Khan Academy Psych/Soc Kaplan
out-group
"Them" group we're not associated with, "group of people who we do not feel connected to"
proprioception
- sense of balance/position - tiny little receptors/sensors known as spindles are on muscles and contract with muscles so can tell when muscle is contracted/relaxed - cognitive awareness of your body position in space
GABA and glycine
-amino acid/most common inhibitory neurotransmitter thought to play a role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain
amphetamines effects on dopamine
amphetamines block the reuptake of dopamine which then results in a release of more dopamine from presynaptic membrane
part of brain associated with emotion, aggression, mating etc
amygdala
MEG (megnetoencephalogram)
better resolution than EEG but more reare bc requires bigger machine and special room to shield it - records magnetic fields produced by electric currents in the brain
exurbs
beyond suburbs, prosperous areas outside the city where people live and commute to city to work, like suburbs
which ones penetrate deeper into cochlea? smaller or bigger wavelengths?
bigger wavelengths = smaller frequency = travel farther = penetrate deeper
attitude
learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. to evaluate people, issues, events, objects
shaping
learning a target behavior through successively reinforcing behaviors (ex: showing up to yoga class -> putting hands on mat --> lifting up onto head with arms on mat --> headstand)
classical conditioning
learning process in which an innate response to a potent stimulus comes to be elicited in response to a previously neutral stimulus. achieved by repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus with the potent stimulus - does not involve a change in behavior like operant conditioning
observational learning
learning through watching and imitating others. there were mirror neurons found to support this
contralateral control
left brain controls right side of body and right hemisphere of brain controls left side of body (basically true for all senses except smell)
left brain vs. right brain
left brain: logical, sequential, rational, analytical, objective looks at parts (needed for language) right brain: random, intuitive, holistic, synthesizing, subjective, looks at whole (needed for action/perception/attention)
dominant hemisphere
left is dominant for vast majority of people
alogia
lessening of speech fluency and productivity. thought to reflect slow/blocked thoughts and often manifested as short, empty replies to questions negative symptom of schizophrenia
activity theory
looks at how older generations look at themselves. certain activities or jobs lost so those social interactions need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged and maintain moral/well-being
racial formation theory
looks at social/economic/political forces that result in racially constructed identities
learned helplessness
lose ability to identify coping mechanisms because taking less control of outcome of your life which can cycle downward into major depression
neurocognitive disorders
loss of cognitive/other functions of the brain after nervous system has developed. delerium (reversible episode of cognitive/higher brain probs), dementia
depressants
lower body's basic functions and neural activity (lower CNS activity - decrease arousal/stimulation in certain parts of brain) so experience decreased heart rate, decreased blood pressure, decreased reaction time - act on GABA receptors
class consciousness
lower classes unite as they realize they are being exploited by upper classes. awareness of one's place in a system of social classes, especially (in Marxist terms) as it relates to the class struggle.
conflict theory
macrosciology - theory propounded by Karl Marx that claims society is in a state of perpetual conflict due to competition for limited resources. It holds that social order is maintained by domination and power, rather than consensus and conformity. constant struggle for power where oppressed groups are in conflict with other groups to achieve equality and power - marx believed society evolved through several stages: feudalism -> capitalism (19th century europe with bourgeoisie and proletariat aka poor lower class) -> socialism
functionialism
macrosociology - the theory that all aspects of a society serve a function and are necessary for the survival of that society. - largely unable to explain social change and conflict so focused on equilibrium
signal detection theory: d'
parameter that estimates strength of signal hit > miss (when signal is strong) miss > hit (when signal is weak) difference between the means of the noise distribution graph and the signal detection graph (if signal shifted to right, d' is big and easy to detect. if signal shifted to left, d' is small and more difficult to detect)
amygdala
part of limbic center aggression center. stimulating amygdala produces anger/violence and fear/anxiety
thalamus
part of limbic system relays information from the body to different areas of the brain for processing
pons
part of the brain that regulates walking and relaxing
trichromatic theory of color
states we have cones receptive to 3 color (red, green, blue) and that these are mixed together and you perceive color can't fully explain color perception because you can't mix red and green or blue and yellow
retroactive interference
recently learned information impairs ability to retrieve old information (ex: writing new address makes it difficult to recall older address)
retrograde amnesia vs. anterograde amnesia
retrograde amnesia: inability to recall info previously encoded anterograde amnesia: inability to encode new memories
retrograde memory vs. anterograde memory
retrograde memory refers to ability to remember experiences before a brain injury anterograde memory refers to ability to form long-term memories after brain injury
fovea
special part of macula (in retina) that consists completely of cones (no rods)
macula
special part of retina that is rich in rods (some cones present)
weber's law
states there is constant ratio between the change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce a jnd (just noticeable difference) and the magnitude of the original stimulus
biomedical vs. biopsychosocial models
biomedical focuses on biological, physical abnormalities (abnormalities of brain cells might cause mental disorders) biopsychosocial = considers abnormalities as well as psychological and cultural/social factors that might be useful for classifying mental disorder
drug tolerance
body gets used to drug so you need more to achieve same results shift in dose response curve that causes decreased sensitivity to drug due to exposure
physiological effects on body weight of sleep deprivation
body produces more cortisol and ghrelin making person more susceptible to obesity
what is the only drug we can't develop a substance-use disorder with/for?
