be used as a anesthetic/ o Vasodilate o Effect is similar to stress, increased glucose metabolism in brain. § Cocaine: blocks dopamine reuptake. § Amphetamines both block dopamine reuptake and stimulate presynaptic dopamine release. § Caffeine inhibits the enzyme that breaks down cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate). § Nicotine acts on acetylcholine § THC works on anandamide. Increase dopamine and GABA activity. o Stimulants and depressants are functionally opposite but don't actually work on the same things at a neurochemical level. Drinking coffee after drinking alcohol won't make you sober; it will just make you an alert drunk person. o Vasoconstrictor

Subliminal stimuli

Stimuli below the absolute threshold of sensation.

Fight or flight response

Stressors like threats and dangers trigger our fight or flight system - the nervous system (sympathetic nervous system) (part of the ANS) and the endocrine response. o Sympathetic Response: Flight or flight: § This triggers our "get out of danger mode" § See increased heart rate and increased respiration (more energy + oxygen in blood + more CO2 expelled), increased peripheral vasoconstriction (push more blood to our core area/vital organs that it is hard to live without. We take blood out of the extremities like our legs/arms which are less essential for our survival), and turn off digestion/immune/ovulation (less crucial). o Endocrine response: § Adrenal glands - • The adrenal medulla release catecholamine's (epinephrine/adrenaline and norepinephrine/noradrenaline). Catecholamine's are tyrosine derivatives. Developed from ectoderm. • The adrenal cortex release glucocorticoid (cortisol) - steroid hormone redistributes glucose energy in body and suppressing immune system. Developed by endoderm. Acronym: CORTisol is released by the CORTex • Play a role in development of muscles/bones.

Strong linguistic determinism

Strong Linguistic Determinism (aka Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis): Language determines thought completely. People understand their world through language, and language in turn shapes how we experience the world. • Ex. Native tribe called Hopi without grammatical tense in language so they couldn't think about time in same way. • The linguistic relativity hypothesis (Whorfian) asserts that cognition and perception are determined by language one speaks. • Whorfian theory believes linguistic structure determines how and about what an individual is able to think.

Ethnography

Study of particular people and places. It is a more of an approach than a single research method in that it generally combines several research methods including interviews, observation, and physical trace measures. Good ethnography truly captures a sense of the place and peoples studied.

Subcortical cerebrum

Subcortical cerebral nuclei that are located deep part of the cerebrum

Panic disorders

Sudden burst of sheer panic and intense fear. o "Panic attacks" - sudden, intense. Might be in response to any stimuli § Heart palpitations or sweating or chest pain or shortness of breath. o Panic attacks are in response to situations that typically don't warrant that level of stress. § There are situations where a high level of panicking is appropriate ex. If you are being attacked by someone, someone breaks into your house. o There are physical symptoms as well.

Ciliary body

Suspensory ligaments: attached to a ciliary muscle. These two things together form the ciliary body, what secrets the aqueous humor.

Syntax

Syntax: how words are put together in sentences. Syntax refers to the way words are placed together to form language. Syntax describes how words are arranged to create grammatically correct sentences. P600 response bigger with bigger violation. § In ASL, this would mean combining multiple signs, gestures, and body movements to communicate effectively. § All languages have some form of syntax.

Systematic desensitization

Systematic Desensitization was developed by Joseph Wolpe and is a process that involvers teaching the client to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation. It works great with phobias. If Akira has a horrific phobia of spiders, the therapist will teach Akira relaxation techniques (or give Akira a magical feel good drug). Slowly spiders are introduced to Akira. First maybe just a picture, then one in a cage, then one outside of a cage etc... The goal is to get Akira to associate spiders with the drugs or relaxation techniques. Eventually, seeing a spider will cause Akira to relax (in theory).

Temporal monotocity

Temporal monotonicity assumes that adding pain at the end of a painful experience (in this case extending the painful experience) will worsen the retrospective evaluation of the experienced pain and adding pleasure at the end will enhance the retrospective evaluation.

The Mcgurk effect

The McGurk effect is a categorical change in auditory perception that occurs whenever the auditory stimulus does not match the visual stimulus during speech perception.

Thomas theorem

The Thomas theorem is a theory of sociology which was formulated in 1928 by W.I. Thomas and D. S. Thomas (1899-1977): " If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences. " In other words, the interpretation of a situation causes the action. (acronym: if Thomas the train is defined as real, it becomes real in consequence)

Atypical antipsychotics

The atypical antipsychotics (AAP; also known as second generation antipsychotics (SGAs)) are a group of antipsychotic drugs (antipsychotic drugs in general are also known as major tranquilisers). Block serotonin as well. Less likely to cause extrapyramidal motor control disability (negative symptoms increase) . these have increased risk of stroke, cardiac death, blood clot and diabetes.

Behaviorist theory

The behaviorist theory says personality is the result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment - it's deterministic, in that people begin as blank states and the environment completely determines their behavior/personalities. Do not take thoughts and feelings into account. Environment > BEHAVIOR • Focuses on observable and measurable behaviour, rather than mental/emotional. o The psychoanalytic theory would be the most opposite of this theory (focuses on mental behavior). • 1. Skinner - strict behaviourist, associated with concept of operant conditioning. Uses rewards/punishment to increase/decrease behavior, respectively. • 2. Pavlov - associated with classical conditioning, ex. Pavlov dog experiment. Places a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to trigger an involuntary response. Ex. ringing a bell in presence of food causes dog to start salivating. o People have consistent behavior patterns because we have specific response tendencies, but these can change, and that's why our personality develops over our entire lifespan. Constantly evolving and changing.

Biological theory

The biologic theory suggests important components of personality are inherited, or determined in part by our genes.

diathesis-stress model

The diathesis-stress model is a psychological theory that attempts to explain behavior as a predispositional vulnerability together with stress from life experiences. The term diathesis derives from the Greek term for disposition, or vulnerability, and it can take the form of genetic, psychological, biological, or situational factors.[1] A large range of individual differences exist between persons in their vulnerability to the development of disorder.

The fusiform gyrus

The fusiform gyrus is a part of the visual system in the brain, and plays a role in high level visual processing and recognition. (part of temporal and occipital lobe)

Taste buds and papillae

The gustatory system consists of taste receptor cells in taste buds. Taste buds, in turn, are contained in structures called papillae.

Humanistic theory

The humanistic theory (developed by Carl Rogers) focuses on healthy personality development, and humans are seen as inherently good. The most basic motive of all people is the actualizing tendency (self-actualization), innate drive to maintain and enhance oneself to full potential. It also says that people have free will. Person will grow towards self-actualization as long as there are no obstacles.

The insula and basal ganglia

The insula and basal ganglia are most often associated with disgust. (acronym: Parkinson's disease (basal ganglia) people never feel disgusted and are INSULATED) o The insula is the brain structure most associated with disgust. The anterior insula receives signals from the senses of olfaction and gustation (mouth/nose are in front of body), while the posterior insula receives signals from audition and somatosensation (rear of body)

Gestalt Law of past experiences

The law of past experience implies that under some circumstances visual stimuli are categorized according to past experience. If two objects tend to be observed within close proximity, or small temporal intervals, the objects are more likely to be perceived together. For example, the English language contains 26 letters that are grouped to form words using a set of rules. If an individual reads an English word they have never seen, they use the law of past experience to interpret the letters "L" and "I" as two letters beside each other, rather than using the law of closure to combine the letters and interpret the object as an uppercase U

Absolute threshold of sensation

The minimum intensity of stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. Absolute threshold can be influenced by a # of factors. Not a fixed unchanging number. Particularly, it is influenced by a variety of Psychological states.

How does a molecule bind to a receptor and cause an AP?

The molecule binds to the GPCR receptor on odor molecule > GPCR on olfactory epithelia > G-protein dissociates and causes a cascade of events inside the cell > G protein binds to ion channel which allows cells outside the cell to come inside > opens and triggers an AP > goes to cribriform plate > glomerulus > activate mitral/tufted cell > synapse to brain. Idea: 100 of different olfactory epithelial each sensitive to one particular molecule. They all send projections to one glomerulus respective to their specialization. Then they synapse onto a mitral/tufted cell which signals to the brain. Smell (olfaction) and taste (gustation) doesn't synapse on to thalamus and hence are both ipsilateral while vision/hearing/touch are contralateral.

Muscle stretch reflex

The muscle stretch reflex (happens on same side [afferent & efferent] - causes a muscle to contact after it's stretched, as a protective response. Ex. Knee jerk response - involuntary response of leg kicking out. The hammer hits the tendon right below the knee cap, which hooks onto the lower leg bone on one end, and a large group of upper muscles on the other. Muscles are called muscle spindles. o Somatosensory neurons (afferent) in muscle spindles form excitatory synapse in spinal cord with another neuron in the spinal cord, which sends axon out back to same muscle that was stretched, and excite skeletal muscle cells to contract - lower motor neurons (efferent). o Muscle on underside of leg are inhibited when the topside of leg is excited. Necessary for reflex to occur.

incidence

The number or rate of new cases of a particular condition during a specific time.

paraventricular nucleus

The paraventricular nucleus (PVN, PVA, or PVH) is a neuronal nucleus in the hypothalamus. It contains groups of neurons that can be activated by stressful and/or physiological changes. Many PVN neurons project directly to the posterior pituitary where they release oxytocin or vasopressin into the general circulation. Other PVN neurons control various anterior pituitary functions, while still others directly regulate appetite and autonomic functions in the brainstem and spinal cord.

Neonatal reflexes

These disappear as a baby ages. Some are survival reflexes (help us live) while others might be evolutionary holdovers or precursors. Help doctors assess if something is not developing correctly.

Tonic reflex

Tonic Neck Reflex (aka fencing posture)- how when a baby's head is turned, the arm on that side straightens while the arm on the side that is opposite bends. Disappears at 6 months of age.

Adolescence

Transition period between childhood and adulthood.

Trichromatic theory

Trichromatic theory of color vision, three types of cones. • RED (60%), GREEN (30%), BLUE (10%). • Remember, red objects reflect red, green objects reflect green, and blue objects reflect blue. § If object reflects red à red light hits red cone à fire axon potential à brain is like OH RED!! ),

Sensory memory

Two components based on type of input. You have iconic (memory for what you see, lasts half a second) and echoic (what you hear, lasts 3-4 seconds) memory. Defined by time.

info on study statistics

Two variables are correlated if an increase (or decrease) in one variable predicts an increase or decrease in the other. A positive correlation occurs when an increase in one variable predicts an increase in the other, and a negative correlation occurs when an increase in one variable predicts a decrease in the other. Typically, correlations are linear, which means that a line of best fit can be drawn to express the statistical trend. Another way of thinking about a linear correlation is that a fixed increase in one variable predicts a fixed increase/decrease in the other variable. However, nonlinear relationships can also exist. An example is gravity, which is proportional to the inverse square of the distance between two objects. The strength of a correlation is usually expressed as r, which can range from −1 to 1. An r value of 0 expresses no correlation whatsoever, while r values of −1 and 1 correspond to perfect negative and positive correlations, respectively. The strength of intermediate r values must be interpreted in context; an r value of 0.5 would be considered fairly strong for social sciences research, with many potential confounding variables, but fairly weak for the physical sciences. The related value of R2 expresses how well the regression line (the line of best fit) captures the data point, with 1 indicating a perfect correspondence between the regression line and the data and 0 indicating no correspondence. Statistical significance is expressed using p-values, which express the likelihood of a certain result being due to chance given a certain null hypothesis, which usually refers to the absence of a relationship between the variables of interest. A p-value <0.05 indicates that there is a <5% chance of the observed relationship being due to chance, and this is the most commonly used threshold for deeming a result statistically significant. The power of a study refers to the ability of a study design to detect a real statistically significant effect, and it is primarily affected by the size of the study (larger samples have more power) and the size of the effect (larger effects are easier to identify). However, we must keep in mind that correlation does not automatically indicate causation. For example, the rise in global temperatures from the 1700s to now shows a strong negative correlation with the presence of pirates in the Caribbean, although we know that global warming did not cause pirates to disappear.

Type I and II errors

Type I error = false positive, type II error = false negative

Universalism language

Universalism - thought determines language completely. Your thought dictates language. § A Universalist believes that human cognition shapes language and language is created from a set of universal semantic distinctions and constructions shape human language. § Ex: The New Guinea people only think about dark and light. If they had other thoughts, they would develop words for them.

Obstructive sleep apnea

Upper Airways- obstruction from mouth to the lungs § Obstructive Sleep Apnea - when airways are obstructed. Soft tissues around our neck can relax at night and potentially cause obstruction of airflow for a short period of time. Gets worse as people get older. • At nighttime, this causes snoring or gasping or pauses in breathing. • At daytime, people are tired/sleepy and unrefreshed • Diagnosed by: Sleep study (a polysomnography) and looking for 15+ "apneas"/hour (Apnea - lack of airflow).

Urban renewal and gentrification

Urban renewal - revamping old parts of cities to become better. But can lead to gentrification, which means when redone they target a wealthier community which increases property value. People there before are pushed out because they can't afford property anymore and it leads to great inequality in cities.

Top down

Uses background knowledge influences perception. Ex. Where's waldo o Theory driven. Perception influenced by our expectation o Deductive Reasoning o ex. creating a cube when it's not there! Not always correct.

Sclera

Usually absorbs by the time the light gets to this. The whites of the eye, thick fibrous tissue that covers posterior 5/6th of eyeball (cornea covers the anterior 1/6). Attachment point for muscles. Extra layer of protection and structure of eyeball. Lined with the conjunctiva.

Dopamine

VTA and substantia nigra o Next to VTA in the brainstem (overlapping) sends axons release dopamine to a few nuclei deep in the cerebral hemisphere (all parts of the basal ganglia). These brainstem (midbrain neuron collection that is projecting dopamine is called the substantia nigra). It is actually projecting dopamine to another part of the basal ganglia called the striatum. If this can't happen - this is what's called Parkinson's disease. § Dopaminergic neurons also in the hypothalamus that send dopamine to Pituitary gland to control release of one of the hormones in the pituitary gland. This is all in the CNS in the brain and the spinal cord. *neurotransmitter used in reward and motor pathways. It is particularly associated with Parkinson's disease and the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra.

Variable ratio

Variable = VARIATION. Reinforcement is delivered after average # of right responses has occurred. Similar to fixed-ratio, except # changes for each reward. Just fixed-ratio but varies. Average # of correct responses is the same. Ex. bonus is paid after selling 5 cars for first bonus, 3 for second, 7 for third, 6, then 4 etc. Average is 5. Lots of uncertainty. Car salesman can't predict when he will get a bonus. Another example is slot machine. You don't know if the next pull will be the jackpot (because it makes it very difficult to walk away from something). • VR is most effective (acronym: produces a Very-Rapid response)

Social identity theory

We can use the social identity theory to develop self-concept further - has 2 parts: personal identity and social identity o Personal Identity: things unique to each person like personality traits o Social Identity: includes the groups you belong too in our community. o Mental process involved in how we categorize ourselves/use social-identity theory. Process involved 3 steps. This process is used when we categorize ourselves, others, and look at the relationship between personal and social identities.

Do we modify behavior or cognition for cognitive dissonance?

We modify our cognitions to reduce cognitive discomfort, we don't change our behavior.

Fundamental attribution error

We term this the fundamental attribution error - over attribution of others behavior to internal causes. Problematic when looking at complex patients (ex. Obese patients who can't exercise because they are struggling with poverty) - we under-recognize the situational and social problems, and healthcare barriers they can have, blaming them for their own problems.

Weak linguistic determinism

Weak Linguistic Determinism: (relativism) language influences thought. It makes it easier/more common for us to think in certain ways based on how our language is structured. • Linguistic Relativism - There are differences in language between cultures. • Example: The girl pushes the boy. If you imagine that statement with girl on the left, your native language probably reads from left to right like English. If you drew it with the girl on the right, your native language probably reads right to left like Hebrew. Right to left vs. left to right language influences what direction you imagine girl pushing boy. • Weak Linguistic Determinism believes linguistic structure influences but does not determine the context of everyday encounters.

Wernicke's aphasia

Wernicke's aphasia (also called fluent aphasia /receptive aphasia) - is different pattern of behavior - words they make don't make any sense. They also can't understand what others say. Temporal lobe region damaged. § Wernicke's aphasia is characterized by difficulty understanding spoken words and sentences, as well as difficulty producing sentences that make sense. § Persons with Wernicke's aphasia can produce many words and they often speak using grammatically correct sentences with normal rate and prosody. However, often what they say doesn't make a lot of sense or they pepper their sentences with non-existent or irrelevant words. They may fail to realize that they are using the wrong words or using a nonexistent word and often they are not fully aware that what they say doesn't make sense. § "Word Salad" = lacking meaning of produced speech which is normal (prosody)

Attitude

What is attitude? Attitude - A learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. To evaluate people, issues, events, objects. (We think of attitude as a moody teenager, or someone having certain attitude towards a certain topic).

Broca's aphasia

When Broca's is damaged, people have trouble producing speech. Broca's aphasia (also called non-fluent aphasia). Acronym: Broca's aphasia = Broken speech. Damage to the language production centers of the brain. Produce broken/halted speech. Frontal lobe region damaged. § Broca's aphasia is characterized by apraxia, a disorder of motor planning, which causes problems producing speech.

PTSD

When a person have lingering memories and nightmares about a past event that it impact them in daily life (haunting/bad memories/repeated nightmares) Includes physical symptoms like insomnia o Have a trigger that leads to the disorder. § Ex. Soldiers coming home from the war, survivors of terrible accidents, violent/sexual assault victims, natural disaster victims. o Described as PTSD if symptoms persist for over 4 weeks after an event. § Ex. A normal person might have a nightmare after something terrifying but these nightmares stop/become infrequent after some time. For someone with PTSD they don't stop.

Extinctive burst

When an animal no longer receives regular reinforcement, its original behavior will sometimes spike (meaning increase dramatically) - this is known as an extinction burst.

Race

a socially defined category based on physical differences between groups of people.

Conduction aphasia

When this is damaged, conduction aphasia (also called associative aphasia) - ability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted. Makes it difficult for people with this to repeat things even when they understand what is being said. Associated with damage to the arcuate fasciculus.

Reality principle

When we become mature, you need to sacrifice short term reward and replace it with long term gratification. Not always going to get what you want and the outside world might tolerate your behavior. You have to play by the roles of the real world and might have to compromise. "Play your role in the real world" o Ex. taking candy may get you in trouble.

External validity

Whether results of the study can be generalized to other situations and other people. To protect external validity, sample must be completely random, and all situational variables must be tightly controlled.

Corpus callosum and split brain patients

With perfectly functioning hemispheres, you might have trouble naming objects. This can occur if the connection between hemispheres is severed (if you sever the corpus callosum - which is a thick band of nerve fibers which connects the two hemispheres). This disrupts communication. Creates a split-brain patient - a patient with two part of the brain not connected. This used to be done for a treatment for seizures, but the side defect was with language.

Working memory

Working memory (Short-Term Memory): is the sensory information you actually process. Consists of what you are thinking about at the moment. Capacity is Magic number 7 . Working memory can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of info at a time. Why phone #s are 7 digits long. Does vary based on how complicated the stimuli are, how old you are. Different components to process input. Working memory is memory that is stored while it is held in attention.

World systems theory

World-Systems Theory - importance of world as a unit rather than individual countries. Divides world into 3 countries: core, periphery, and semi-periphery. o Core = Western Europe and US. Strong Central Government with enough tax to support it. Economically diversified, industrialized, and independent of outside control. Strong middle and working class. Focus on higher scope production of material goods rather than raw materials. o Periphery = Latin America and Africa. Relatively weak government, greatly influenced by and depend on core countries and transnational corporations. Economy focused on narrow economic activity (1 type usually) like extracting raw material. High percentage of poor/uneducated people and strong upper class that controls most of economy. Huge inequalities. o Semi-periphery = India and Brazil, middle-ground between core and periphery. Not dominant in international trade but diversified/developed economy. These semi-periphery countries can come either from periphery countries moving up to core countries or core countries declining towards periphery status.

Sensitization

You could become sensitized, the same stimuli there is an increased response. Opposite of habituated. § Sensitization is a non-associative learning process in which repeated administrations of a stimulus results in the progressive amplification of a response. Sensitization often is characterized by an enhancement of response to a whole class of stimuli in addition to the one that is repeated. For example, repetition of a painful stimulus may make one more responsive to a loud noise.

Stranger anxiety onset

Young Babies are happy to be passed around, but then around 8 months: stranger anxiety (the fear of strangers) sets in.

Labeling theory

a behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant. Depends on what's acceptable in that society.

Means end analysis

a heuristic where we analyze main problem and break it down into smaller problems. We then attack the problem that has the most difference between current state and goal state. Solve Biggest à Smallest Problem. Current State à Goal State. Ex. Planning a trip to a new country, biggest problem would be to get to the new country - so you book a plane ticket to a new country.

Oligarchy

a small group of people having control of a country, organization, or institution.

Cannabis

a mix of all. marijuana has qualities of a stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogen. Marijuana, which is the name used for the leaves and flowers of the plants Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica, has an active chemical called tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) which affects certain receptors in the brain. Additionally, THC increases the production of GABA and dopamine. Physiologically, THC can cause an increase in appetite, dry mouth, fatigue, eye redness, lowered blood pressure, and increased heart rate.

Synthestasia

a neurological phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway.

Neutral stimuli

a neutral stimuli: a stimuli you can sense by sight, taste, or hearing it that typically doesn't not produce the reflex that is being tested. In this example, the sound of the refrigerator door can be heard, but it does not naturally cause excitement. It is something that had to be learned.

conflict theory

a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups that are competing for limited resources; idea that large unequal groups are at odds with each other and will conflict until resolution (which is an equal society); emphasizes the role of coercion and power in producing social order. It sees society as fragmented into groups that compete for social and economic resources. Social order is maintained by those with the most power, usually those with the greatest political, economic, and social capital.

Cognitive signs of schizophrenia

abnormalities of attention, organization, planning abilities § disorganized thinking, slow thinking, difficulty understanding, poor concentration, poor memory, difficulty expressing thought, difficulty integrating thoughts, feelings and behavior

Validity

accuracy. Items that are high in validity accurately address the construct. "ACTUALLY GETTING AN SNSWER FOR SOMETHING YOU WISH TO MEAUSRE"

Relative deprivation theory

actions of groups oppressed/deprived of rights that others in society enjoy. Ex. Civil Rights Movement, a response to oppression to people of color in US.

Acetycholine (Ach)

activates muscle contraction at the neuromuscular junction. It is used in all autonomic outputs from the brain to autonomic ganglia, and in the parasympathetic nervous system for post-ganglionic connections. PNS

Confirmation bias

actively seek out only confirming facts; tendency that people have to focus on information that is in agreement with the beliefs they already have, rather than the information that is contrary to those beliefs. Ex. Only read stories about how wonderful candidate was.

Life course theory

aging is a social, psychological, and biological process that begins from time you born till time you die. a holistic perspective that calls attention to developmental processes and other experiences across a person's life

Self concept

aka Self Identity - is how someone thinks-about/perceives/evaluates themselves, aka self-awareness. o Derived from self-esteem and self-efficacy (talked about in next video) o Development of self-concept has 2 parts: first, an existential self and then a categorical self.

Modernization theory

all countries follow similar path of development from traditional to modern society. With some help traditional countries can develop similarly to today's developed countries did. o Looks at internal social dynamics as country adapts to new technologies o Looks at political and social changes that occur during adaptation as well.

Regression

all variables examined are continuous o Linear regression - degree of dependence between one variable and another. Data is on scatter plot, one-way influence of one variable on another.

Correlation

all variables examined are continuous. Unlike regression makes no assumptions about which variable is influencing the other. o If correlation coefficient is 1, perfect. If -1, opposite. 0, random.

Directed attention

allows attention to be focused sustainably on a single task, in this case a single orientation of the Necker cube.

Learned helplessness

an overwhelming sense that a goal cannot be accomplished- believe stressor cannot be controlled; when tone is sounded dogs receive electric shock, but could press button to stop the shock. Group 2 had no way to turn off the shocks. o After, dogs placed in new environment and had 2 sides separated by low partition in middle. Given electric shocks, but dogs in group 1 learned to escape shock by jumping over barrier. Dogs in group 2 didn't try to escape the shock. o Therefore, uncontrollable bad events can lead to a perceived lack of control, which leads to general helpless behavior. • Increasing people's control over very small things, like TV remote can increase the health and well-being of people in nursing homes.

Phobia

another example of a biological influence on learning. We are more likely to develop phobias to something that impacted our ancestors rather than things that might be dangerous to us in the real world. Very likely to have a phobia against heights, snakes, spider but are unlikely to have a phobia to a car or electric outlet (even though you are more likely to be hurt by these factors today than the phobias that most people have). It used to be evolutionary advantageous to have the adaptive value to avoid food that made you sick, spiders, snakes, heights in the past - so they are passed on.

Anthropomorphism

anthropomorphism - attributing human characteristics to non-human animals. We can interpret and describe meaning to action of animals but we can't be certain if we are correct about these interpretations because we can't speak to the animals. ex. pet sleeping with you at night and you can assume that they love you but maybe they are just there because of your body heat.

Vigilance attention and signal detection

are processes that attempt to detect a signal or target of interest. This allows responses to be primed and quick actions undertaken in response to the signal or target of interest, i.e. a pothole in the road is detected and avoidance actions are undertaken. o Vigilance (like active search, selective attention, and divided attention) is a type of attention. These types of attention are often described as main functions rather than subfunctions of attention.

Posterior chamber

area behind the iris to the back of lens; also filled with aqueous humor.

Norepinephrine

area in Pons called the locus coeruleus that releases it to cerebral cortex. Also ANS, but less so than Ach.

social constructionism

asserts that people develop understandings and knowledge of the world through interactions with other people, and that the mediating force in this interaction is primarily language. Thus, under social constructionism ideas about gender are not inherent in the nature of reality itself, but are socially constructed and transmitted every day through countless language-based interactions between members of society; hinges on social interaction

Semantic

association of meaning with a word. Semantics are the broad meanings of each word, phrase, sentence, or text. N400 response, bigger with bigger violation.

Divided attention

attention is a limited resource. Can't split it very well. Doing 2x at once you end up switching between tasks rather than doing them simultaneously. Divided attention occurs when an individual must perform two tasks which require attention, simultaneously.

Continuous reinforcement

becomes less reinforcing so there is a need for ulterior reinforcement. Continuous reinforcement occurs on a 1:1 ratio - this means that for each behavior, there is a reward. Discovered by B. F. Skinner via reward schedules with animals but apply to animals as well.

Taboos

behaviors completely forbidden/wrong in any circumstance, and violation results in consequences far more extreme than a more. Often punishable by law (with serious legal consequences) and result in severe disgust by members of community. Considered very immoral behavior. Ex. Incest (sexual relationships between family members) and cannibalism (eating human flesh)

Normalcy bias

causes people to underestimate both the possibility of a disaster occurring and its possible effects.

Riots

characterized by large # of people who engage in dangerous behavior, such as vandalism, violence, or other crimes. Riots are very chaotic and cost cities millions in damages. Individuals who act case aside societal norms and behave in very destructive ways, and violate laws indiscriminately (ruin property, steal, etc). Often seen as a collective act of defiance/disapproval, and can be result of a perceived issue (ex. sports game outcome, frustration of working/living conditions or conflicts between races/religions). Cause of act can be legitimate, the group acts out in ways that are illegal/damaging to society as a whole.

Palmer grasp reflex

children closes their hands on anything that comes in their palm. Disappears at 3-4 months, then child grasps things voluntarily

Communism

classless, moneyless community where all property is owned by community.

Categorical self

comes once baby realizes they're separate (comes after existential self)- becoming aware that even though we're separate/distinct objects/beings, we also exist in the world with others. And each of these objects/entities has properties. Ex. age and gender are the first categories first babies learn, then skills and size. Then, as we grow older, compare ourselves with others - traits, comparisons, careers (these are more developed categories)

T-test

compares mean values of a continuous variable (dependent) between 2 categories/groups, ex. comparing mean of a group to a specific value. Can also compare means of 2 groups. o Two-tailed = possibility of relationship in both directions, one-tailed = one direction.

Skeptical perspective

critical of globalization, considers it as being regionalized instead of globalized. Third world countries aren't being integrated into global economy with same benefits as first world countries. Current economy is not leading towards global capitalism. Transnational corporations still tied to their home countries and national borders remain important. CRTIICAL.

Strength of a signal is variable d', and c is strategy

d': Strength § hit > miss (when there is a strong signal), § miss > hit (weak signal) o c: strategy § 2 strategies • Conservative strategy - always say no unless 100% sure signal is present. Bad thing is might get some misses. • Or liberal strategy- always say yes, even if get false alarms.

Longitudinal study

data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time, can take years or decades. A longitudinal study follows variables over a long period of time to look for correlations.

mortality

death rate within given population in a certain amount of time

Binocular cue

depth

cues taken into account when perceptually organizing

depth, form, motion, constancy

Generalized anxiety disorders

describes a person whose general state is tense and uneasy to a degree it influences their life (don't eat well or are sleep deprived for example). This anxiety must last for 6 months or more. o Identifiable physical symptoms: eyelids, twitching eyelids, trembling, fidgeting o Population it affects: women (2/3rd are women) o Source of anxiety: unclear o Can't identify the cause of their stress so they can't deal with it or identify it/cause o Can lead to high blood pressure and other bodily symptoms o Usually have also depression (not part of this disorder but can go along with it) o Continuous high level of anxiety

Demand characteristics

describes how participants change behavior to match expectations of experimenter. Conformed because that's what experimenter wanted them to do.

Obedience

describes how we follow orders/obey authority. No cognitive component. Ex. "I'm just following orders" o Can be positive. Ex: Firefighter tells you to not enter a building because it's on fire - you would probably acknowledge authority and obey. o Can be negative: ex. normal people committed such negative acts during the Holocaust due to obedience.

Content validity

describes the extent that the test measures the construct accurately. Is the estimate of how much a measure represents every single element of a construct. Content validity, or the extent to which an assessment measures the entire construct fully. "Does the test measure what its supposed too?" Content validity is a measure of comprehensiveness and examines whether or not a test covers every single element of a construct.

Multiple Approach-Avoidance

describes the internal mental debate (sometimes called a conflict) that weighs the pros and cons of differing situations that have both good and bad elements. The name comes from visualizing yourself approaching and avoiding different aspects of situations at the same time.

Parallel processing

detect/focus all information (color, form, motion) at same time.

Discrimination

discrimination involves ACTION - the irrational, often negative treatment of a person or group as a result of prejudice. When this action is undertaken by an individual independent of larger organizations, it is termed individual discrimination. (For example, an employer who holds the prejudice that women are unintelligent may discriminate by refusing to hire them.) Often, though, discrimination is written into the laws, policies, and unwritten procedures of society. This is termed institutional discrimination. One example would be a mortgage policy that, due to its requirements, makes it particularly difficult for ethnic minorities to obtain loans.

Aphasia

disorder that involves language. Aphasia is a communication disorder that causes problems with language, like speaking, listening reading, and writing.

Pathological defense mechanisms

distort reality o Denial - person pretends something hasn't happened. Most important defense mechanism. (acronym: PATHOLOGICAL liar/denier) § Ex; if someone has breast cancer, they just deny the fact that they do.

Trauma/Stressor-Related Disorders

distress/disability form occurs after stressful/traumatic events. Leads to mood, emotional, and behavioral abnormalities. § Ex: Post-traumatic stress disorder, common after wars, or other traumatic experiences (natural disasters/rape)

Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders

distress/disability form the abnormal use of substances that affect mental function. Include alcohol, caffeine, cannabis, hallucinogens, inhalants, opioids, sedatives, hypnotics, anxiolytics, stimulants, tobacco, others. Can cause mood abnormalities, anxiety symptoms, or psychosis. Also includes gambling,

Anxiety disorders

distress/disability from abnormal worry/fear. Some are specific to certain stimuli like phobias, while others are not specific to certain stimuli, including generalized anxiety disorder. Panic disorder involves panic attacks (intense anxiety) § Social anxiety disorder a false cognition leads to a fear of humiliation, embarrassment, rejection, negative evaluation, or rejection by others. • Selective mutism is an anxiety disorder characterized by difficulty speaking in social situations, but the individual is developmentally normative in terms of their language and communication ability. § General Anxiety Disorder: Individuals with generalized anxiety disorder experience excessive and persistent worry or anxiety regarding many different spheres of life that cause distress, impairment, or maladaptive behavior.

Dissociative Disorders

distress/disability from abnormalities of identity or memory. § Ex: Multiple personalities, people who have lost memories for part of their lives.

Depressive disorders

distress/disability from abnormally negative mood. Mood refers to long-term emotional state. (Mood is not emotion, mood is more long term and not necessarily related to events). Mood is also subjective experience person has of their experience. § Mood (how someone feels such as sad) becomes affect (how mood is displayed to others - person crying). Hopelessness, loss of enjoyment in activities. High risk of suicide.

Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders

distress/disability from behaviors that are unacceptably disruptive or impulsive for someone's culture. Inability to control inappropriate behaviours

Feeding and Eating Disorders

distress/disability from behavioural abnormalities related to food, § ex. Anorexia nervosa (takes in insufficient amounts of food), bulimia nervosa (binge eating then purging (induced vomiting)).

Paraphilic Disorders

distress/disability from having sexual arousal to unusual stimuli for a person's culture. Must cause distress/disability or if causes harm to another person, particularly people or a child who does not have decision making capacity for proper consent.

Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

distress/disability from obsessions or compulsions. § Obsessions - thoughts that occur involuntarily, often unwelcome. Occur repeatedly. § Compulsions are activities that one must do and are often related to an obsession. § Ex. obsession with hands being dirty, compulsion to wash them many times a day.

Elimination Disorders

distress/disability from urination/defecation at inappropriate times or places. § Ex. Urinary accidents

Personality disorder

distress/disability related to personality. Involves long-term mental and behavioural features that are characteristic of a person, huge spectrum of personality types considered acceptable from a culture. Personality disorders involve ones outside those accepted of societal norms. Cluster A odd/eccentric (weird), Cluster B intense emotional/relationship problems (wild), Cluster C is anxious/avoidant/obsessive (worried)

Stress effect on immune function

divided into innate vs adaptive o Causes inflammation - acute stress can lead to overuse of immune system. Can attack our own body. Good example is arthritis (joint become overly inflamed) o Chronic stress: stop activating immune system response and it suppresses you. Doesn't make you sick, but makes you more susceptible to illness. o Studies: § 40% slower healing rate for puncture wounds delivered to grad students right before exam compared to same wounds inflicted during summer vacation § Increased susceptibility to virus to stressful individuals. 20% increase in development of cold

Ecological validity

do the conditions of the study mimic those of the real world. If they don't, we can only make limited conclusions. A line in lab (in this experiment) is not same as conformity in the real world.