caffeine
methadone
can be used to treat addition to opioids/opiates like heroine because it blocks the receptors that they bind to but act slower and thus dampen the high
autocommunication
can give information to themselves (ex: bats and echolocation allows them to gain info about environment)
reinforcement modeling
can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement. parents who give into demands of child during temper tantrums lead to more tantrums in future. also if parents yell/hit each other, child will pick up on behavior too
fixation
can occur at particular stages during psychosexual development (freud) which results in effects on adult personality (ex: someone fixated on oral stage might have personality characteristics that reflect that like smoking/overly talkative)
PET (positron emission tomography)
can't give detail of structure but can combine them with CAT scans and MRIs - inject glucose into cells to see what areas of brain are more active at given point in time (active cells use most glucose) so it's more invasive
altruism
care about welfare of other people and are acting to help them. beneficial to society and also individuals. found connection between volunteerism and future health and well-being. also higher life satisfaction and decreased risk for depression/anxiety
temperament
characteristic emotional reactivity, intensity, shyness, sociability seems to be established before babies are exposed to environment
autism spectrum disorders
characterized by a variety of issues related to social and communication abilities. first symptoms of the disorder typically include delayed language development and unusual communication patterns
inclusive fitness
concerns the # of offspring an animal has, how they support them, and how offspring support each other. thinking about fitness on a larger evolutionary scale and how advantageous it is for animals to propagate survival of closely related indivs and genes in addition to themselves
role conflict
conflict/tension between two or more different statuses, unlike role strain. different status compete for someone's time. ex: someone who is a parent, husband, and worker. as a husband, he has an anniversary coming up. as a worker, he has to go to work. as a parent, he has to go to kid's concert
corpus collosum
connects right and left cerebral hemispheres
perception
conscious sensory experience of neural processing
conservative view. vs. progressive view of institutions
conservative view of institutions: institutions are natural byproducts of human nature progressive view of institutions: institutions are artificial creations that need to be redesigned if they are not helpful (ex: businesses)
3 cues of kelley's covariation model
consistency (time), distinctiveness (situation), consensus (people) - when thnk of behavior is high -> internal attribution (ex: friend who keeps cancelling plans results in us believing they are flaky) - if situation is distinct -> external attribution (ex: very nice friend jim gets very mad at pizza place which is out of character so we are more likely to attribute behavior to external factors) - greater consensus of behavior among people -> external attribution (ex: if you arrive late at a meeting but 20 other people are late too there's a high degree of consensus so more likely to attribute behavior to external factor)
monocular cues of constancy
constancy is our perception that an object doesn't change even if the image cast on the retina is different. different types include size constancy, shape constancy, color constancy
feminist theory
contemporary approach of looking at world from macro-perspective. developed from feminism movement originating from conflict theory by focusing on stratifications/inequalities in society. examines women's social roles/experiences in education, family, workforce. looks beyond more common male-based perspective to focus on gender inequalities in society - women face discrimination, objectification, oppression, stereotyping
context effects
context in which stimuli are presented and processes of perceptual organization contribute to how people perceive the stimuli
when things are close to us, the muscles of eyes are ____
contracted
low-effort syndrome/low-effort coping
coping responses of minority groups in attempt to fit into dominant culture. ex: minority students at school may learn to put in only minimal effort as they believe they're being discriminated against by dominant culture
perceived similarity
couples can stay together due to this because over time, interests and beliefs are more aligned so they become more similar as time goes on. perceived because they may think the other person is similar but actually aren't similar
covert vs. overt behavior
covert = not observable overt = observable
institutions
create rules that impact all of society and guide what we do. essential parts of society (police stations, hospitals, businesses, etc) - each individual is very replaceable though they are created by individuals, they continue even after an individual is gone
erikson stage 7
crisis is generativity vs. stagnation middle adulthood. requires individuals to determine the extent to wish they wish to "put back" energy into family, work, and community (generativity) or simply care for their own needs (stagnation) virtue = adults feel they are giving back and develop sense of care for others failure may lead to feeling stagnated and unproductive
collective behavior
differs from group behavior because: - it's time limited and involves short social interactions while groups stay together and socialize for long period of time - collectives can be open while groups can be exclusive - have loose norms (which are murkily defined) while groups have strongly held/well-defined norms
extinction
disappearance of the conditioned response
cognitive dissonance
discomfort experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting cognitions (ideas, beliefs, values, emotional rxns). these conflicting ideas lead to feelings of discomfort which we want to alleviate - we modify our cognitions to reduce cognitive dissonance rather than our behavior
microsciology
face to face interactions between individual and family, society, etc. look at society and how individual interactions affect larger social dynamics - symbolic interactionism
what do cattell, eysenck, and big 5 all use?