Transformationalist perspective

doesn't have specific cause or outcome. Believe national governments are changing, perhaps becoming less important but difficult to explain change so simply. They see the world order is changing. Just a new world order is being developing. Many factors that influence change of world patterns but outcome unknown. CHANGING

Amphetamine

dopamine reuptake blocked

Escape learning

escape an unpleasant stimulus once it has occurred (the stimuli has an element of surprise usually). The response is conditioned (of escaping) in response to a stimuli and then stimuli goes away. (negative reinforcement). Typically, the response would not occur. Fire in a building, and you have to find a way to get out. § Escape conditioning occurs when the animal learns to perform an operant to terminate an ongoing, aversive stimulus. It is a "get me out of here" or "shut this off" reaction, aimed at escape from pain or annoyance. The behavior that produces escape is negatively reinforced (reinforced by the elimination of the unpleasant stimulus).

Acronym

each of the letter of a popular word you know stands for the first letters of a set of words you need to remember. [ex. HOMES to remember Great lakes of the US - Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie and Superior]

Behaviorists on language

empiricist, believe language is just conditioned behavior. Nativists - rationalist, language must be innate. Materialist - look at what happens in brain when people think/speak/write.

Pluralism

encourages racial and ethnic variation.

Internal validity

extent to which a causal conclusion based on a study is warranted. Confounding factors often impact the internal validity of an experiment.

Confounding variable

external variables affecting both the independent and dependent variables. changes in dependent variable may be due to existence of or variations in a third variable o A confounding variable is a third variable in an experiment that could provide an alternative explanation to the relationship between the variables of interest.

fMRI

fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)- same image from MRI but can look at which structures are active! Neurons that are active require oxygen. Measuring relative amounts of oxygenated vs deoxygenated blood in the brain - we can figure out what brain areas are being used for a certain task. fMRI is more popular. (acronym: f =functional = tells us function about specific region of brain) § MRI registers magnetic changes via radio waves and fMRI is a calculated composite of several MRI images registering the changes (shows activity as colored areas over MRI). MRIs are slow but offer high resolution of soft tissue, such as the brain.

Combined structure and function methods

fMRI and PET scan

agents of socialization

factors that drive and have the most influence over our socialization; change throughout our lives; social institutions, including families and schools, that help to shape individuals' basic beliefs, values, behavior, attitudes; When we are children, the primary drivers of socialization are our parents and family life. When we are teenagers, our social circles have a strong influence on our socialization. By the time we are adults, the workplace, as well as media, can have a strong effect on how we develop our habits.

Vitreous chamber

filled with vitreous humour, a jelly-like substance to provide pressure to eyeball and gives nutrients to inside of eyeball.

Innate learning

fixed action patterns that are "hard wired"

Ethology

focuses on the observation of animal behaviours, call these overt behaviours (not necessarily obvious, just means observable).

Symbolic Interactionism

focuses on the symbolic meaning that people develop and rely upon in the process of social interactions; a theoretical perspective in which society is viewed as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another; society is a product of everyday interactions of individuals; people give diff meanings to the same things

Cohort study

following a subset of population over a lifetime. A cohort is a group of people who share a common characteristic (ex. people born and exposed to same pollutant/drug/etc.) in period of time. o A retrospective cohort design looks back at events that have already taken place. o A prospective cohort design follows a group of individuals over a period of time.

monocular cues

form, motion, constancy

Prevalence

fraction of a population having a specific disease at a given time

Histamine

from Hypothalamus sends to cerebral cortex.

Dopamine 4 receptor

gene are more likely to be thrill seekers.

Cost signaling

giving signals to others that person who's giving has resources. People have increased trust in those they know have helped others in the past. Signals that the person is open to cooperation.

Method of loci

good for remembering things in order, link info to locations. Tie information you need to remember to certain stops along a route that you already know. Ex. Bananas raining down on bus stop you get on, next stop there are oranges being thrown at, and the final stop you have a cat eating blueberries. Again, this method also ties imagery.

Clinical trial

highly controlled interventional studies

Social facilitation

how would presence of others affect your behavior? Would it Help or hinder your performance? According to social facilitation, most dominant response for particular behavior would be shown. Dominant response refers to response most likely to occur. In the example of a presentation, if you practice inside and out, presence of others will lead you to perform well. If you haven't practiced well, presence of others will make you perform more poorly (exacerbate your mistakes). Social facilitation occurs when individuals perform better in front of an audience.

Framing effects

how you present the decision can affect decisions as well. o Ex. Disease that will kill 600 people, option A is 100% chance exactly 200 people saved, option B 30% chance all 600 saved and 2/3rd chance 0 will be saved. Which option do you pick? OR A. 100% chance 400 die B. 1/3 chance no one dies and 2/3 chance 600 die. o In first example, most people will pick A. In second, most pick B. o If choice is framed based on how many people will be saved, you more likely pick it. If choice framed based on how many people die and have an option that no one dies. You chose an option based on how its framed despite the choices being the exact same.

Gestalt law of common fate

humans perceive visual elements that move in the same speed and/or direction as parts of a single stimulus. A common example of this is a flock of birds. (dynamic)

Cyclothymic disorder

hypomania + dysthymia

Ego depletion

idea that self-control is a limited resource. If you use a lot of it, it can get used up, and less of it to use in the future which can affect a later unrelated task that also requires self-control. This is true because self-control requires lots of energy and focus. o Demonstrated by experiment that those who resisted eating cookies ended up giving up sooner on another unrelated task that also requires self-control than those who didn't resist. o Muscle is used as a metaphor for self-control. Can be strengthened with practice, but can also be fatigued/depleted with overuse. o If you work in a task that requires lots of self-control, make sure you get a lot of sleep/rest afterwards. o Training self-control in one area can improve it in other areas. Ex. Exercise if you don't want too.

Internalization

idea/belief/behaviour has been integrated into our own values. We conform to the belief privately. Stronger than other types of conformity. § Internalization refers to the normal process where children learn and absorb (internalize) knowledge and rules about the world from social context, rather than through being specifically told. This is how children learn how to alter their behavior in response to the situation that they are in (home, school, church, playground, etc.) § Ex: start going to gym to comply with friends, but then might internalize that exercise is good for you and continue the behavior

strain theory of deviance (from social norms)

if person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, may become frustrated/strained and turn to deviance. Individuals in a group are pushed to attain certain goals, but may not have means or legitimate ways to achieve success. Society values a certain behavior but the opportunity to be successful is not made available to everyone. The lack of equal opportunity results in increased access to illegal means to achieve success; traces the origins of deviance to the tensions that are caused by the gap between societal goals and the means people have available to achieve said goals.

Stable cognitive abilities with aging

implicit memory (aka procedural memories ex. riding a bike), and recognition memory (being able to pick something out of a list)

Agraphia

inability to write. Acronym: G think Gel pen.

Ca2+

indicator of chelation. This positively charged ion is extremely versatile. A rise in this ion, postsynaptically, in dendritic spines is essential for activity-dependent plasticity. This ion is an important second messenger in the neuron. Abnormal amounts of signaling in this ion has been implicated in disease states such as Huntington's, Alzheimer's and schizophrenia.

Swimming reflex

infants in water move legs/arms in a swimming motion. Involuntarily hold breaths. Allows a small infant to swim/float for a short period of time. Disappears at 6 months of age.

Schizophrenia spectrum disorders

involves distress/disability from psychosis. Psychosis involves delusions (fixed false beliefs not explainable by experiences/culture ex. Ones thoughts are controlled by someone else or "I have superpowers"), hallucinations (sensory perceptions without any stimuli ex. Hearing voices w/o stimuli). With psychosis disorganized thinking can occur and negative symptoms (decreased emotional expression, decreased motivation, decreased social behavior). Schizophrenia has many of these features while other psychosis disorders have some.

Ethnographic

involves observing social interactions in real social settings. o For example: studying the experience of role strain through observation can increase our understanding of how physicians cope with the challenging demands of extending life with interventions while accepting the reality of death. o Ethnography (from Greek ἔθνος ethnos "folk, people, nation" and γράφω grapho "I write") is the systematic study of people and cultures.

Motivational interviewing

involves working with patient to find intrinsic motivation to change. Very focus, goal directed therapy. Few sessions and can be doorway for patient to engage in another treatment (like CBT or group meetings).

Aversive conditioning

is a behavioral conditioning technique in which noxious stimuli are associated with undesirable or unwanted behavior that is to be modified or abolished.

Face validity

is a measure of how representative a research project is 'at face value,' and whether it appears to be a good project the degree to which a lay person who takes a cursory look at an experiment agrees that an experimenter is measuring what they say they are measuring.

Autobiographical memory

is a memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual's life, based on a combination of episodic (personal experiences and specific objects, people and events experienced at particular time and place) and semantic (general knowledge and facts about the world) memory.

Prosopagnosia

is a neurological disorder characterized by the inability to recognize familiar people based on facial information alone. (acronym: prosopagnosia = PEOPLE)

Opponent process

is a psychological and neurological model that accounts for a wide range of behaviors, including color vision.

Cross tolerance

is a reduction in the efficacy or responsiveness to a novel drug due to a common CNS target.

Reconstructive bias

is a type of bias related to memory. Most research on memories suggests that our memories of the past are not as accurate as we think, especially when we are remembering times of high stress.

Beck's cognitive theory

is a type of psychotherapy developed by American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck. CT is one of the therapeutic approaches within the larger group of cognitive behavioral therapies (CBT) and was first expounded by Beck in the 1960s. Cognitive therapy is based on the cognitive model, which states that thoughts, feelings and behavior are all connected, and that individuals can move toward overcoming difficulties and meeting their goals by identifying and changing unhelpful or inaccurate thinking, problematic behavior, and distressing emotional responses. This involves the individual working collaboratively with the therapist to develop skills for testing and modifying beliefs, identifying distorted thinking, relating to others in different ways, and changing behavior

Ethnicity

is also socially defined, not defined by physical characteristics like race, but these groups are defined by shared language, religion, nationality, history, of some other cultural factor. Less statistically defined than racial groups and definitions can change over time.

Haloperidol

is an antipsychotic medication used to treat schizophrenia.

The Flynn effect

is an observation regarding the growth of IQ from one generation to the next.

Orbitofrontal cortex

is associated with the processing of both positively and negatively balanced emotions. When activity is lowered in the right hemisphere, euphoria is experienced. Conversely, when activity is lowered in the left hemisphere, depression is reported.

Culture

is way of life shared by group of individuals - the knowledge, beliefs and values that bind a society together. Very diverse, can include artwork, language, and literature. o Ways of of thinking, behaving, and feeling connected to a shared knowledge of a society and allow members of the society to gain meaning from object and ideas around them.

False consensus

is when we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not.

Projection bias

is when we assume other share the same beliefs we do.

gestalt law of similarity

items similar to one another grouped together; states that objects that are similar to each other in terms of color or other properties will be grouped together

gestalt law of proximity

items that are close together are grouped together

Xenocentrism

judging another culture as superior to one's own culture

Hippocampus

key role in forming new memories. Convert STM (Short term memory)> LTM (long term memory). If destroyed, still have old memories intact, just can't make new ones (anterograde amnesia).

Latent learning

learned behavior is not expressed until required

socialization

lifelong process through which people inherit, develop, and disseminate social norms, customs, and belief systems. It is through socialization that we develop the habits and skills necessary for successfully living in society.

gestalt law of continuity

lines are seen as following smoothest possible path; we are less likely to group elements w/ sharp abrupt directional changes as being one object. Resting objects that are not continuing dynamic movement (static)

Prosody

located on right hemisphere. Concerned with larger units of speech like syllables. Contribute to linguistic functions such as intonation, tone, stress, and rhythm. Prosody may reflect various features of the speaker or the utterance: the emotional state of the speaker; the form of the utterance (statement, question, or command); the presence of irony or sarcasm; emphasis, contrast, and focus; or other elements of language that may not be encoded by grammar or by choice of vocabulary.

Cross sectional study

look at a group of different people at one moment in time

Basal ganglia

major role in motor functions, don't have UMNs but help motor areas to perform proper movements. Also cognition + emotion.

Self serving bias

mechanism of preserving our self-esteem, more common in individualistic cultures. If we succeed it's due to our internal/personal qualities, but if we fail no hit on self-esteem because likely to do with things outside of our control. o Individualistic societies tend to demonstrate a great degree of self-serving bias. More important in individual societies because of their emphasis on achievements and success.

heuristics

mental shortcuts or simplified iterations of principles that can help us make decisions, but can also lead to poor judgment; Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that often lead to a solution (but not always)

Counterbalancing

method to control for any effect that the order of presenting stimuli might have on the dependent variable.

Algorithm

methodical approach. A logical step-by-step procedure of trying solutions till you hit the right one. Not efficient, but are guaranteed to find the correct solution eventually. Ex. Methodically approach all possible solutions of 8 Character password.

Glutamate

most common excitatory neurotransmitter (90% of neurons are responsive to it) Reticular activating system (required for consciousness - midbrain structures) has diffuse projection of glutamate to the cerebral cortex. [GLU is exciting] o Glutamate is associated with increased cortical arousal.

motion

motion parallax/ relative motion: things farther away seem to move slower, things closer seem to move faster

distress

negative type of stress that builds over time and is bad for your body. It happens when you perceive a situation to be threatening to you some way (physically or emotionally) and your body becomes primed to respond to the threat; unpleasant/ counterproductive stress

schemata (schema)

networks of information that allow certain other kinds of information to be transmitted more easily

Non-adapting neuron

neuron consistency fires at a constant rate

Fast adapting neuron

neuron fires as soon as stimulus start...then stops firing. Starts again when stimulus stops).

Slow adapting neuron

neuron fires in beginning of stimulus and calms down after awhile

neustress

neutral type of stress. Neustress happens when you are exposed to something stressful, but it doesn't actively or directly affect you. For example, news about a natural disaster on the other side of the world may be very stressful, but your body doesn't perceive that stress as good or bad for you so you aren't affected.

Free recall

no cues in recalling. Better recalling first items on a list (primacy effect) as well as last few (recency effect). Harder to remember things in the middle of a list. Recency effect is not as strong if there is an interpretation after list is called. Curve is called the serial position curve/effect: the overall tendency to recall first few items well, last few items well, and middle items not so great.

Schemas: Assimilation vs. Accommodation

o Assimilation - how we describe new information/experiences in terms of our current understanding/schemas. Acronym: assimilation has "ss" - same schema o Accommodation - how we later adjust our schemas to incorporate new experiences -to remember. Acronym: accommodation has "cc" for change or create

Mores

norms based on some moral value/belief (dependent on group's values of right and wrong). Generally produce strong feelings. Usually a strong reaction if more is violated. Ex. Truthfulness (tell the truth because it's the right thing to do, when public figures are not truthful it causes outrage because the figure has done something wrong). Don't have serious consequences. Acronym: MOREALS § Ex: friends takes of shirt who has painted baseball team's logo on chest. You feel strongly about modesty so you think its wrong that your friend took of shirt and is exposing skin. No serious consequences of your friend's behavior other than your disapproval.

Laws

norms still based on right and wrong, but have formal/consistent consequences. Ex. Public figure lies under oath, done something morally wrong but also violate laws of court. There is a punishment for the crime. Violation can be simple (J-walking) or severe (murder). There is not always outrage when a law is violated - depends on the law. § Ex: friends takes of all clothes and decides to go streaking across the field. Broken law and you will receive a punishment. Perhaps not outrage or disgust - crowd might be laughing or cheering.

Frustration aggression hypothesis

not personality based, but more emotional. o Ex. Someone getting frustrated can lead to prejudice. When someone's frustrated, frustrations turn to aggressive impulses, and direct that towards the employer. But you may lose your job, so you keep bottling up the aggression - and rechanneled it somewhere else. Often towards minorities. o Display aggression towards other people - scapegoating. Often seen in times of economic hardship.

Acetylcholine

nuclei (Basilis and septal nuclei ) in frontal lobe [frontal lobe= start so A] that releases it to cerebral cortex, Released for LMNs, and the autonomic nervous system.

Neglect syndrome

occurs when damage to the brain causes a change or loss in the capacity of the spatial dimension of divided attention.

Neurotic defense mechanisms

o (acronym: 3RID) o Intellectualization - taking intellectual aspects and detaching to the emotional aspects of the situation. Separating emotion from ideas o Rationalization - making yourself believe you were not on fault - avoids blame to oneself. Can have false logic or false reasoning. o Regression - acting like a baby in some situations ex. throwing temper tantrum, start whining. o Repression - unconscious process where thoughts pushed down to unconscious o Displacement - person anger at someone but displaces it to someone else (a safer target). § Ex: mother who is mad at her husband gets mad at her child o Reaction Formation - unconscious feelings that make person to complete opposite. § Ex. A mother who bears an unwanted child, for example, may react to her feelings of guilt for not wanting the child by becoming extremely solicitous and overprotective to convince both the child and herself that she is a good mother. § Ex: a person who doesn't like immigrants might start to volunteer at an immigration center

How to improve self control?

o 1) Change environment - make object of your temptation harder to get while making better/healthier options easier to get. ex. Moving unhealthy snacks to more difficult to reach shelf than the healthy snacks. [This surprisingly head a great effect] make good choices easier to reach. o 2) Operant conditioning - reinforcing good behaviours with rewards. Positive/negative reinforcement or punishment. Ex. Watch an episode on Netflix for each segment of dissertation completed (positive reinforcement) or preventing a beeping on your computer as you typed into MSWord (negative reinforcement) to increase work to get a reward/avoid an annoying stimuli. Punishment - turn off internet to decrease behavior of watching Netflix. Reward good behavior + Punish bad behavior o 3) Classical conditioning - ex. eat healthy snack every time you crave chocolate and over time you might start craving healthy snacks. Refocus desires to something more in line of long term goals. o 4) Deprivation? - Removing the object of temptation completely is problematic. Can make you want it more, and leads to ego depletion (takes lot of effort to deprive of yourself something completely). This is probably why those on strict diets are likely to fall to temptation.

Freud theory

o 1) Id at the bottom, it's the unconscious part. It develops after birth and demands immediate gratification. o 2) Ego - part of conscious and unconscious. Involved in our perceptions, thoughts, and judgements, and seeks long-term gratification. o 3) Superego - develops around age of 4, and it's our moral conscience. Also part of conscious and unconscious minds.

Informative vs. normative influence

o 1) Informative influence: look to group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume the group is correct. § Ex: You have never interacted with a dog before and you are uncertain about how to train a dog and you are uncertain if it's an appropriate method to use a shock color. You look for the group for guidance and you assume they are correct. o 2) Normative influence: even if you know what's right, do what group's negative actions to to avoid social rejection. § Ex: you are an expert group trainer and you know it's easier to train the dog with treats than treat it with a shock color. Even though you know training the dog with a shock color is incorrect you may still decide to go along with the group to avoid being a social outcast. You fear social rejection that can come with disagreement with the group, so you conform to even a wrongful act.

General adaption syndrome

o 1. Alarm phase - stress reaction kicks in, heart races, resources mobilized - "Ready for fight or flight" o 2. Resistance - fleeing, huddling, temperature elevated, BP high, breathing rate high, body bathed in cortisol. o 3. Exhaustion - if resistance isn't followed by recovery, our body's stress resources are depleted, our tissues become damaged and our dampened immunity can make us susceptible to illness. Negative impact of long term stress. • We are equipped to short-term stress. But if we have them daily, but there will be serious negative consequences if they are maintained daily/long term.

Prejudice components

o 1. Component#1: Cognition (Stereotype)- Fundamental underlying thought, overgeneralized belief (cognition) o 2. Component#2: Affect - prejudice carries an emotional component o Component #3: Discrimination (tendency for Prejudice to lead to behavior) - capacity to carry out a behavior and act on prejudice (ABC model)

Neurodevelopmental disorders

o 1. Neurodevelopmental Disorders - involve distress/disability due to abnormality in development of nervous system. Includes intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorders, and ADHD. § Autism spectrum disorder is characterized by a variety of issues related to social and communication abilities, and first symptoms of the disorder typically include delayed language development and unusual communication patterns. § Specific Learning Disabilities: All specific types removed from DSM V • The specific learning disorder dyslexia (reading difficulty) is characterized by problems with accurate or fluent word recognition, poor decoding, and poor spelling abilities. (Not Included in DSMV) • Dyscalculia - mathematics learning disorder. Removed • Dysgraphia - writing disorder - removed. § Developmental coordination disorder is characterized by difficulties in acquiring and coordinating motor movements.

Cluster C personality disorder

o Avoidant: inhibited, feel inadequate and try to avoid putting themselves in a situation where they can be criticized. [self-explanatory] o Dependent: submissive and clingy. Ex. Those who stay in physically abusive relationships, [imagine: Dependent Debby clings and is submissive to her husband Dan) o Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorders (OCPD). (do not mix with OCD). Very focused on life being ordered and things being perfect and for them being in control to an extent where it annoys other people. It is a personality! On the other hand, in OCD the focus is on order, things in control, having to wash hands.

Explicit memory

o Explicit Memory /Declarative are facts/events you can clearly/explicitly describe. Explicit memory is a type of long term memory that focuses on recalling previous experiences and information. Explicit memory can be divided into two categories, episodic and semantic. § Anytime you take vocabulary test or state capitals you're using semantic memory (has to do with words/facts). So remembering simple facts like meanings of words. § Second type is episodic memory (event-related memories...like your last birthday party.).

Mead's stages

o 1. Preparatory stage -interaction through imitation, ex. play with pots and pans when parents are cooking. As they grow older, focus more on communication with others instead of simple imitation, and get practice using symbols (gestures/words). Can't take perspective of others. o 2. Play stage - more aware of social relationships, reflected in children's tendency to pretend play as others like firefighters, doctors, etc. Mentally assuming perspective of others and acting based on their perceived point of view. Focused on role-taking: mentally taking perspective of another person and acting on that perceived viewpoint. § Way beyond immigration. They create social-interactions (not just mimicking) § Children consider attitudes, belief, and behaviors of individuals closest to them. o 3. Game stage - Start to understand attitudes/beliefs/behavior of "generalized other" (society as a whole). With this comes whole new understanding of society. Children start to realize that people perform in ways not only on what they personally believe but what also in the ways society more broadly expects of them and they understand that people can take on multiple roles (people can be more than just moms, doctors, or teachers - they can be multiple things @ once). Also realize others have opinions about them and those perceptions others have are based on how they act and what they say. They begin to be influenced by these perceptions and are concerned by reactions of others to what they do. But don't care about reactions of everyone, only significant others (people with important relationships to individual, ex. parents/teachers/close peers).

4 main types of stressors

o 1. Significant life changes - changes in your personal life. Ex. Death of loved one, marriage, loss of job, having children, leaving home, etc. o 2. Catastrophic events - A large scale event that everyone considers threatening. Ex. wars, natural disasters etc. o 3. Daily hassles - Seemingly minor events/hassles of daily life Ex. long store lines, forgetting car keys, aggravating roommates, email spam, car engine burns out, finding dog poop on your carpet, and tire punctured, expectations not communicated well b/w you and your spouse, inability to let go of an unobtainable goal etc. § Daily hassles often accompanies low SES- inadequate income or unemployment § For minorities daily hassles might include racism. § Many consider (like Mike Lazarus and Connor McDonald) the most important form of stress. o 4. Ambient stressors - Global stressors that are integrated into the environment. Perceivable, but hard to control. Can negatively impact us without us being aware of them. Stuff we just put up with in our lives. Ex. Pollution, noise, crowding

Social movement stages

o 1. begins with shared idea shared by a few, o 2. incipient stage - public takes notice of the situation that they consider to be a problem o 3. People begin to organize in a group and raise up o 4. They will either succeed in changing the society or have to adapt. In the end, they become part of bureaucracy they try to change. If they are successful, they become absorbed into institutions once desired changes have been achieved. If failed = they are not active anymore but leave a mark on society/culture.

Assortative mating

o 2) Assortative Mating - Non-random mating where individuals with certain phenotypes/genotypes/similarities/genes/physical appearance tend to mate with each other at a higher frequency, ex. large animals mate with large animals and small animals mate with small animals. § Can result in inbreeding which is a problem that occurs if animals too genetically similar mate. Tends can be harmful to species overall. Increase likelihood of harmful recessive traits being passed on to offspring. o 3) Dis-assortative Mating (Non-Assortative Mating) - opposite of assortative mating - situation where individuals with individuals with different or diverse traits mate with higher frequency than with random mating.

Secure vs. insecure attachment

o 60% were secure attachment § #1: Child was secure with parent and explored room, might have stayed with mother and eventually explored room (aka. child might walk back to mother at times or look back at mother, but comfortable exploring) § #2: When parent left, child became really distressed/upset § #3: when parent comes back, they would go to the mother and be happy o 40% were classified as having Insecure attachment § #1: children cling to mother, and stayed with mother and did not explore. § #2: When mother left became upset/distress § #3: distress did not go away when she came back. § Others were avoidant - were not upset when they left the room and were indifferent to her when she returned.

Broadbent's Early Selection Theory

o All information in environment goes into sensory register (which briefly registers/stores EVERYTHING/all sensory information you receive such as words, clicks, sirens, etc) then the info gets transferred to selective filter right away which identifies what you are supposed to be attending too via basic physical characteristics and filters out stuff in unattended ear based on things you don't need to understand to identify (based on voice, pitch, speed, accents, etc) and finally information moves to perceptual processes identifies friend's voice and assigns meaning to words. Then you can engage in other cognitive processes such as deciding how to respond. § Sensory register à selective filter à perceptual process à Conscious. o Some problems - if you completely filter out unattended info, shouldn't be able identify your own name in unattended ear à but, you can as explained by Cocktail party effect.

Attitude to behavior process model

o An event triggers our attitude (something that will influence our perception of an object) o Then attitude + some outside knowledge (what regarded as appropriate behavior) together determines behavior. o Ex. Tommy has attitude that junk food is unhealthy, because many of his relatives have heart related diseases associated with poor eating habits. So when he's at home he does not eat chips/soda/candy because of his knowledge that these foods are bad for his health and maintains a healthy lifestyle no matter where he is. § unhealthy attitude (trigged by an event) + knowledge leads to behavior

Brain abnormalities for depression

o Areas with abnormal activity involve the frontal lobe and limbic structures. Decreased activity in frontal lobe and increased activity in limbic structures. Show a role in regulation of emotions and response to stress. o Ex. Stress hormones like cortisol are controlled by the hypothalamus, which communicates with limbic system and frontal lobe. Hormones affect the brain themselves too. § Communication of frontal lobe, limbic system, and hypothalamus may plays a role why there are abnormal hormones in the body. § Stress hormones affect most tissues of the body and the brain (including hypothalamus, limbic system, and frontal lobe) • Unclear which abnormalities of stress hormone are causes and which are effects of the disease.

Brain abnormalities in schizophrenia patients

o Based on autopsy and scan examination of structure brain, we see physical abnormalities in Schizophrenia brain: o Fluid filled regions have been enlarged because there is less tissue of the brain. o Cerebral cortex (layer that is outermost part of cerebrum) seems to have decreased size, in frontal and temporal lobes. These areas have to do with cognitive and perceptual functions which are abnormal in schizophrenia. § Organization of the Cerebral cortex (cortical layers) particularly in frontal and temporal lobes is disturbed. Typically there is a clear organization. Here, there is a disorganization and thinning of layers. o Based on activity studies (by scans that now look at brain activity) § Frontal and temporal lobe activity is also seen in same areas of structural/physical abnormality. o Abnormal development of brain is most likely what leads to this disease. o Some features of schizophrenia also involve abnormalities in dopamine (increase). This dopamine plays a role in frontal/temporal lobes. Effects cognitive, emotional, perceptual functions. o A # of medications that affect dopamine transmission often improve symptoms o The mesocorticolimbic pathway Is affected § Meso = "midbrain" - where VTA (Ventrotangmental area). Specifically, the soma of neurons that use dopamine are located at VTA. § cortico = "cerebral cortex", axons project to frontal and temporal lobe of cerebral cortex. (axons of the VTA neurons project to other areas of the brain and release dopamine to cerebrum areas). § limbic = "collection of structures inside of the brain" involved in emotions/motivations/etc. § Often divided into mesocortical pathway (VTA to the frontal lobe) and mesolimbic pathway (VTA to limbic structures) § Abnormal activity of mesocorticolimbic pathway. One way of thinking about schizophrenia is abnormal activity is mesocorticolimbic pathway leads to dysfunction in parts of frontal cortex that cause cognitive symptoms, and limbic structure causes negative symptoms, and abnormal activity in temporal cortex causes positive symptoms. • Abnormalities are likely much more complicated.

Prototype willingness model

o Behavior is a function of 6 things, the combination of which influence our behavior. Our behavior is a function of.... § Past behavior § Attitudes - explained in Attitude to behavior processing model above. Attitude > behavior § Subjective norms - what others think about our behavior § Our intentions - our behavior intentions § Our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior § models/prototyping - a lot of our behavior is carried out from prototyping/modelling.

Somatic symptom disorder

o Can be any symptom. Wrist pain or general feeling of fatigue o May or may not be able to explain what we see (the physical condition). May or may not be related to a physical condition o Must cause functional impairments. Stops them from going to school or enjoying life. These individuals have excessive levels of all of the following symptoms: worried (excessively), have extreme levels of anxiety, and spend lots of time and energy worrying/stressing about these symptoms, etc.

Cities, metropolis, and megapolis

o Cities have over 50 000 people. o Metropolis have over 500 000 people. o If many metropolises are connected, called megalopolis (ex. Urban complex of 44 million people in NYC area from Boston to Washington DC).

Characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy

o Division of labour - people are trained to do specific tasks. § Pro - people are better at tasks, and increased efficiency. § Con - increase alienation in workers, separating them from other works (conflict theory), and they don't see work from beginning to end. Can lead to less satisfaction which leads to less productivity. Also can lead to trained incapacity, where workers are so specialized in tasks they lose touch with overall picture. § Ex. Administrators don't teach classes at university and professors are not responsible for building maintenance. o Hierarchy of organization - each position is under supervision of higher authority. Not all people of an organization are equal. § Pro - clarify who's in command § Con - deprive people of voice in decision making (especially of those lower in chain of command) and shirk responsibility, especially in unethical tasks ("I was just following orders"). Also allows individuals allows them to hide mistakes (often serious mistakes because no one person interacts with all members). o Written rules and regulations § Pro - clear expectations, uniform performance, equal treatment of all employees, and sense of unity/continuity to organization (laws/structures of organization stay same as members come/go) § Con - stiffens creativity, and if too much structure discourage employees from taking initiative. Goal displacement (rules become more important than goals of organization) o Impersonality - how individuals and officials conduct activities in unbiased manner § Pro - equal treatment § Con - alienation, discourage loyalty to the group o Employment based on technical qualifications -hiring in bureaucracy is based on qualifications on person has and not favouritism/personal rivalries § Pro - decrease discrimination § Con - decrease ambition (only do what is necessary to secure job and do nothing more). Leads to Peter Principle, where every employee in hierarchy keeps getting promoted until they reach level of incompetence (they remain at a position because they are not good enough at the job to get promoted any further).

Dominant vs. non dominant hemisphere functions

o Domain hemisphere: language, math, o Non-dominant: emotional tone of language, if people are happy/sad/anxious, creativity, music, special processing, big picture concepts.

Where is dopamine produced at?

o Dopamine, produced in the arcuate nucleus, is transmitted from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland via the tuberoinfundibular pathway. The dopamine released regulates the secretion prolactin by inhibiting its release in the anterior pituitary. (acronym: ARkan ATE (nucleus) and a TUBE IN FUN MILK (tuberoinfundibular) (prolactin). o Dopamine, produced in the substantia nigra, is transmitted from neuron soma to axons projecting into the caudate nucleus and the putamen of the neostriatum via the nigrostriatal pathway. This pathway is associated with motor planning and purposeful movement. § Substantia nigra > motor planning (acronym: striatum pathways, and PUTaNUM and CAUsUal DATE PLANNING) o Dopamine, produced in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), is transmitted from the VTA to the pre-frontal cortex via the mesocortical pathway. This pathway is associated with cognition, affect, and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. § VTA > CORT = negative symptoms o Dopamine, produced in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), is transmitted from the VTA to the nucleus accumbens, the amygdala, and the hippocampus. The mesolimbic pathway is associated with reward, motivation, and many of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia § VTAà LIMBIC (nucleus accumbens, amygdala, hippocampus) > reward/positive symptoms

Eros vs. Thantos

o Eros Drives: Life Drive. Like health, safety, sex. Comes with love, cooperation, collaboration. Working with others to promote your and others wellbeing o Thantos: Death Drive. Self-Destructive/Harmful to Others. Comes with Fear, anger (inward or outward), hate.

Nicotine

o Ex. For stimulants like tobacco (addictive ingredient: nicotine) , medications replace nicotine by delivering low levels of nicotine through patch, or deliver chemicals that act on nicotine receptors in brain. In this case prevents release or reuptake of dopamine. Help reduce cravings.

Methadone

o Ex. Opioids such as heroine act at neural receptor site for endorphins to reduce pain and give euphoria (a highly addicting substance). Methadone activates opiate receptors, but acts more slowly, so it dampens the high. Reduces cravings, eases withdrawal, and if heroine is taken the user can't experience the high because receptors are already filled with longer-acting methadone.

Exogamy vs. endogamy

o Exogamy is a social arrangement where marriage is allowed only outside a social group. The social groups define the scope and extent of exogamy, and the rules and enforcement mechanisms that ensure its continuity. o Endogamy is the practice of marrying within a specific ethnic group, class, or social group, rejecting others on such a basis as being unsuitable for marriage or for other close personal relationships.