factor analysis - statistical method that categorizes and determines major categories of traits/reduces variable and detects structure bw variables
operant conditioning
focuses on the relationship between behavior and their consequences and how those in turn influence behavior - reinforcement increases a behavior - punishment decreases a behavior
self-esteem/self-worth
how much value we place on ourselves
opponent process theory of color vision
states we have cones that are receptive to 4 colors (red, green, blue, YELLOW) - red and green oppose each other - blue and yellow oppose - black and white oppose and only one color can dominate at a time
ascribed status
status given from birth based on gender, race, family origins, ethnic backgrounds. ex: prince of royal family, person born into wealthy family has high ascribed status based solely on the social networks and economic advantages that one gains from being born into a family with more resources than others
achieved status
status you earn yourself after working for it/reflects both personal ability and merit. an individual's occupation tends to fall under this category. ex: olympic theater
self fulfilling prophecy
stereotypes can lead to behaviors that affirm the original stereotypes "city dwellers are rude" (cognition, stereotyping) -> "i don't like them" (affective component, prejudice) -> "i will avoid them" (behavioral component, discrimination)
thermoreceptors
stimulated by heat, cold, certain food chemicals (capasicin) located in skin and hypothalamus
photoreceptor
stimulated by light (visible wavelengths) located in eyes (rod and cone cells)
mechanoreceptors
stimulated by mechanical stress, pressure changes (baroreceptors), sound waves, gravity. located in skin, blood vessels, ear
chemoreceptors
stimulated by specific chemicals, totaly solute concentrations (osmoreceptors), blod pH (CO2 levels), prostaglandins (nocireceptors) located in tongue, blood (dissolved chemicals), nose (vaporized) chemicals, and tissue
subliminal stimuli
stimuli below the absolute threshold of sensation
opposite of sensory adaptation
up-regulation or amplification (ex: light hits photoreceptors and cells fire AP which can be connected to 2 cells both of which fire AP so by the time signal gets to brain it's amplified)
what controls lower motor neurons
upper motor neurons which are found in cerebral cortex and synapse on lower motor neurons in the brainstem or spinal cord
hypothesis of relative deprivation
upsurge in prejudice/discrimination when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to - linked to frustration aggression hypothesis
cones
used for color vision and to sense fine details - most effective in bright lights and come in 3 forms (all which are named for wavelengths of light they best absorb) red, green, blue - most are centered on fovea which is in the macula which is in the retina
nicotine patch
used for nicotine addiction because it releases nictone at low levels which prevents release or reuptake of dopamine
top-down processing
uses background knowledge which influences our perception - theory/conceptually driven (driven by memories and expectations that allow brain to recognize the whole object and then its components based on expectation) - perception influenced by our expectation - deductive reasoning (not always correct - ex: picture shows image that looks like a cube but is actually not a cube)
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
uses radio waves exposed to magnetic field to create image of brain - doesn't tell us anything about brain function
riots
violent form of crowd behavior that results from feelings of injustice or feeling that needs have been ignored. typically result in property damage and other significant crimes
where does visual + spatial info get processed? where is verbal info? and what coordinates memory into these different processing centers?
visual + spatial info processed in visuo-spatial sketchpad. verbal info processed in phonological loop the central executive coordinates and supervises the cognitive process of memory
social facts
ways of thinking and acting formed by society that existed before any one individual and will still exist after any individual is dead
conflict theory related to medicine
wealthier people can pay for best medical care while the poor can't afford the deductibles/insurance so they skip hospitals and are sick for longer and and thus don't get better - unequal access to valuable resources in society (education, housing, jobs) leads to health disparities and limited access to medical care - power struggles between different interest groups can affect health of individual
self image
what we believe we are, the view we have of ourselves
gender script
what we expect men and females to do. organized information regarding the order of actions that are approximate to a familiar situation
me
what we learn about ourselves through interactions with others. how individual believes the generalized other perceives us, the social self socialized and conforming aspect of self
medicalization
occurs when human conditions previously considered normal get defined as medical conditions and are subject to studies, diagnosis, and treatment. ex: ADD and ADHD
divided attention
occurs when individual must complete 2 tasks at same time
visible wavelength range of light
400 nm (violet) - 700 nm (red) ROYGBV (highest to lowest wavelength)
1 yr prevalence of personality disorders among americans 18 yrs +
9%
1 yr prevalence of mood disorders among americans 18 yrs +
9.5%
total population increase rate
(# of birth + # immigration)/1000 multiply this by population number
total population decrease rate
(# of deaths + # of emigrants)/1000 = rate multiply rate of population #
monocular cues
- 2 eyes not needed to receive these. give humans sense of form of object like relative size (closer object perceived as bigger) - interposition: perception that one object is in front of another (object in front looks closer) - relative height meaning things that are higher are perceived to be farther away than those that are lower - shading and contour aka use of light and shadows to perceive form (depth/contours, crater/mountain)
theory of primary mental abilities
- LL Thurnstone - 7 factors of intelligence (word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial reasoning, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, memory) strength: breakdown seems intuitive (possible to have high inductive skills w/o high verbal comprehension) problems: limited in what considers intelligence, scores seem to vary together suggesting underlying intelligence factor
episodic buffer
- a component of primary memory proposed by baddely and hitch's theory of working memory. along with the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad. - acts as a connector for the information to be stored in long-term memory
narcolepsy
- about 1 in 2000 - can't help falling asleep at random times - unknown cause but indication it's genetic and is linked to absence of alertness neurotransmitter - neurochemical interventions can potentially overcome disorder
endocrine responses of stress
- adrenal medulla release catecholamines (epinephrine/adrenaline and norepinephrine/noreadrenaline) - adrenal cortex release glucocorticoids (cortisol) which redistributes glucose glucose energy in body and suppresses immune system
criticisms of the asch conformity studies
- all participants came from same population (male undergrads from same culture) - participants knew they were coming in for study so had suspicions - ecological validity (do conditions of study mimic those of real world?) - demand characteristics (describes how participants change behavior to match expectations of experimenter)
examples of cohorts
- always-on generation (2004+) - generation z (1995 - 2003) - millenials (1980s - 2000s) - generation x (1965-1980) - baby boomers (1946-1964) - silent generation (1925-1945) - GI generation - 1910 - 1924
glutamate
- amino acid - most common excitatory neurotransmitter in central nervous system
parkinson's disease
- associated with decreased levels of dopamine in midbrain - progressive neurological disorder involving motor abnormalities and mental disfunction. - most common neurological problems are slowed movements, type of tremor, abnormal walking, poor balance, muscles stiff. may eventually lead to cognitive, emotional abnormalities
types of personalities more subject to prejudice
- authoritarian personality - obedient to superiors - oppressive - inflexible with viewpoints - probably had a harsh bringing/lots of discipline growing up - use prejudice to protect their ego and avoid confronting aspects of themselves because they're always focused on others
"old" brain
- brainstem: medulla, pons. controls heart rate/breathing - reticular formation: from brainstem to other brain areas. filters info and sends improtant info to thalamus. sleep/wake cycle. ability to be aware - thalamus: above brainstem. relay station (eye/ear info) - cerebellum: coordinates voluntary movement (alcohol affects this area)
humanistic theory of personality
- carl rogers - focuses on healthy personality development. most basic motive of all people is self-actualization and this innate drive to maintain and enhance oneself to full potential. people have free will - diff from freud bc freud's theory said personality is deterministic - diff from maslow (another humanist) who believed hierarchy of needs must be met before self-actualization. rogers believed we met needs in early childhood - rogers believed people were inherently good
epinephrine/norepinephrine
- catecholamines/monoamines - neurotransmitters known as catecholamines that are involved in controlling alertness and wakefulness. primary neurotransmitter of sympathetic nervous system, promote fight-or-flight response. - norepinephrine tends to act at a local level whereas epinephrine is more often secreted from the adrenal medulla to act systematically as a hormone low levels of norepinephrine associated with depression high levels associated with mania/anxiety
korsakoff's syndrome
- caused lack of vitamin B1/thiamine (malnutrition, eating disorders, especially alcoholism) - thiamine converts carbohydrates into glucose that neuronal cells need - not progressive like AD's - main symptoms of severe memory loss and confabulation - if wernicke's encephalopathy isn't treated, it progresses to korsakoff's
theory of general intelligence
- charles spearman - g factor - can be divided into 2 types of intelligence: 1. fluid intelligence: ability to reason quickly and abstractly/solve probs using inductive and deductive reasoning and w/o previously learned knowledge 2. crystallized intelligence: ability to think logically using specific, previously learned knowledge strength: highly supported by ressearch. those who score high in one area also score highly in other areas probs: limited in what it considers intelligence