Group polarization

o Group polarization is a phenomenon where group decision-making amplifies the original opinion of group members. A stronger version of the decision is adopted. § For a view point to influence a groups final decision making: • All the view do not have equal influence. • Viewpoint is shared by majority of members of the group • Arguments made tend to favour popular/majority group view • Any criticism is directed towards minority view • Confirmation bias: group members seek out information that support the majority view. • Ex: majority of the group agrees that training the dog with treats is the best way to go about it. Some people chastise those who say the collar is the best way to train the dog. The individuals leave the discussion that training the dog with treats is amplified

Factors that effect conformity

o Group size - more likely to conform in groups of 3-5. o Unanimity - when opinions of group are unanimous (everyone agrees). In the Ash experiment, there was one supporter who answered correctly before the experimenter, and full-compliance of experimenter dropped from 37% to 5%. Individuals claimed that the response of the supporter influenced their response - they said they didn't. Shows that supporter shows reduced likelihood of conformity. We're not aware of effects a defector can have (someone who conform). o Group status - why children more likely to go along with popular group. Why we trust four doctors over four gardeners about our health. o Group cohesion- if we feel no connection with group, feel less of need to go along with that group. o Observed behaviour - whether we believe our behaviour is observed. In Ash experiment, when the participant came in late, they said his response would be recorded on paper and not shared with the group. If response in Asch line was not shared with group, the experimenter was much less likely to conform. o Public response - if we think we're met with acceptance vs. shunning. (happy to conform if we will be met with shunning, but will happily not conform if we think we will be met with acceptance) o Internal factors - § prior commitments (if we say something earlier that goes against group, we will decrease conformity because we are less likely to say something different later. If we said something earlier that is along the lines of the group, we will have increased conformity because we will say the same thing now. We are not likely to change what we say). § feelings of insecurity - more likely to follow judgements of others (conformity)

Homogamy vs. heterogamy

o Homogamy is marriage between individuals who are, in some culturally important way, similar to each other. Homogamy may be based on socioeconomic status, class, gender, ethnicity, or religion, or age in the case of the so-called age homogamy. o Heterogamy is a marriage between two individuals who are culturally different.

Upper motor neuron signs

o Hyperreflexia - increase in the muscle stretch reflexes. Cause is unclear, but when muscle spindle receptors are activated, without periodic stimulation of LMNs by UMNs, they become hypersensitive and you get bigger reflex. o Clonus - rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle. Ex. Foot goes involuntarily up and down. Cause is hyperreflexia, because if doctor pulls on foot activates muscle stretch reflex, so triggers antagonist muscles. o Hypertonia - increased tone of skeletal muscles. Increase muscle tension, reduce muscle stretch. o Extensor Plantar Response - if you take a hard object and scrape along bottom of foot, normal response is flexor - toes will come down on the object. But with extensor, toes extend up.

Publically and privately conforming

o If you privately conform- change behaviours and opinions to align with group. § Ex: If you privately conformed to the shock color, you would leave the situation with a genuine belief that the best way to train a dog is with a shock color. o If publically conform - you're outwardly changing but inside you maintain core beliefs. You only outwardly agree with the group. § Ex: you agree to the shock color in the group situation but you also know that the treats is a more effective route. You are not convinced. When you are alone you train the dog with a treat.

Implicit memory

o Implicit Memories /Non-Declarative involve things you may not articulate. Implicit memory is a type of memory in which previous experiences aid the performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences.[1] Evidence for implicit memory arises in priming, a process whereby subjects are measured by how they have improved their performance on tasks for which they have been subconsciously prepared. - such as riding a bicycle, procedural memories. § All memories formed by conditioning are implicit memories. § Implicit memories are formed unconsciously. § All habits are procedural memories, a type of implicit memory. § Memories that inform unconscious motor skills are procedural memories, a type of implicit memory. § Procedural memory is long-term memory for actions or habits such as how to kick a ball or washing hands before eating. Procedural memory is type of implicit memory. § Habit learning occurs in a specific type of implicit memory. § Habits/Implicit memory is stored in the basal ganglia. o Implicit memories are non-declarative and unconscious, while explicit memories are declarative and conscious.

Individualistic vs. Collectivist culture

o In individualistic cultures (Western - Europe/America), success is overattributed to internal and failure is over-attributed to external/situational factors. o In collectivist cultures (Eastern - Africa/Asia), success is attributed to external and failure to internal factors

Differences between rods and cones

o MORE RODS THAN CONES (each eye has 120M rods vs. 6M cones or 20x more rods than cones.) More important to see light than detail initially! o Cones are concentrated in the fovea. o Rods are 1000x more sensitive to light than cones. Better at detecting light -telling us whether light is present i.e. black/white vision. o Cones detect color primarily but also some light (three types : 60% Red, 30% Green, 10% Blue) o Rods have slow recovery time vs. cones have fast recovery time. Takes a while to adjust to dark - rods need to be reactivated. Cones adapt to change quickly (fire more frequently)

Monozygotic vs. dizygotic

o Monozygotic Twins - egg splits into 2 after fertilization. Share 100% of genes, genetically identical. o Dizygotic Twins - develop from 2 separately fertilized eggs. Share 50% of genes, like regular siblings.

Prefrontal cortex

o Responsible for many higher-order functions, everything that distinguishes humans. Executive control - solve problems, make decisions, how you act in social situations. o Undergoes most development from birth o Helps manage how you behave in social situations o Phineas Gage had iron rod penetrate his prefrontal cortex. After incident, rude and rough, behaved inappropriately.

Conversion disorder

o Must look like Neurological symptoms only - like problems with speech, swallowing, seizures, paralysis o Neurological symptoms that we see are incompatible with any known neurological or mental condition. We cannot explain these symptoms based on test or clinical exam. o Sometimes have a level of psychological stress or traumatic event resulting in manifestation of neurological symptoms o The DSM-5 criteria for conversion disorder states the individual Must exhibit at least one symptom of altered voluntary motor or sensory function that shows internal inconsistency, causes distress or impairment, and cannot be explained by another mental or medical disorder. The ICD-10-CM categorizes by symptom type, with weakness (or paralysis) and abnormal movement (tremor) listed as specific symptom types.

5 factor model of personality

o Openness - independent vs. conforming, imagining vs. practical), o Conscientiousness - careful vs. careless, disciplined vs. impulse, organized or not o Extroversion - talkative or quiet, fun loving or sober o Agreeableness - kind vs. cold, appreciative vs. unfriendly o Neuroticism - stable vs. tense, calm vs anxious, secure vs. insecure o Use acronym OCEAN

Opiates/opioids

o Opiates - natural o Opioids - synthetic o Like depressants: Decrease CNS function, decrease HR/BP, cause relaxation, induce sleep (hence can be used to treat pain and anxiety). o BUT it is NOT a depressant. Work on different mechanisms at the neurochemical level o Analgesic - reduce perception of pain o ex. heroine, codeine, morphine, oxycodone o Used to treat pain because they act at body's receptor sites for endorphins. o Different class than depressants, even though overlapping for anxiety, rest act on GABA receptors while opiates act on endorphin Receptors o Lead to euphoria, why taken recreationally o An opiate binds to opioid receptors by mimicking endorphins. o Vasodilator, and pupillary constriction o Die by respiratory failure *Opiates are derived from the poppy plant and include such drugs as morphine and codeine. Opiates cause a sense of euphoria and a decreased reaction to pain by binding to opioid receptors in the nervous system. Opiate overdose can cause death when the brain stops sending signals for respiration. After prolonged use, these drugs can cause the brain to entirely stop producing endorphins, meaning that withdrawal is very painful.

Factitious disorder

o Patients want to be sick. The patient will falsify or disease their signs or symptoms to get a diagnosis/treatment. Ex. They might injure themselves, falsify tests. This is often called Munchausen's syndrome. o Munchausen's by proxy -when one person makes another person look ill so medical attention/treatment provided further for another individual. o People do this to be in sick roll (not for money)

Deutch & Deutch's Late Selection Theory

o Places Broadband selective filter after perceptual processes. This means that you DO register and assign everything meaning but then selective filter decides what you pass on to conscious awareness. § Deutsch and Deutsch's late selection theory moved the selective filter from before perception to after the perceptual process. § Sensory register à perceptual process à selective filter à Conscious o Some problems - This whole process has to occur quickly, but given limited resources of attention and knowing are brains are super-efficient it seems wasteful to spend all that effort assigning meaning to things first which you won't ever need. o Acronym: The Dutch pay attention (perceptualize) to EVERYTHING!

Visuo-spatial sketchboard and Phonological loop

o Processing occurs at the visuo-spacial sketchpad and phonologic loop. § Visuo-spatial sketchpad: Visual + spatial info are processed in the § Phonological loop: verbal info (any words + numbers in both iconic and echoic memory) is processed. Ex. Repeating a phone # to yourself. The Phonological Store is believed that the phonological store capacity is around 2 seconds. o What about visual + verbal info (like a map that has street names and landmarks). Need coordination of the visuo-spacial sketchpad and the phonologic loop- the central executive fills that role. (Acronym: Central Cities Executive Traffic Cop directs memory components). The central executive tells the visuo-spacial sketchpad + phonological loop to coordinate. The Central Executive supervises the cognitive process of memory. o This creates an integrated representation that stores it in the episodic buffer, which acts as a connecter for information to be stored in long-term memory. o The dual coding hypothesis says it's easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone. Can use the method of loci - imagine moving through a familiar place and in each place leaving a visual representation of topic to be remembered. o Operational Span Testing: A task in which subjects are asked to perform a simple mathematical verification (e.g., 4/2 +1 = 3) and then read a word, with a recall test following some number of those verify/read pairs. The maximum number of words that can be recalled is the "operation span".

Immature defense mechanisms

o Projection - throw your attributes to someone else - like accusing another person of being jealous when you are the one being jealous. (acronym: saying PP is immature (Projection and Passive Aggression) § Can cause projective identification - that person targeted with projection can starting believing, feeling, having thoughts of the attributes that were projected to them Ex. The person now actually feels jealous and the person can believe "I am a jealous person" o Passive Aggression - aggressively doing something for someone and failing to do it or doing it slowly. Passive way to express your anger.

Responses to just world hypothesis

o Rational Techniques: § 1. Accept reality § 2. Prevent or correct injustice - with charities, sign a petition or changes to legal system o Irrational techniques can also be used § 1. Denial of the situation - refuse to accept the situation § 2. Reinterpreting the events - change our interpretation of the outcome, the cause, and the character of the victim. • Ex. If a Victim of violence that was hurt, they were really hurt, we can reinterpret outcome(wasn't that bad, it was a trip, it could have happened to anyone), reinterpret cause (victim was working in a bad neighborhood), or reinterpret character of victim(I always thought she was a good human being but I now realize she probably isn't, she was hanging around with the wrong people, etc.)

Retroactive vs. Proactive interference

o Retroactive interference - new learning impairs old info. Refers to later information interfering with memory for earlier information. § ex. Writing new address makes it difficult to recall your old address o Proactive interference - something you learned in past impairs learning in future. Earlier information interferes with later information. § ex. New password learning - prior learning impairs ability to learn new one.

SNS vs. PNS axons

o SNS starts middle of sp. Cord > short axon synapses with short ganglia close to spine > second neuron goes to the target cell (smooth, cardiac, gland cells) o PNS > starts at the brain stem or bottom of spinal cord > 1st neuron sends long axon > synapse with ganglion of second neuron à sends short axon to target cell § General - both have 2 chains of axons. SNS is short and then long. PNS is long and then short.

Habituation

o Same response - you jump equally as high with each subsequent stimulus. (ex: you jump same distance out of bed with each thunderclap) o Become habituated - the same stimuli results is a decreased response with episode of stimuli (ex: you begin jump lower distance over time)

Freud vs. activation synthesis

o Sigmund Freud's theory of dreams says dreams represent our unconscious feelings/urges/thoughts. Like an iceberg. § What happens? Literal meaning. Manifest content. • ex. Monster chasing you § What is hidden meaning? Latent content. • ex. Job pushing you out. § Dreams have meaning. Interpreting them can help us resolve and identify hidden conflict. o Activation Synthesis Hypothesis § Brain gets a lot of neural impulses in brainstem, which is sometimes interpreted by the frontal cortex. § Brainstem = activation, and cortex = synthesis. § Our brain is simply trying to find meaning from random brain activity. Therefore dreams might not have meaning.

Simple vs. complex innate behavior

o Simple innate behaviors- reflexes (squint or blinking - natural behaviors), taxis (bugs fly towards light, can be towards or away from stimulus - a purposeful movement ||acronym: Taxis have a purposeful movement), kinesis (rats randomly scurrying in different directions - no purpose of movement). [example was a light source as being the stimuli] o Complex innate behaviors - fixed action patterns (mating dance), migration (birds flying south in winter), circadian rhythms (biological clock, waking up early to sing) [example was a singing bird]

Demographic transition 5 steps

o Stage 1: High birth rates due to limited birth control, economic advantage for more workers, and high death rate due to disease/poor nutrition. Most countries at this stage prior to 18th century when death rates fell in Western-Europe. Large young and small old population. Overall population remains fairly stable § Pyramid Model: Stationary Pyramid. Large young population and small old population (y axis) o Stage 2: Seen in beginnings of developing populations/countries. Population rises as death rate decreases/lower death rate (availability of food, improvement in health and sanitation). Trend was seen in 19th century Western-Europe after Industrial Revolution. High birth rates remain. Overall population growth. § Pyramid Model: Early Expanding Population Pyramid. High birth rates and death rate declining so you get a nice pyramid shape. o Stage 3: Death rates continue to drop and birth rates begin to fall. Ex. Middle East. Population continues to grow § Birth rates fall because of birth control, social trend towards smaller families. § Death rate drops because Society has better healthcare, § Occurs in countries that are becoming more industrialized (fewer childhood deaths, and children no longer needed to work or not allowed to work by law - no longer economically beneficial to have children). In this stage children are sent to school instead of working to support the family. § Slower population expansion and longer lived elderly. § Pyramid Model: Late Expanding Population Pyramid. Birth rates decline (fewer young people) and people are living longer lives as people are getting older. o Stage 4: Population stabilizes, both birth and death rates are low and balance each other out. Population is large because it has been growing until Stage 4. § Low Birth Rates: improvement in contraception and high percentage of women in workforce. Many Couples focus on careers over children. Ex: US/Australia § Pyramid Model: Low Stationary Pyramid. Low birth rates and low death rates (longer life expectancy) o Stage 5: Speculation. World population will be forced to stabilize. § Malthusian Theorem suggests: Run out of resources, global food shortage. We won't be able to maintain natural resources for everyone on planet. (high mortality rate) • Current: 1B suffer from malnutrition already in world of 7B § Lack of resources will lead to public health disaster and force population to stabilize- stabilize and then negative growth rate. Negative growth rate would occur when population forced to finally have lower birth rate than death rate. § Pyramid Model: Constrictive. Fewer young people than older people. • Due to rise of individualism • Anti-Malthusian Theorem: Couples only want to have one child or have children later in life. (low birth rate) • Better standard of living = smaller families because children are economic burden. Also, industrialized nations have better education/access to healthcare which contribute to reproductive choices. China have government policies to slow population growth to preserve their resources. • Growth rate can INCREASE as well! Some evidence - Higher standard of living promote fertility and higher birth rate.

Twin studies overview

o Strong genetic component: § Identical twins =/= Fraternal Twins § Identical twins raised together = Identical twins raised apart § Adoptive child = Biological parents o Strong Environmental component: § Identical twins = Fraternal Twins § Identical twins raised together = /= Identical twins raised apart § Adoptive child = adoptive parents

Three factors have an influence our ability to perform multiple tasks at once:

o Task similarity - ex. Listening to radio or listening to interview while writing a paper. Better to listen to classical music, because harder to multitask with similar tasks. Easier to multitask with music. o Task difficulty - harder tasks require more focus. Ex. Texting while driving is more difficult than talking to a passenger in a car. Also, you turn off/down radio in an unfamiliar town...because driving requires more focus/becomes a harder task when you don't know where you are going. o Practice - activities well practiced become automatic processes, or things that occur without need for attention. Whether task is automatic vs controlled is determined by the amount of practice. A controlled task is harder, and would struggle to complete if attention is divided. Automatic task occurs with greater experience.

Organ of corti cross section

o Upper and lower membranes, and little hair cells. As fluid flows around the organ, it causes hair cells to move back and forth. o At the upper membrane: The hair cells/cilia are called the hair bundle and it is made of little filaments. Each filament is called a kinocilium. Tip of each kinocilium is connected by a tip link which is attached to gate of K+ channel. When the tip links get pushed back and forth by endolymph movement, they stretch and allows K+ to flow inside the cell from the endolymph (which is K+ rich) o Ca2+ cells get activated when K+ is inside, so Ca2+ also flows into the cell, and causes an AP, which then activates a spiral ganglion cell, which then activates the auditory nerve.

Different types of organizations

o Utilitarian Organizations - members are paid/rewarded for their efforts, ex. Businesses and government jobs, and universities (receive diploma in exchange for your time). o Normative Organizations - members come together through shared goals, ex. religion groups or MADD (Mothers against Drunk Driving). Positive sense of unity and purpose. o Coercive Organization - members don't have choice about membership, ex. people in a prison, or the military (you need to be discharged to leave).Usually highly structured and have very strict rules

Attentional capture

occurs when attention is attracted by the motion of an object or stimulus.

Weak vs. strong social constructionism

o Weak social constructionism proposes that social constructs are dependent on: § Brute facts, which are the most basic and fundamental facts. Ex. brute facts are what explain quarks (or what makes the quarks) in atoms, not the atoms themselves (something that is not defined by something else). § Institutional facts are created by social conventions and do rely on other facts. Ex. money depends on the paper we have given value. o Strong social constructionism states that whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits; all knowledge is social construct and there are no brute facts. We created idea of quarks and everything we know to explain it. No facts that just exist.

Availability vs. Representativeness heuristics

o availability = actual memories in mind, o representativeness = not thinking of exact memories, thinking of a prototype of idea (general typical concept)

Old brain structures

o brainstem. (mostly covered by brain) and is the medulla and pons. Controls heart beat/breathing and cross over point for our nerves. o Reticular formation: from brainstem to other brain areas. It filters info and sends important info to the thalamus. Sleep/wake cycle (arousal). Ability to be aware. o Thalamus (above brainstem) relay station (eye/ear info) goes to thalamus. o Cerebellum - coordinates voluntary movement. [Alcohol effects this area]

Takeaways from the Zimbardo prison experiment

o the influence situation can have on our behavior - might be due to situational attribution (due to situation), not dispositional attribution (internal characteristics/personalities of people) o It becomes much easier to behave badly towards individuals who suffer from deindividualization (loss of self) - In this case prisoners forced to dress same, and addressed as number. o Bad behavior caused cognitive dissonance - guards knowing their behavior was inappropriate, tried to reduce their mental distress by cognitive dissonance reduction - overly justified their behaviors - everything happened because prisoners were whims or they deserved it. They changed their cognition. o Also role of internalization - participants internalized their prison roles. Prisoners incorporated their roles into beliefs, and let it influence their attitudes/cognitions/behaviors.

gestalt law of closure

objects grouped together are seen as whole (filling in a triangle where there is none, pacman shit) mind fills in missing info, we perceive whole shapes even when they aren't actually present in the stimulus; people tend to infer complete shapes even if a shape is incompletely sketched out or blocked by another object

Case control study

observational study where 2 groups differing in outcome are identified and compared to find a causal factor. Ex. comparing people with the disease with those who don't but are otherwise similar.

Mesopic vision

occurs at dawn or dusk and involves both rods and cones.

Photopic vision

occurs at levels of high light levels.

Scotopic vision

occurs at levels of very low light.

Group think

occurs when maintaining harmony among group members is more important than carefully analyzing problem at hand. Happens in very cohesive, insulated groups. Often have important/respected leaders, and in the interest of group "unity" individuals suppress/sensor their own opinions. o First suggestion proposed by the leader is adopted. Especially if there is little hope of finding a better solution. Not the most effective way to make a decision and can explain what's wrong with Congress in the US. o Ex: neighborhood people decide to meet to discuss a dog exhibiting bad behavior. Leader says the dog should be put down to avoid damage to the neighborhood. Instead of arguing with the leader and having a conflict, the neighbors agree that the dog should be put down. o To avoid group think: bring in outsiders/experts, have the leader of the group not disclose opinion, discuss what should be done in smaller groups • Recap: Conformity, Group Polarization and Group think are all processes when individuals come together in a group. Can be positive if the group is open minded, positive, and willing to consider more than one opinion.

Attrition bias

occurs when participants drop out of a long-term experiment or study.

Transduction

occurs whenever energy is transformed from one form to another; in this case, light energy is transformed to electrical energy by rods and cones.

Inter-rater reliability

or consistency when two different people measure the same thing,

Rational choice theory

people compare pros and cons of different courses of actions and choose the one they think is best for themselves. These choices shape pattern of behavior in society. § Have to assume a lot for this to be true: 1. all actions can be listed in order of preference and all preferences are transient. [Ex: I like Apples better than pears and pears better than bananas, so I like apples better than bananas] 2. Also assumes person has full knowledge of outcomes due to action and 3. people have ability to weigh different actions. Rarely all true.

Rational choice theory

people not only motivated by money, but do what's best to get better; that people make individualistic, rational, and calculated decisions about all things in their lives. Since money is of primary importance to most people, individuals are often (but not always) motivated by money and will calculate the costs and benefits of any action before deciding what to do; 3 components: completeness (every action can be ranked), transitivity (A>B>C so A>C), independence of irrelevant alternatives (choice X would not affect initial ranking)

Randomized Controlled Trial

people studied randomly given one of treatments under study, used to test efficacy/side effects of medical interventions like drugs. Gold standard for a clinical trial; participants randomly assigned to experimental or control group

Prodrome

period of time before schizophrenia before symptoms are actually present. o Deterioration in person's behavior and functioning. Some of the signs of schizophrenia and one starts to go downhill. § Schoolwork suffers or work can suffer § Relationships might suffer (paranoia or suspiciousness towards other people) § Delusional ideas (people are working against me), start to act differently o Prodrome leads to schizophrenia

Choroid

pigmented black in humans, is a network of blood vessels that helps nourish the retina. It black all light is absorbed. Some animals have a different colored choroid which gives them better night vision.

in-group bias (favoritism)

positive feelings and behavior toward people in our in-group; people are biased towards those viewed as being part of their in-group

eustress

positive type of stress that happens when you perceive a situation as challenging, but motivating

prejudice vs. stereotype

prejudice is a preconceived notion about a person, group, or thing. Unlike stereotypes, prejudices specifically target people, groups, or things that the holder of the prejudice encounters. For example, if I believe that all people who wear red are loud and annoying, this constitutes a stereotype. If I actually see or hear about a person who is wearing red and form a negative opinion about that person, that is a prejudice. Importantly, prejudices are typically made with little to no experience with the prejudiced person or group, and they may be irrationally positive or negative.

anticipatory socialization

process by which we prepare for future changes that we anticipate/ prepare for new norms, values, attitudes. For example, a security officer who will be switching to the night shift in a few weeks may prepare by shifting his or her sleep cycle, so as to anticipate the demands of the shift change.

secondary socialization

process of learning what is acceptable and appropriate in a smaller, more focused section of society. Learning how to behave at school or in the workplace are examples

Resocialization

process through which we get rid of old behaviors in order to take on new ones. The training of soldiers to obey orders and behave within the rigorous confines of military life is an example

gestalt law of pragnanz

reality reduced to simplest form possible (think, olympic rings). instead of seeing 5 rings you see olympic logo

Declined cognitive abilities with age

recall becomes more difficult (although recognition is stable), episodic memories impaired (forming new episodic memories is difficult, old memories stable), processing speed (older people have a harder time outputting a response), and divided attention (becomes harder to switch attention between task and become easily distracted). Also prospective memory (remembering to do things in future) is decreased.

Selection bias

refers to a type of bias related to how people are chosen to participate in a given study

Implicit bias

refers to the attitudes or stereotypes that affect an individual's understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner. These biases, which encompass both favorable and unfavorable assessments, are activated involuntarily and without an individual's awareness.

Different parts of religion

religiosity: how religious a person is can range from private beliefs/spiritual routines, to institutionalized religion, celebrating certain holidays, reading a spiritual text, praying often etc. o Ecclesia - dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, ex. Lutheranism in Sweden and Islam in Iran. o Churches are established religious bodies in a larger society. [ex. Roman catholic church] o Sects tend to be smaller and are established in protest of established church. They break away from churches. Ex. Mormon/Amish o Cults are more radical, reject values of outside society. Rise when there's a breakdown of societal belief systems, but usually short-lived because depend on inspirational leader who will only live so long. o Religion has been effected by: § Modernization: more info available to public, less emphasis on religion. o Secularization is the weakening of social and political power of religious organizations, as religious involvement declines. o Fundamentalism - reaction to secularization, go back to strict religious beliefs. Create social problems when people become too extreme.

Sweet, unami, and bitter receptor type?

rely on GPCR receptors.

Habituation

response to alarm decreases over time. Ex. curing phobia by repeated exposure to the fear until intensity of emotional response decreases. "Loss of response to repeated stimuli"

depth

retinal disparity. Eyes are ~2.5 inches apart which allows humans to get slightly different views of objects of world around. Gives humans an idea on depth. Convergence: Gives humans an idea of depth as well based on how much eyeballs are turned. Gives humans a sense of depth. § Things far away - muscles of eyes relaxed. § Things close to us - muscles of eyes contract.

Hyperglobalist theory

sees globalization as a new age in human history - countries become interdependent and nation states themselves are less important. Countries become one global society. Theorists don't agree if this good or bad. Driven by a legitimate process.

Improved cognitive abilities with age

semantic memories improve till around age 60, so older adults have better verbal skills (they are great at crossword puzzles!). Also crystallized IQ is improved (ability to use knowledge and experience. Typically tested by analogy tests and reading comprehension). Also better at emotional reasoning.

Thalamus

sensory relay station, everything you hear/taste/etc. Senses come through your nerves and end up in thalamus, which directs them to appropriate areas in cortex, and other areas of the brain. Emotions contingent on senses. Smell is only one that bypasses the thalamus - goes to areas closer to amygdala.

LSD

serotonin neurotransmission

ANOVA

similar to t-test, compare distributions of continuous variable between groups of categorical variable, but can be used for 3+ groups.

Social anomie

social instability caused by the breakdown of social bonds, such as social norms, between individuals and communities. A situation in which society does not have the support of a firm collective consciousness. Social anomie can also result in social groups disbanding, and alienation from social groups. To resolve social anomie, social norms must be strengthened and groups must redevelop sets of shared norms. Can lead to uncertainty in social situations. Means that there is a weakened sense of morality and criteria for behavior. o "Associated with functionalist theoretical paradigm in sociology. The concept of anomie describes the alienation that individuals feel when social norms and social bonds are weak. Without attachment to society, people will experience purposelessness, and aimlessness. Periods of rapid social change are often associated with anomie."

Insight learning

solve a problem using past skills, the "aha" moment is insight learning. Ex. Use math skills previously learned to solve a problem

sociobiology

some social differences are actually rooted in biology. This theory applies evolutionary biology to help explain social behaviors.; systematic study of how biology affects human behavior

Positive reinforcement

something is being added to increase tendency of behavior, ex. a gas gift card for safe driving

Negative punishment

something taken away in effort to decrease tendency it'll occur again. Ex. taking away your license.

Tend and befriend response

sometimes better response to stress is to have support systems. Oxytocin is important for this - peer bonding and moderates the stress response. Oxytocin is strongly linked to estrogen (a major sex hormone in women), so why this response is stronger in women.

Moro reflex

startle reaction. Fan out arms then back. Disappears in 4-6 month of age.

Theory of differential association

states that deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others whom violate norms and laws - learn from observation of others. Rejects norms/values and believes new behavior as norm.

stigma

strong social disapproval and even outright rejection of a stigmatized group. Typically, stigma is reserved for people or groups who break important social norms. Unlike stereotype and prejudice, stigma is always a highly negative perception.

Sublimation

sublimation (defense mechanism where unwanted impulses are transformed into something less harmful).

Age stratification theory

suggests age is way of regulating behavior of a generation

Endorphins

suppress pain and can produce euphoria

Autonomic nervous system 2 branches?

sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest). Different actions in your body.

Token economy

system of behavior modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behavior, reinforcers are "tokens" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers (ex. Prizes).

Negative reinforcement

taking something away to increase tendency behavior will occur again. Ex. taking loud buzzing noise away only once you put your seatbelt on. Taking away sound of buzzer when you put on seatbelt is negative reinforcement, because taking something away in effort to increase behavior (putting a seatbelt on)

belief bias

tendency that people have to judge things based not upon sound logic, but upon already held beliefs

Fundamental attribution error Miligram experiment

tendency to place less importance on the import of a situation or context on behavior, and instead place undue emphasis on dispositional or internal qualities in order to explain behavior. In other words, we have a tendency to think that people are how they act; focuses only on actions of others, tendency to believe that others in out-groups behave a certain way based on inherent personalities/flaws. Idea of attributing character too strongly to explain another group's actions. Real takeaway of study - how easy it is to think others are atrocious and evil, while people like us would only perform evil acts because they're misguided. Truth is we're all misguided, all susceptible to authorities in ways that many of us would find upsetting.

Generalization

tendency/ability of a stimulus similar to conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response, and more similar the stimulus is to original conditioned stimulus - the greater the conditioned response.

Contextual effects

the context in which stimuli are presented and the processes of perceptual organization contribute to how people perceive those stimuli (and also that the context can establish the way in which stimuli are organized)

Cultural imperialism

the deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture.

Context for retrieval

the environment you encode and take the test (retrieve the information) is helpful. . Not always the case, so if you can't take test in same place, studying in different places gives you diff cues for retrieval - so multiple cues that will help you remember the material.

actor-observer bias

the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities; we often blame our own actions on external situations but the actions of others on personality

Anosmia

the loss of the sense of smell, either total or partial. It may be caused by head injury, infection, or blockage of the nose.

Folkways

the mildest type of norm, just common rules/manners we are supposed to follow on a day to day base. Traditions individuals have followed for a long time, ex. opening the door, helping a person who's dropped item, or saying thank you. Not engaging results in a consequences that is not severe/consistent. No actual punishment. § Ex: Friend's pants zipper is undone. Tell your friend your zipper is undone (common courtesy) but not telling friends leads to no consequences.

gestalt law of symmetry

the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point

Cultural relativism

the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one's own culture. Judge and understand another culture from within their culture - o No absolute right or wrong, but we have different cultures which are themselves valid. o Important to consider: Can falter if someone uses it to conduct activities that violate rights of humans no matter what culture they're from. o "Refers to an awareness of differences across cultures in norms, values, and other elements of culture"

risk ratio (relative risk)

the probability of getting a disease in the exposed/intervened group divided by the probability of getting a disease in the unexposed/placebo group: commonly used for cohort studies and randomized controlled trials; the ratio of two estimates of risk

Homophily

the tendency for people to choose relationships with other people who have similar attributes. people often prefer mixing with those who are similar to themselves.

Conjuctiva

thin layer of cells that lines the inside of your eyelids from the eye.

Temporal confounds

time related confounding variables

False consciousness

unlike class consciousness, instead of seeing they have solidarity with one another, they're unable to see their oppression. And owners can promote this false consciousness by controlling classes, making it more difficult for workers to see their oppression.

The social cognitive theory

view behaviours as being influenced by people's traits/cognitions and their social context. Talking about interactions between individual and situation they're in. and situation they're in. o Cognition -> Environment -> Behavior (the order can change as well) o Ex. Meg is interested in soccer (cognition), joins a soccer team (environment), and spends time with soccer players (behavior). Cognition -> Environment -> Behavior § Or, she can spend a lot of time with soccer players (behavior), become interested in it (cognition), and joins a soccer team (environment). Behavior > Cognition > Environment § Or, she hangs with soccer players (behavior), so she joins a soccer team to hang out w/ them more (environment), and then after playing for a while develop a real interest in soccer (cognition). This then reinforces her hanging with the team. Behavior > Environment > Cognition.

game theory

views social interaction as a game in which there will be winners, losers, and proper ways to "play" in order to achieve "victory." ; Evaluates alternate strategies when outcome depends not only on each individual's strategy but also that of others.

functionalism

views society as a system of interconnected parts that carry out a specific role that enables them to cooperate to maintain social equilibrium for society as a whole; focuses broadly on social structures that shape society as a whole

Actor-observer bias

we are victims of, but others are willful actors. (same thing as saying: circumstance (we attribute out personal behavior but others behavior on internal factors)

Chunking

we group info we're getting into meaningful categories we already know to ease memorization.

Resource model of attention

we have limited resources in attention. Resources that are easily overtasked if we try to pay attention to multiple things @ once. o Both models say something about our ability to multitask - not very good at it. o Supported by research study: ex. Dichotic listening task, you aren't able to focus on both the "attended channel" and the "unattended channel". You are able to recall info from the attended channel, but not the unattended channel.

Galant reflex

when Skin is stroked, baby moves/swings to the side it was stroked. Disappears at 6 months.

Chi-square

when all variables are categorical, looks at if 2 distributions of categorical data differ from each other. o Null hypothesis vs. alternative hypothesis.

Embedded field study

when researchers pose as participants

Role strain

when you can't carry out all obligations of a status, tensions within one status. Causes individual to be pulled many directions by one status, ex. a student has to write two papers, five reading assignments, give a speech, two lab reports in one week.

Taste aversion

when you eat something because you like it, but then stop eating it because you become sick (have a bad experience). Aversions are strong, and they don't always make sense. Ex. You are eating cilantro and really like it but get sick from it. Then start hating cilantro. Also could be the chicken you were eating actually caused the sickness, but you started hating the cilantro anyways. Body connects the fact that the sickness was a result of food - not other attributes of the environment when you ate. You are more likely to get sick because of food, so the association is learnt quickly

Ethnocentrism

world view in which one's own culture and traditions are seen as inherently superior to those of other people. It is propagated from one generation to the next through a variety of cultural channels, the first and most important of which is the family; judging someone else's culture from the position of your own culture o Viewing our own culture to be superior to that of others o Can lead to cultural bias and prejudice o Using one's own cultural standards, such as norms and values, to make judgements about another culture.

Experimental study

would involve manipulation of variables, which was not present in this study. Would have independent and dependent variables.

Withdrawal acute vs. post acute

§ Acute (few weeks, physical withdrawal symptoms, different for each drug/person). For alcohol, only 2 days after cessation of consumption, improvement seen 4-5 days. § Post-Acute (fewer physical symptoms, more emotional/psychologic symptoms, same symptoms for everyone) • Common symptoms: (PAWS - Post acute withdrawal symptoms) Mood swings, Anxiety, Irritability, Tiredness, Variable energy, Low enthusiasm, Variable concentration, Disturbed sleep • Post-acute withdrawal feels like a rollercoaster of symptoms. In the beginning, your symptoms will change minute to minute and hour to hour. Later as you recover further they will disappear for a few weeks or months only to return again. As you continue to recover the good stretches will get longer and longer. But the bad periods of post-acute withdrawal can be just as intense and last just as long. • Each post-acute withdrawal episode usually last for a few days. Once you've been in recovery for a while, you will find that each post-acute withdrawal episode usually lasts for a few days. There is no obvious trigger for most episodes. You will wake up one day feeling irritable and have low energy. If you hang on for just a few days, it will lift just as quickly as it started. After a while you'll develop confidence that you can get through post-acute withdrawal, because you'll know that each episode is time limited. • Post-acute withdrawal usually lasts for 2 years. This is one of the most important things you need to remember. If you're up for the challenge you can get though this. But if you think that post-acute withdrawal will only last for a few months, then you'll get caught off guard, and when you're disappointed you're more likely to relapse. • Can be trigger for relapse

Brain wave types

§ Beta (12-30Hz) - associated with awake/concentration. If you are alert for too long, beta levels get high and you experience increased stress, anxiety, restlessness- constant awakened alertness. § Alpha (8-13 Hz) - in daydreaming state. Lower frequency than beta waves. Disappear in drowsiness but reappear later in deep sleep. § Theta (4-7 Hz) - slower/lower frequency than alpha waves. Drowsiness/right after you fall asleep/when you are sleeping lightly. § Delta (0.5-3 Hz) - Slower/lower frequency than theta waves. Deep sleep or coma.