factors that increase likelihood of obedience of authority
- closeness to authority member - physical proximity to authority figure - legitimacy of authority - institutional authority - distance from victim - depersonalization - role models for defiance
sociocultural/environmental factors that can contribute to development of depression
- co-rumination/empathy: having close partner/friend with depression - low SES - social isolation - child abuse - internalization of predudice
taste buds
- contain 5-receptor cells for each taste - contained in structures called papillae - concentrated in front of tongue
retrieval cues (3)
- context-dependent (often environmental stimuli that was present at the time the memory that is sought was originally formed) - priming (occurs outside conscious awareness and makes individual more likely to recall a memory similar to the retrieval cue even though individual is not conscious of the connection) - role of emotion/state-dependent (memory retrieval strongest when the emotional state during retrieval is similar to that of memory formation)
dissociative identity disorder
- defined by experience of dissociation: split between different aspects of psychological functioning. can be experienced as a disruption in identity, memory, or consciousness - formerly called multiple personality disorder - people who typically have history of child abuse or other extreme life stressor - very rare in north america but even more rare in other parts of the world so experts think it might be a social construct rather than disorder
family as a social institution
- defined by many forms of kinship, including marriage, blood, or adoption. small nuclear family more emphasized in US - diff family values go with diff values of family and economy (rural families production based so large families whereas urban families are consumption based so smaller families cause less strain for resources) - marriage - child abuse - abuses through neglect - elder abuse - spouse abuse
4 common delusions associated with schizophrenia
- delusions of persecutions: belief that others, "they" are out to get him/her. often involve bizarre ideas and plots - delusions of reference: a neutral event or message is believed to have special and personal meaning (ex: billboard is sending them a specific message) - delusions of control: belief that one's thoughts or actions are being controlled by outside (alien or gov't) forces. thought broadcasting
hallucinogens
- distorted perceptions/hallucinations - heighted sensations - can give energy or calm them down - can result in feeling of connectedness or can result in mood swings - exact effect individual dependent (ex: LSD, psilocybin - active ingredient in mushrooms, mescalin, peyote)
nativist theory of language development
- emphasizes innate biological mechanisms - Noah Chomsky thought humans have a language acquisition device (LAD) which allows for learning of syntax and grammar
acetylcholine
- other - neurotransmitter found in both CNS and PNS. in PNS, used to transmit nerve impulses to muscles. In CNS, linked to attention and arousal - involved with helping you contract your muscles
interactionist theory of language development
- emphasizes role of social interaction in language acquisition. argues human brain develops so that it can be receptive to new language and development and children are motivated to practice and expand their language base in order to communicate and socialize - associated with vygostky
2 brain abnormalities often seen with schizophrenia
- enlarged fluid filled regions due to less tissue in brain - cerebral cortex decreased in size and disorganized (frontal and temporal lobes) - abnormal activity of the mesocorticolimbic pathway which leads to disfunction in frontal cortex (cognitive symptoms), limbic system (negative symptoms), temporal cortex (positive symptoms)
generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
- excessive, persistent anxiety triggered by wide variety of stimuli - must last for 6 months - 2/3 of people affected are women
development of self-concept has what 2 parts?
- existential self: most basic part of self-concept. the sense of being separate and distinct from others and awareness that self is constant throughout life - categorical self: comes after existential self. becomes aware that even though we're separate/distinct objects/beings we also exist in the world with others. ex: age, gender are first categories. then as we grow older, compare ourselves with others (traits, comparisons, careers)
differences between rods and cones (5)
- eye contains WAY more rods (120 mil rods vs. 60 mil cones) - cones are concentrated in fovea - rods are 1000x more sensitive to light than cones so are better at detecting dark/light - cones detect color but also some light - rods have slow recovery time whereas cones have fast recovery time meaning rods take a while to adjust to dark and need to reactivated whereas cones adapt more quickly (fire more frequently)
procedural memories
- fall under category of implicit/non-declarative memories - actions or habits such as how to kick a ball or washing hands before eating
3 factors that contribute to total growth rate
- fertility - migration - mortality
complex innate behaviors 3
- fixed action patterns (mating dance) - migration (birds flying south in winter) - circadian rhythms (biological clock, waking up early to sing)
wernicke's area
- found in temporal lobe - contributes primarily to understanding of language - pts with damage to this area can hear words and repeat them back but cannot understand the words' meanings (wernicke's aphasia/receptive aphasia)
psychoanalytic theory of personality
- freud - personality is shaped by childhood experiences, person's unconscious thoughts/desires, feelings, and past memories. determined by flow of psychic energy between 3 systems that reside in diff levels of consciousness - assumes crucial personality processes take place outside conscious awareness
3 theories of cities: - functionalist perspective: - conflict theory perspective - symbolic interactionist theory:
- functionalist perspective: cities have important functions and have a slice of culture and diverse populations but also host to crime and other disruptions to society - conflict theory perspective: source of inequality that are entertainment centers for the wealthy. political and economic elite run the city to increase personal resources while taking from the poor - symbolic interactionist theory: cities are places where people have different ways of looking at life. strong cultural values, people have strong cultural values and people have different interactions and perspectives on urban life
schizophrenia
- fundamentally characterized by psychosis (impaired connection with reality) - positive symptoms = hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech - negative symptoms = lack of emotion/motivation/enjoyment of activities - 1% of people have it (equal in males + females) and affects those who are in 16-30 years - genetic and environmental causes - brain abnormalities can be seen in brain scans but diagnosed via clinical interview
gender identity gender expression gender attraction gender fornication
- gender identity: masculine/feminine behaviors, roles, activities in society - gender expression: gender they express - gender attraction: gender they're romantically attracted to - gender fornication: gender they're sexually attracted to
iris
- gives your eye color - muscle that relaxes or contracts in order to open/close pupil
6 external factors that make someone more likely to conform
- group size: more likely to conform in groups of 3-5 - unanimity: when opinions of group are unanimous - group's perceived social status (popular kids) - group cohesion: feel connected to group - observed behavior: whether we believe we are being observed - public response: acceptance vs. shunning
social identity theory
- has 2 parts: personal identity and social identity - personal identity: things unique to each person like personality traits - social identity: includes the groups you belong to in our community - mental process involved in how we categorize ourselves and process involves 3 steps and is the process used when we categorize ourselves, others, and look at the relationship between personal and social identities 1. all humans categorize ourselves and others without really realizing it in order to understand objects/identify them 2. identification: when we adopt identity of the group, we see/categorize us as belonging and behaving and acting like the category we belong to 3. social comparison - how we compare ourselves with other groups. critical to understanding of prejudice because once 2 groups are rivals, we start to compete in order to maintain self-esteem
education as a social institution
- hidden curriculum - expectations of teachers affect how students learn - teachers put students in categories with diff expectations but this can be hurtful especially if the categorization is wrong - education segregation and stratification because we fund schools through property taxes which is why diff districts are funded differently
what 2 areas of the brain have the most glucocorticoid (secreted in response to stress) receptors
- hippocampus (learning and memory) - frontal cortex (responsible for impulse control, reasoning, judgement, planning)
hippocampus
- part of limbic system - key role in forming new memories. converts short-term memories into long-term memories. if destroyed, still have old memories but can't make new ones
theory of multiple intelligence
- howard gardner - expanded ideas of what can be included in intelligence - divided into 7 and then 9 intelligences (logical-mathematical, verbal-linguistic, spatial-visual, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, musical, naturalist, existential intelligence) strengths: can have diff strengths independently and intelligence more than booksmarts problems: no way to test, intelligence vs. talents/abilities
physical consequences of stress
- hypertension - vascular disease - coronary artery disease - metabolic problems associated with too much glucose in body like heart disease or exacerbating metabolic conditions - FSH/LH and then estrogen/progesterone can be inhibited which reduce repro activities - boys can have reduced testosterone - chronic stress can reduce immune system functioning - depression
external locus of control
- important element of social cognitive - believes outside forces help you control your fate - people with external locus of control don't do as well as people with internal locus of control and have higher rates of depression
internal locus of control
- important element of social-cognitive theory - believes you can control fate of own destiny - people with a more internal locus of control achieve more in school/work and cope better with stress and depression
effects of nicotine
- increase HR/BP - can disrupt sleep - can suppress appetite - at high levels can cause muscles to relax and body to release stress-reducing neurotransmitters
nonassociative learning
- learning where no rewarding/punishing is occurring but there's still an increase/decrease in behavioral response - when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus ex: habituation, sensitization
broca's area
- located in front lobe - primarily involved in speech production - when pts have damage to this area, they have difficulty enunciating and pronouncing words but can understand language (broca's/non-fluent aphasia)
signal detection theory
- looks at how we make decisions under conditions of uncertainty - discerning between important stimuli and unimportant noise - originated from determining the origins of sonar (is incoming stimuli from small fish or large whale)
sources of stigma
- media: major source of stigma because it can depict conditions as being dangerous, violent, moral-failings (ex: this occurs in media representation of mental illness). social media is huge component - society: interactions between self and society like education/employment/health care and stigmatizing views can affect individuals getting a job, getting healthcare. a great intervention to stop societal stigma is the use of legislation and anti-discrimination laws - family: family can be shunned by society (if they have a family member with stigmatizing condition) or family might shun individuals themselves. (ex: isolate the individual who's stigmatized against in the family and keep isolate/as secret within family may be detrimental to personal/intimate relationships and interventions like education/therapy are important - self: core circle. media, society, and family interactions can be internalized by an individual and can lead to avoidance, denial of condition, suffering of mental health conditions, and no longer participating in society. useful interventions include educating, access to support groups/resources
long-term potentiation (LTP)
- molecular process underlying the formation of long-term memories through strengthening of synapses - describes in crease in likelihood that presynaptic input will trigger an action potential in postsynaptic neuron
seratonin
- monoamines - neurotransmitter that plays role in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, dreaming oversupply of which associated with manic states undersupply with depression
dopamine
- monoamines - catecholamine neurotransmitter that plays important role in movement and posture imbalances of which been found to play role in schizophrenia
elaboration likelihood model for persuasion (ELM)
- more cognitive approach - 2 ways in which information is processed: 1. central route of persuasion: degree of attitude change depends on quality of the arguments by the persuader (how much we are persuaded depends on quality of persuasion) 2. peripheral route of persuasion: looks at superficial persuasion cues such as attractiveness or status of persuader.