Elaboration likelihood model

§ Central Route of Persuasion: The degree of attitude change depends on quality of the arguments by the persuader. How much we are persuaded depends on quality of persuasion. ARGUMENT/Words are central! § Peripheral Route of Persuasion: looks at superficial/expertise/non-verbal persuasion cues, such as attractiveness/status of persuader. The doctor himself is peripheral (he is the one delivering the words!) People strive for consistency between their attitudes and behaviors. You wouldn't hold attitude and then display a behavior that conflicts the attitude ex. You wouldn't say eating meat is immoral and then have a positive attitude towards eating hamburgers. • People are more likely to be honest when social influences are reduced (ex. secret ballot), when general patterns of behavior are observed versus a single one (principle of aggregation), when specific actions are considered, and when attitudes are made more powerful through self-reflection.

Light adaption down/up regulation

§ Down regulation: light adaptation. When it is bright out, pupils constrict (less light enters back of eye), and the desensitization of rods and cones become desensitized to light) § Up regulation: dark regulation. Pupils dilate-, rods and cones start synthesizing light sensitive molecules

Signal detection options

§ Hit, the subject responded affirmative when a signal was present, § False Alarm, the subject perceived a signal when there was none present; § Correct Rejection, a correct negative answer for no signal § Miss, a negative response to a present signal

Theories of emotion recap

§ James-Lange: physiological -> emotion § Cannon-Bard: physiological + emotion § Schachter-Singer: physiological + cognitive -> emotion § Lazarus: cognitive -> emotion + physiological

Part of brain involved with hunger

§ Lateral Hypothalamus (LH, acronym: One with missing LH - Lacks Hunger, so normal functioning LH controls that we start eating. You'd be skinny like an "L"). In normal conditions, LH sends positive signal to us to start eating. . § Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH, acronym: when one is missing- Very Much hungry, you'd be fat like a O in ventrOmedial), so when functioning properly, it signals to us to stop eating. Lectin present in high amounts in blood when full (appetite suppressing hormone)

Light processing

§ Light comes in, goes through pupil, and hits rod. Normally rod is turned on, but when light hits turns off. § When rod is off, it turns on a bipolar cell, which turns on a retinal ganglion cell, which goes into the optic nerve and enters the brain.

what happens when light hits rod/cone?

§ Light hits rods (which causes rod turns off) > bipolar cell (turns on) > retinal ganglion cell (turns on) > optic nerve à BRAIN. § The phototransduction cascade is the process of rod turning from ON > OFF

Magnocellular

§ Magnocellular pathway: has high temporal resolution (think time, motion) resolution [encodes motion]. But has poor spatial resolution; no color). Rods responsible. § Acronym: Motion = Magnocellular pathway

Mead's Me vs. I

§ Me = what we learn through interactions with others. How individual believes the generalized other perceives us, the social self, and learned through interactions with others. Socialized and conforming aspect of self. • Way to remember: The "Me", The conforming, socialized person, who tries to not do any dick moves. "Societies View" • Ex: me thinks about people go from high school to college in US § I = the response of the individual to the "me". I thinks about what those things mean. aka attitudes of others. The spontaneous, less socialized component of the Self. • Way to remember: The "I", the nonconforming, the nonsocialized person, the one who make dick moves all the time. "individual identity (personal response to what society thinks") • Ex. I = is it best for me to go to college from HS, or work first or travel for a few years.

Positive vs. negative priming

§ Negative priming is an implicit memory effect in which prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably influences the response to the same stimulus. Caused by experiencing the stimulus, and then ignoring it. Negative prime lowers the speed to slower than un-primed levels § Positive Priming; A positive prime speeds up processing. caused by simply experiencing the stimulus. Positive priming is thought to be caused by spreading activation. This means that the first stimulus activates parts of a particular representation or association in memory just before carrying out an action or task. The representation is already partially activated when the second stimulus is encountered, so less additional activation is needed for one to become consciously aware of it.

Other symptoms of Alzheimers disease

§ Other symptoms are difficulties with: attention, planning, semantic memory, and abstract thinking. As it progresses, more severe language difficulties appear and greater memory loss, such as inability to recognize close family and friends. • They initially have trouble with short term memory, which eventually progresses into problems with long-term memory (like episodic, procedural, and semantic memory loss). § Continual progression might lead to: emotional instability and loss of control over bodily functions. § Cause is unknown and diseases is terminal § Buildup of amyloid plaques in brain.

Parvocellular

§ Parvocellular pathway: good at spatial resolution (boundaries and shape—high levels of details), and color. But poor temporal (can't detect motion—only stationary.) § Cones responsible § Acronym: Pink Pyramid (a type of "form"/"shape") = Parvocellular pathway

Types of innate behavior

§ Reflexes - Sensory and motor nerve loop response w/o thinking. (ex. Knee-jerk response. § Orientation Behaviors - regulating specially in our environments • Ex. Kinesis, our change in speed (orthokinesis), change in rate in turning (klinokinesis). Can be in response to a stimulus (like tripping on a sidewalk - your body would change speed/kinesis). • Ex. Positive taxis and Negative taxis - , movement towards/away from stimulus respectively. Ex. Insects and light. Insects have positive taxis towards light (phototaxis) § Fixed-action pattern (FAP) - sequence of coordinated movement performed without interruption. Similar to a reflex, but more complicated. Ex. Praying mantis. Any prey-sized movement praying mantis experiences elicits a strike response, once strike initiated - can't be changed/altered at all.

Humanistic theory components of self

§ Self-image: what we believe we are. The view we have of ourselves. § Self-esteem/self-worth: how much value we place on ourselves § Ideal-self: what we wish/aspire to be § When the ideal self and real self are similar, the result is a positive selfconcept. When the ideal self does not match the real self, the result is incongruity. § Explain actions through self-concept and incongruence

Weber's Law

ΔI (JND)/I (initial intensity) = k (constant) If we take Weber's Law and rearrange it, we can see that it predicts a linear relationship between incremental threshold and background intensity. o ΔI = Ik. o If you plot I against ΔI it's constant For 2 stimuli-> (ΔI/I)a = (ΔI/I)b

Theory of planned behavior

• 1. Theory of planned behavior o Intentions + Implications: We consider our implications of our actions before we decide on how to behave. The best predictor of our behavior is the strength of these intensions and implications. o Intensions are based on 3 things: § Our attitudes towards a certain behavior (ex. I like/favor studying), § Subjective norms - what we think others think about our behavior (ex. My friends think studying is a waste of time) § Perceived behavioural control (how easy/hard we think it is to control our behavior) ex. I also have to work 40 hours this week on top of studying.

Vestibular system

• A type of sensation. Balance and spatial orientation • Comes from both inner ear and limbs.

Theories on aging

• Activity Theory - looks at how older generation looks at themselves. Certain activities or jobs lost, those social interactions need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged and maintain moral/well-being • Disengagement Theory - older adults and society separate, assumes they become more self-absorbed as they age. Separation allows for self-reflection. But considers elderly people still involved in society as not adjusting well, which is debatable. • Continuity Theory - people try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives overtime. As they age people make decisions that preserve that structure and use it to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging.

Depression and bipolar disorder

• Bipolar disorder is very related to depression • Bipolar disorder used to be referred to as "manic depressive disorder" • Bipolar disorder - A condition where someone swings from extreme emotional highs to extreme emotional lows. • Individual with bipolar disorder will have periods of depression and periods of mania • Mania is a state of high optimism, high energy, high self-esteem, euphoria, poor judgement, poor decision making (which can cause financial distress), risky behaviors (ex. Driving to quick, or risky sexual behavior), delusions of grandeur (unrealistic thoughts), heart races, people don't sleep, racing thoughts. Followed by a crash (a depressive episode). • Mania acronym: DIG FAST (Distractibility, Insomnia, Grandiose, Fleeting thoughts, Agitation, Speech (pressured), Thoughtlessness (risky behavior)

Reward pathway

• Brain releases neurotransmitter called dopamine. Produced in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), in the midbrain. o VTA sends dopamine to the amygdala (controls emotions), nucleus accumbens (NAcc , controls motor functions), prefrontal cortex (focus attention and planning), and hippocampus (part of the temporal lobe, involved in memory formation). o NAcc, amygdala and hippocampus are part of the mesolimbic pathway. • Different stimuli active circuit to diff degrees. • VTA releases dopamine to parts of brain that have dopamine uptake receptors- o Amygdala (connected to hippocampus that controls emotion) says this was enjoyable. § ex. This cake is delicious, I love this cake. I am feeling so happy right now. o Hippocampus remembers everything about this environments so we can do it again, § ex: Where am I at? Where am I eating this cake? Who am I with? Let's remember things about this experience o nucleus accumbens - controls motor function § ex. says let's take another bite. o Prefrontal cortex focuses attention § ex. puts attention to the cake. o You do it again, dopamine is released and you have continued pleasure. • At same time dopamine goes up (increase sense of euphoria), serotonin goes down. o Serotonin - partially responsible for feelings of satiation. So if serotonin goes down, you are less likely to be satiated or content. • Reward pathway cycle is very biologically driven. • Evidence of reward pathway/biological basis of drug dependence: Comes from animal models o Scientists gave rats hooked up IV that gives them cocaine if they push a lever. When the rats do this, the rats learn quickly to push the lever. Rats will seek the drug and also will try to increase dosage if allowed. 50 • Addiction/reward pathway takes over rational choices. Negative consequences don't affect the brain. o Animal model: § If you give a non-addicted rat regular food it likes with a substance that makes it sick, the rat learns to avoid the food. It stops liking it. § If you give an addicted rat its favorite drug paired with a substance that makes it sick, it still wants that drug. I don't care! I need the reward! • Addiction has physiological components as well o Increased genetic risk - if someone in your family has drug addiction, you have an increased risk as well. o Environment/your choices make a difference too.

Classical conditioning

• Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is a learning process in which an innate response to a potent stimulus comes to be elicited in response to a previously neutral stimulus; this is achieved by repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus with the potent stimulus. o "I am conditioning myself to like it" is the same as "I am learning to like it" • "S" = Stimulus - Anything that stimulates your senses (anything you can hear, see, smell, taste, or touch. • Stimuli can produce a response -"R" • Classical does not involve change in behaviour like operant conditioning.

Brainstem overview

• Connects all parts of the brain together, including the cranial nerves. • Midbrain, pons, medulla (also called medulla oblongata) • Neuron somas scattered throughout brainstem is the reticular formation - big role in autonomic functions, and controlling things like respiration, digestion, and lower/higher functions. • Long tracts - collections of axons connecting cerebrum and brainstem. 2 long tracts that are important: motor (UMNs), and somatosensory. • Cranial nerves - most of cranial nerves are attached to the brainstem, doing many things. 12 pairs. All sorts of functions.

Covert vs. overt orienting

• Covert orienting is the act of bringing the spotlight of attention on an object or event without body or eye movement. • Overt orienting, a person turns all or part of the body to alter or maximize the sensory impact of an event.

Proximal vs. distal stimuli

• Distal stimuli are objects and events out in the world about you. Aware of and respond to this - this is what is important. • Proximal stimuli are the patterns of stimuli from these objects and events that actually reach your senses (eyes, ears, etc.). It is the light that is actually falling on the retina.

Brain changes in adolescence

• During adolescence there is a change in many structures. Specific changes include changes in: Prefrontal cortex, limbic system, corpus collosum. Global changes: Changes occurring throughout the brain • Specific changes: o Prefrontal cortex is developed during adolescence. Responsible for higher order cognition (thinking about future, planning, decision making, ability to inhibit certain behavior and focus on long-term goals). Develops into early 20s. Explains why teenagers show poor judgement. o Limbic system - § Amygdala - responsible for emotions/emotional responses. Explains why teenagers are moody and have emotional outbursts (yelling at parents, slamming door) § Hypothalamus - regulates endocrine system (hormones) § Limbic system also includes other structures, but these top two are important. o Corpus Collosum: connects right/left hemisphere. Changes to connections associated with language/language learning. These connections develop until puberty. • Global Changes o Increase myelination (faster communication of neurons- faster connections b/t brain areas) o Increase in brain volume in early adolescence and then decrease later in adolescence. Synaptic pruning - breaking down connections between certain neurons. Focus resources on the ones we use the most. What we do during our teenage users - shapes us for life. What we spend our time doing = what is reinforced.

Theory of multiple intelligence

• Expanded ideas of what can be included in intelligence. • Gardner divided into 7 then 9 independent intelligence (they don't depend on each other and hence intelligence in 1 area does not predict intelligence in another); • logical-mathematical intelligence, verbal-linguistic, spatial-visual, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, musical. Later 2 added: naturalist, and existential intelligence.

Sexual response cycle

• First part of cycle is excitement phase, marked by increased heart rate, muscle tension, BP, etc. • Second is plateau. • Then 3rd - orgasm. • 4th is resolution/refractory period. Hormones: § Prolactin is related to sexual gratification and is associated with relieving sexual arousal after an orgasm. § Endorphins produce feelings of euphoria and pleasure, and are released post-orgasm. § Oxytocin is released after an orgasm to facilitate bonds and feelings of connectedness between sexual partners.

Dissociative identity disorder

• Formerly called multiple personality disorder • Two or more distinct personalities exist in a single body. Both identity have influence on persons thoughts and behaviors • The two identities are distinct from each other. Each has its own: o mannerisms, o emotional responses, o distinct "physical changes" -not actually different physical differences but one identity could identify as right handed and another as left handed o Denial - denying the existence of the other identity. Not aware of other distinct personalities exist within that person. • Who have this disorder? People typically have a history of child abuse or other extreme life stressor. o Perhaps develops under cases of extreme stress, which leads to a person's conscious awareness dissociating/separating from painful memories, thoughts or feelings. • How common is this disorder? It is extremely rare. o Only popularized by news (usually fake/extreme cases) and movies o Hillside strangler was a fake case, a person who claimed that his crimes was because of this disorder • Controversy surrounds DID due to its rarity. For the following reasons: o Rare in North America, but even more rare in other parts of the world. Some experts think it's a social construct more than a disorder. o Can the disorder be induced by therapists? Leading questions by therapists. § Individuals of therapy might play along with the leading questions of the therapist or lie. o We all to an extent role-play. We all play different roles in many different circumstances (we are a son, and father, and boss at the same time). So we all to a degree have DID. In extreme stress, you might lose yourself in these roles, much like an actor can lose himself while playing a part.

Gender schema and script

• Gender schema theory - Theory that explains how individuals should be gendered in society. How sex-linked characteristics are maintained and transmitted to other members of a culture. What constitutes men/female characteristics and how stereotypes become ingrained in the society. Cognitions regarding what constitutes a sex identity is a gender schema. • Gender script - what we expect men and females to do. Gender Script: organized information regarding the order of actions that are approximate to a familiar situation.

Grey vs. white matter

• Gray matter contains most of the neuron somas. • White matter contains myelinated axons. • In spinal cord, grey is on inside and white matter on outside. • For brain > differ: White on inside and grey on outside. Axons go down tracts of white matter.

Hallucinogen effects

• Hallucinogens: These drugs cause hallucinations, altered perception/sensations. • Many types of hallucinations. Some even have medical uses. • Ecstasy/MDMA/Molly- synthetic drug between a stimulant and hallucinogen. o Like stimulant - Increases dopamine and serotonin and euphoria. Also stimulates the body's CNS. Effects include: high BP, dehydration, overheating, death § Can damage neurons that produce serotonin, which has several functions including moderating mood. No serotonin = depressed mood o Causes hallucinogen - hallucinations and heightened sensations, ex. artificial feeling of social connectedness and intimacy • LSD - Prototypical hallucinogen. Interferes with serotonin, which causes people to experience hallucinations. o Hallucinations are visual instead of auditory • Marijuana is also a mild hallucinogen. Main active chemical is THC, which heightens sensitivity to sounds, tastes, smells. o Like alcohol, (depressant) - reduces inhibition, impairs motor and coordination skills, perceptual skills o Disrupt memory formation and short-term recall. o Stays in body up to a week's so regular users need less of the drug rather than more to receive the same high. o Used as medicine to relieve pain and nausea • Some hallucinogens are used for PTSD treatment. Allow people to access painful memories from past that's detached from strong emotions - so they can come to terms with it.