rods
- more functional in reduced illuination - allow sensation of light and dark because they all contain a single pigment, rhodopsin - low sensitivity to details and are not involved in color vision but permit night vision
self-concept
- most personal aspect of identity - knowledge of oneself as a person both separate from other people and constant throughout changing situations - person's POV of his or her own personality - developed and refined through interactions with others
choroid
- network of blood vessels that helps nourish retina - pigmented black in humans because all light is absorbed - some animals have different colored choroids which enables them better night vision
biological basis of parkinson's disease
- only dopaminergic neurons (releases dopamine NT) are lost (brain damage restricted to specific area) - deterioration within the substantia negra located within midbrain - genetic mutations found in some families with inherited form of disease - leading candidate for treatment with stem cells since only 1 type of cell affected
pupil
- opening of the middle of the iris - can get bigger/smaller based on the iris relaxing/contracting respectively in order to modulate the amount of light that comes in
routes of drug entry
- oral: ingesting something. slowest route takes about half an hour because it must go through GI tract - inhalaton: breathing, snorting, smoking. goes straight to brain. more addictive than oral but less than injection - injection: most direct, goes right into vein. effects within seconds. fastest. can be dangerous due to potential exposure of toxins and bacteria with infected needles - transdermal: drug absorbed through skin like nicotine patch. released into bloodstream over several hours - intramuscular: needle stuck into muscle. can happen slowly or quickly. (quick delivery = epipen, slow delivery = vaccines) fastest route of entry
hypothalamus
- part of limbic system - regulates many of the body's metabolic processes like thirst, hunger, and body temperature
socio-cultural sources of aggression
- people act more aggressively in groups (riots) due to deindividuation - people rely on social scripts when they're in new situations which are instructions provided by society on how to act (ex: violent video games model aggressive behavior for them)
endorphins
- peptide neurotransmitters - natural painkillers produced in the brain - actions similar to morphine or other opioids in he body
piaget's stages of cognitive development
- piaget believed children actively constructred their understanding of world as they grew - stage 1 (0-2 yrs) sensorimotor stage: object permanence develops. an object exists even if they can't see them anymore. children recognize ability to act on and affect outside world. - stage 2 (2 - 7 yrs) preoperational stage: children going to engage in pretend play and start to use symbols to represent things. but no empathy and inability to understand perspective of others (egocentric) begin to use language but think very literally - stage 3 (7 - 11 yrs old) concrete operational stage: test to determine if kids are in this stage includes the identical amts of water in 2 diff shaped glass exp. if they reached this stage, kid will recognize amt of water doesn't change despite size change (conservation). begin to learn empathy and reasoning of math skills. kids able to grasp concrete (real) events logically/develop inductive reasoning abilities - stage 4 (12+ yrs) formal operational stage: child is able to think logically about abstract ideas, hypothetical situations, and use abstract thinking to solve novel problems/deductive reasoning. also moral reasoning
specific brain changes during puberty
- prefrontal cortex: develops during adolescence. responsible for higher order cognition and develops into early 20s. explains why teens show poor judgement - limbic system: amygdala which explains why teens are so moody. hypothalamus regulates endocrine structures - corpus collosum: changes to connections associated with language/language learning
2 internal factors that make someone more likely to conform
- prior commitments: if we say something earlier that goes against group we will decrease conformity bc we are less likely to say something different later - insecurity
4 individual influences on behavior according to freud
- projection (projecting own feelings of inadequacy on another) - reaction formation (defense mechanism where someone says or does exact opposite of what they actually want) - regression (defense mechanism where one regresses to position of child in problematic situations) - sublimation (defense mechanism where unwanted impulses are transformed into something less harmful)
simple innate behaviors: (3)
- reflexes (squinting/blinking) - taxis (bugs fly towards light, towards/away from stimulus) - kinesis (rats randomly scurrying in diff directions in response to stimuli)
circadium rhythms
- regular body rhythms across 24-hour period - controlled by melatonin produced by pineal gland - controls body temperature, sleep cycle, etc - daylight is a big queue even artifical light - changes as you age
religion as a social institution