ID, Ego, and Superego

• Id- innate. The reservoir of all psychic energy. The id seeks to discharge tension arising from internal needs or external stimulation. It is made up of all instincts and wants to get rid of all uncomfortable feelings. (This is called a "Drive Reduction Theory"). o "The pleasure principle"- To gain pleasure or avoid pain. To accomplish this it uses: -Reflex actions (for instance sneezing) -Primary Processes (Forming a mental image of the desired object) - Wish fulfillment- The image of your desire which temporarily restores comfort. • Ego- "The Reality Principle" - Operates on secondary processes. (Reality testing) Mediates the demands of reality vs. the desires of the Id. The self. This is who we identify with/believe ourselves to be. • Superego- The internalization of cultural ideals and parental sanctions. "Morals" Interjection/Internalization. The Superego inhibits Sexual and Aggressive impulses, and tries to replace reality with morality, striving for perfection. The Superego has subsystems: - The Conscious - what you should not be "wrong" - The Ego Ideal - what you should/want to be "right" o If you think about this theory, its the classic angel(super-ego) and devil (id)on the shoulder telling you what to do. It is up to you to decide (ego), but if your conscious self (ego)is weak, you'll end up having one of the other two take overleading to an imbalance. This is why psychoanalytic therapy focuses on raising the intrapsychic conflicts to the conscious level.

TrypV1 receptor function

• In order for us to sense temperature, we rely on the TrypV1 receptor. o Interestingly, this receptor is also sensitive to pain. o There are thousands of these in membranes. Heat causes a conformational change (change in physical structure) in the protein. o When cell is poked, thousands of cells are broken up, and releases different molecules that bind to TrypV1 receptor. Causes change in conformational change, which activates the cell and sends signal to brain.

UMN vs. LMN

• LMNs control muscles of limbs and trunk, while LMNs that pass through cranial nerves control muscles of head and neck. • UMNs control the LMNs. Found in the cerebral cortex, and synapse on LMNs in the brainstem or spinal cord. • Can divide them into tracts depending if they go to brainstem, or spinal cord. o UMN starts in cerebral cortex, axon travels down through brainstem, and where it meets the spinal cord most of these axons cross and travel down other side until they reach LMN. This collection of axons is called the corticospinal tract. o If it goes to brainstem, called corticobulbar tract

Macula vs. fovea

• Macula: special part of retina rich in cones, but there are also rods. • Fovea: special part of macula. Completely covered in cones, no rods. *Rest of the retina is covered in primarily rods.

Milgram Experiment

• Milgram studies were done to study the willingness of participants, average Americans, to obey authority figures that instructed them to perform behaviors that conflicted with their personal beliefs and morals. • Deceived study participants in order to recruit participants. Posted ads about recruiting people to a study on memory/learning. The purpose was to get everyday people.

Biological basis for Alzheimers

• Most common disorder in dementia category, or neurocognitive disorders. Loss of cognitive functions. Memory also decreases. But normal motor functions are fine until later stages where they lose basic activities of daily living (ADL) - toileting, eating, bathing, etc. • Cause of disease is limited. • Brain tissue has decreased in size significantly - shrivelled up, atrophy. o It's the cerebrum that often dramatically decreases in size. Severity of atrophy correlates with severity of dementia. o Starts in temporal lobes, important for memory. o Later, atrophy spreads to parietal and frontal lobes. Many other cognitive functions. • Under microscope, 3 main abnormalities: loss of neurons, plaques (amyloid, because plaques are made of beta-amyloid. Occur in spaces between cells, outside of neurons in abnormal clumps), and tangles (neurofibrillary tangles, clumps of a protein tau. Located inside neurons. Develop proteins normally in the brain, but changed so it's abnormal and causes them to clump together). o Not clear if they're what's killing neurons, or if they're a by-product. • Group of neurons at base of cerebrum, called the nucleus basalis is often lost early in course of Alzheimer's. Important for cognitive functions - send long axons to cerebral cortex and through cerebrum, and release acetylcholine. Contribute to cognitive functions of disease. • Synapses appear to not function clearly long before disease. • Also genetic mutations, many involved in processing of amyloid protein. • Also ApoE4 involved in metabolism of fats is strongly related to AD. • Also, high blood pressure increases risk of disorder too. • Things that decrease it - higher education, challenging jobs with difficult thinking.

Theories of emotion

• Motivation has 5 schools of thought/approaches:: o Evolutionary Approach- role instincts play in motivation. What do humans do to survive? What is not-learned and just instinct. § Ex. Think about baby, cries, sleep, eat. Basic instincts that all humans have. o Drive Reduction Theory / Drive Theory- focuses on drives vs. needs; suggests that depression stems from a reduction in the motivating forces of arousal § Need is lack or deprivation that will energize the drive, or aroused state. § That drive is the aroused state. Fulfilling the drive will reduce the need. This need-drive balance is what maintains homeostasis. Typically basic, essential, and physiological § Ex. You are at the gym and need for water. Trainer says you need to do more exercise. In this example, need: water, drive: thirst. Doing push ups is means to fulfill drive for water. o Optimum Arousal Theory - people want to reach full arousal/alertness. Drive to get full arousal, and natural high - a state we enjoy. Ex. Why people go to amusement parks. o Cognitive - (rational and decision making ability) - thought processes drive behavior; Ex. Light bulb going off in one's head; cognitive theorist would argue that arousal is essential to sustaining most behaviors. o Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - we want to satisfy needs in particular order. Why we use a pyramid.

Associative vs. Non-associative learning

• Non-associative learning - when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus, ex. habituation and sensitization. In habituation, person tunes out the stimulus. Dishabituation occurs when previously habituated stimulus is removed. Sensitization is increase in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus. • Associative learning - when one event is connected to another, ex. classical and operant conditioning.

3 components of emotion?

• Physiological components - when surprised Heart rate might increase, muscles tense, temperature increase. • Cognitive - vary person to person, they're mental assessments that can include appraisal of what is happening, thoughts and expectations about the situation. Cognitive experiences result from emotions, and can cause emotions. Ex. Someone might enjoy surprise party because of your previous cognition, or someone might hate surprise party. • Behavioural - emotions produces different behavioral responses evident from body language or facial expression. Expressions vary by individual and interpreted differently culture to culture.

Positive vs. negative control

• Positive control - treatment with known response • Negative control - group with no response expected

Biological basis for Parkinson's

• Progressive neurological disorder involving motor abnormalities and mental dysfunction (neural) too. Most common neurological problems are slowed movements, a type of tremor, increased muscle tone, abnormal walking, and poor balance (leading to falls). Muscles are stiffer and slow with tremor. Later in disease when motor abnormalities are severe, patients may not be able to care for themselves and have abnormalities of cognitive, emotional, and autonomic functions. • Brains of patients have abnormalities visible to naked eye - in brainstem, the substantia nigra (means black substance, usually darker than surrounding black tissue in normal patients) is less dark or not dark at all in Parkinson's disease patients. Suggests only one type of neuron is involved. These cells/neurons lost are ONLY dopaminergic neurons (NT dopamine releasing). Motor abnormalities related to loss of dopaminergic neurons lost at the substantia nigra. o Dopaminergic neurons in other areas are lost as well. o Substantia nigra is one part of the basal ganglia. If we section a brain from top to bottom, and we look at deep area of cerebrum, near the center there will be a collection of structures called the basal ganglia. One part of this is the substantia nigra. Basal ganglia is located at the base of the forebrain. § Basal ganglia plays a role in motor functions and some mental functions. Receives info from many places in nervous system, particularly the outermost layer of the cerebrum (cerebral cortex). § Basal ganglia processes that info and sends it back to areas of cerebral cortex to influence areas of activity such as motor cortex. o Substantia Nigra also projects to area of basal ganglia called the striatum, and loss of Dopamine neurons protecting from substantia nigra to the striatum causes most of motor abnormalities of Parkinson's. o Under the microscope, we see "diseases neurons" which are degenerating in the substantia nigra. Often contains Lewy bodies - abnormal structures inside Dopaminergic neurons of Substantia Nigra. The Lewy bodies contain a protein alpha synuclein, a normal protein present in brain cells under normal conditions are clumped together in Parkinson's disease. § Area of research: Do Lewy bodies kill the dopaminergic neurons? Or is something else killing these dopaminergic neurons and the Lewy bodies are formed in the process? o In more-advanced stages of Parkinson's Disease - there are wide spread neuronal loss and Lewy body depositions throughout cerebral cortex. This disease also includes cognitive dysfunction. o Lewy body disease - less motor abnormalities from basal ganglia dysfunction and more cognitive dysfunction from loss of function from cerebral cortex. Separate from Parkinson's. • Risk factors: genetic mutations have been found in some families with inherited form of disease, rural living with exposure to agricultural chemicals can be a risk factor. o unclear how these factors cause or contribute to the disorder. • Leading candidate for treatment with stem cells since only 1 type of cell affected.

Taste buds

• Taste buds are concentrated anteriorly (front) on the tongue. Taste buds can be fungiform (anterior), foliate (side), and circumvallate (back). o In each taste bud are the 5-receptor cells that can detect each taste. Each taste can be detected anywhere on the tongue. Each taste bud has cells specialized for each of the 5 tastes. o Mostly on anterior part of tongue. • Fungiform papillae are mushroom-shaped structures located on the tip and sides of the tongue, which contain taste buds. • Foliate papillae are folded structures at the back of the tongue on both sides, which contain taste buds. • Circumvallate papillae are flat mound structures that are found at the back of the tongue and contain taste buds. • Filiform papillae do not contain taste buds and exist all over the tongue. The center of the tongue contains only filiform papillae. This is why stimulation of the center of the tongue does not cause a taste sensation, while the back and perimeter produce a broad range of taste sensations. • Front 2/3rd carries signals via 7th cranial nerve via the chorda tympani • Posterior (Rear 1/3rd ) carries signals via the 9th and 10th cranial nerves (glossopharyngeal and vagus)

Depressant and opiate effects

• Psychoactive Drugs: Alter your consciousness by altering your perceptions and moods. • Depressants: lower HR, reaction time, processing speed, slowing of neural processing/sympathetic nervous system. Act on GABA (inhibitory neuro transmitter) receptors, open up Cl- channels on your neuron and inhibit excitation. • Alcohol - most common depressant. o Common depressant symptoms o Disrupts REM cycle - for memories /new synapses is reduced o Disinhibited - removes inhibitions. Acting on impulses. reduced self-awareness and control o Alcohol is a CNS depressant that is absorbed through the cell membrane. • Barbiturates: used to be called a tranquilizer. Depressant. o Induce sleep, reduce anxiety. o Side effects: reduced memory + judgement + concentration o Combined with alcohol = leads to death • Benzodiazepines (Benzos): depressant. Commonly prescribed. o Short-acting (preferred for insomnia) , intermediate acting, long acting (preferred to treat anxiety) • Opiates: can be used to treat pain/anxiety o Examples: Opiates: (acronym: T = Tree = Natural). Morphine/codeine o Opioids: oxycodone/hydrocodone (prescription), heroin o Act on endorphin receptors. NOT a DEPRESSANT but can be used for anxiety/pain o Used to treat pain (endorphins) o Euphoria o Methadone = treatment • Drugs and opiates can be addictive

Pupil vs. Iris

• Pupil: the opening in the middle of the iris. The size of the pupil can get bigger/smaller based on the iris relaxing/contracting respectively. The pupil modulates the amount of light able to enter the eyeball. • Iris: Gives the eye color. The muscle that constricts/relaxes to change the size of the pupil.

Retrograde vs. anterograde memory

• Retrograde memory: refers to ability to remember experiences before a brain injury (Retro = before) • Anterograde memory: refers to ability to form long-term memories after brain injury

Routes of drug entry

• Routes of Entry: Oral, injection, inhalation, • Oral is ingesting something, one of slowest routes because goes through GI tract - half hour. Ex. Pill, alcohol. • Inhalation is breathing or snorting or smoking, because once you inhale goes straight to brain. Insufflation, inhaling drugs through the nose, is highly addictive but less addictive than drugs that are injected. - 10 seconds. faster Ex. Tobacco or cocaine . • Injection- most direct, intravenous means goes right to vein. Takes effects within seconds. Fastest Can be very dangerous (likely to inject bacteria and unexpected toxins) especially when using an infected needle. • Transdermal - drug is absorbed through skin, ex. Nicotine patch. Drug in patch has to be pretty potent, released into bloodstream over several hours. o Transdermal administration occurs slowly, since the drugs have to be absorbed through the skin before the effects can be felt. • Intramuscular -needle stuck into muscle. Can deliver drugs to your system slowly or quickly. o Ex: Quick Delivery - epiPen - given to someone experiencing an allergic reaction which starts closing airways. EpiPen delivers epinephrine quickly and allows airways to open). Usually on thigh because it has the most access points to blood vessels o Ex: Slow Delivery Vaccines. Intramuscular delivery of vaccines is why your arm gets so sore after shots. o Intramuscular injection is the fastest route of entry. Most abused drugs are injected intravenously, however. • Faster route of entry = more addictive potential.

Somatosensory homunculus

• Somatosensory Homunculus: A map of your body in your brain. Information all comes to the "sensory strip". It is a topological map of the entire body in the cortex. Different areas of the body have signals that go to different parts on this strip. • This part of cortex/parietal lobe is called the sensory cortex - contains the homunculus. • Info from body all ends up in this somatosensory cortex of the parietal lobe. • Brain has information that comes from various different parts of the body. • If there was a brain tumor, to figure out what part it's in neurosurgeons can touch diff parts of cortex and stimulate them. If surgeon touches part of cortex patients can say they feel it. Do it to make sure they aren't removing parts in sensation, which would make patients loose sensation in those areas.

Stimulant effects

• Stimulate -stimulate or intensity neural activity/bodily functions. • Range from caffeine to cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamines, and ecstasy. In between is nicotine. • Caffeine (inhibits adenosine receptors) can disrupt your sleep. Increases energy, can disrupt sleep for several hours • Nicotine - Increase HR/BP. also disrupts sleep and can suppress appetite (why some people gain weight when they quit smoking) o At high levels, nicotine can cause muscles to relax and release stress-reducing neurotransmitters (to counteract hyper alertness). o Nicotine is a CNS stimulant, which works as an acetylcholine receptor agonist. • Both caffeine and nicotine: o Physiologically addicting. o Withdrawal symptoms from both: § From coffee: irritability, difficulty concentrating, depression, § Nicotine: (more addictive than coffee) Anxiety, insomnia, irritability, distractibility • Cocaine is even stronger stimulant - causes brain to releases so much dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine that it depletes your brain's supply. Intense crash and very depressed when it wears off. o Regular users can experience disturbances, emotional suspicion, convulsions, cardiac arrest, and respiratory failure. • Amphetamines and methamphetamines also trigger release of dopamine, feeling of euphoria for up to 8 hours. Once effect wears off - experience irritability, insomnia, seizures, depression o Meth is highly addictive. o Long-term Meth addicts may lose ability to maintain normal level of dopamine because brain tries to adjust to intense highs. o Amphetamines block the reuptake of dopamine, which stimulates an increase in the release of dopamine from the presynaptic membrane. *Stimulants increase arousal in the nervous system, often through the release and inhibition of the reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. This effectively increases arousal, increasing heart rate and blood pressure, and creating effects of anxiety, delusions of grandeur, euphoria, hypervigilance, and decreased appetite.

Hawthorne effect

• The Hawthorne effect (also referred to as the observer effect) is a type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed. (acronym: observe the THORNes) The Hawthorne effect occurs when an individual participant changes his or her behavior, specifically due the awareness of being observed.

Substance use disorder

• They can lead to substance-use-disorders - Occurs when use the drug causes a serious/real degree of impairment in functioning in life, at work, school, or home. Not everyone experiences this (ex. Not everyone who drinks alcohol or smokes cigarettes have a substance use disorder) o With Substance-Use- disorder, we are looking at a problem with their substance use. o How do you know someone has a substance use disorder? By looking at their substance usage- are they using increasingly large amounts, stronger cravings (desires to use), more time recovering from it (or trying to get substance), failing to cut back, are they experiencing obligations related to work/home/school? o Second factor is presence of withdrawal - start feeling sick or unwell (after having stopped using drug). Suggests you're physiologically dependent. Can be dangerous (ex. alcohol withdrawal can lead to seizures which can lead to death). Withdrawal is specific to the substance. § ex. Alcohol withdrawal: Withdrawal symptoms can begin as soon as blood alcohol concentrations decline sharply. This often occurs within four to twelve hours after alcohol consumption has stopped. Symptoms of alcohol withdrawal can be alleviated through the use of benzodiazepines. Typically, acute withdrawal symptoms reach their peak two days after cession of alcohol consumption and improve within four or five days. Peak of symptoms is around 2 days ~ and then start showing improvement 4-5 days. o Also tolerance - your body adapts or builds a tolerance to the substance. Effect decreases with equal dose. They increase dose to get same level of intoxication. • There are different severities of substance-use disorders from mild, medium, to severe. • With caffeine, only drug for which we can't develop substance-use disorder.

Components of attitude

• We can break down attitude into 3 components. These components shape our attitude. o Affective (emotional) - we may feel or have emotions about a certain object, topic, subject. § Ex: I am scared (an emotion) of spiders is an emotional attitude and shapers our attitude about spiders. o Behavioural - how we act or behave towards object/subject § Ex; I will avoid (action/behavior) spiders and scream (action/behavior) if I see one. Influence our attitude. o Cognitive component -form thoughts/beliefs, and have knowledge about subject/topic that will influence and shape our attitude (perhaps prior knowledge that will help you shape attitude). Their cognitions. § Ex: I believe spiders are dangerous (We have a belief they are dangerous) which forms our attitude. Example 1: "I love yoga because I get to mediate and I believe it helps me relax so I will go to class each week." - 'I love yoga' is emotional,' I believe it helps me relax' is cognitive, and behavioural is 'I will go to class each week' • Example 2: "I am frightful of rollercoasters and believe they are stupid so I will be on the carousel." Affective - 'I am frightful', behavioural is 'I will be on the carousel', and cognitive is 'I believe they are stupid'