- religiosity of person can range from private beliefs/spiritual routines to institutionialized religion like celebrating certain holidays, reading spiritual text, praying often - ecclesia: dominant religious org that includes most members of society (ex: islam in iran) - churches are established bodies in larger society - sects tend to be smaller and are established in protest of established church. break away from main church (ex: mormon or amish) - cults are more radical and reject values of outside society. usually rise when there's a breakdown of societal belief systems but are usually short-lived because depends on inspirational leader - religion has been affected by modernization (more info available to public, less emphasis on religion) - secularization: weakening of social and political power of religious orgs as religious involvement declines - fundamentalism: strict religious beliefs that may create social problems when people become too extreme
appraisal theory of stress
- richard lazarus - stress arises less from physical events but more from the assessment/interpretation of those stresses/events (appraisal). 1. primary appraisal: assess stress in present situation. 3 possible responses = irrelevant, benign/positive, negative/stressful. 2. secondary appraisal: if primary appraisal response is stressful. evaluation of individual's ability to cope with situation. appraisal of harm, threat, and challenge.
biological basis of schizophrenia
- risk sharply elevated among close relatives and level of risk correlated to degree of relatedness (siblings at greater risk than cousins) - no single, genetic cause - some of the genetic alleles associated with schizophrenia have also been found in bipolar indicating some genetic overlap - dopamine closely related to positive symptoms and elevated dopamine involved in abnormalities in perception and thought associated with certain rec drugs
triarchic theory of intelligence
- robert sternberg - 3 independent intelligence (analytical, creative, practical) strengths: easy to study probs: research shows scores of all intelligence vary together
neonatal reflexes eventually disappear and may have served an adaptive purpose in earlier stages of human evolution but are currently used mainly in assessing infant neurological development
- rooting reflex: baby automatically turns head towards stimulus and makes suckling noise - babinski reflex: causes toes to spread apart automatically when sole of foot is stimulated - tonic neck reflex: when a baby's head is turned, the arm on that side straightens while the arm on the other side bends - galant reflex: when skin is stroked, baby swings to side it was stroked - palmer grasp reflex: children close their hand on anything that comes in their palm - sucking reflex: baby will suck on any object placed near mouth - moro reflex: react to abrupt movements of heads by flinging out their arms then slowly retracting their arms and crying - stepping reflex: hold infant upright and feet touch flat surface and will try to start a step as if they're trying to walk - swimming reflex: infants in water move legs/arms in swimming motion. involuntarily holds breath
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)
- same image from MRI but can look at which structures are active so provides combination of brain structure and function - neurons that are active require oxygen so measuring relative amts of oxygenated vs. deoxygenated blood in brain can allow us to figure out what brain areas being used for certain tasks
what important conclusions did stanford prison experiment show us?
- showed influence situation can have on our behavior - deindividualization may have resulted making bad behavior easier (all prisoners forced to dress same and were addressed with a #) - bad bevavior called cognitive dissonance among guards resulting in them justifying their actions - internalization due to participants internalizing their role and letting it affect their attitudes/cognitions/behaviors
biological basis of alzheimer's disease
- significant decrease in size of cerebrum (severity of atrophy correlate with severity of dementia) - loss of neurons (particularly on group responsible for acetylcholine release) - amyloid plaques - neurofibrillary tangles and clumps of tau protein inside neurons - genetic mutations of many proteins involved in processing amyloid protein - high blood pressure increases risk
durkeim's explanations for how - small societies are held together - large societies are held together
- small societies are held together by similarities - large societies are held together by individuals becoming interdependent on each other as everyone is specialized in different roles
4 types of animal communication
- sound - chemical signals/olfactory signals - somatosensory communication (through touch and movement) - visual cues (overlap bw visual cues and somatosensory comm)
positive priming
- speeds up processing and is caused by simply experiencing stimulus - thought to be caused by spreading activation meaning the first stimulus activates parts of particular representation of association in memory just before carrying out an action or task. the representation is partially activated when second stimulus encountered so less additional activation needed for one to become consciously aware of it
working memory
- supported by hippocampus - memory that is stored while it is held in attention. capacity is number 7. can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of info at a time which is why phone #s are 7 digits long
semicircular canals of the inner ear
- there are 3 (posterior, lateral, and anterior) and all are orthogonal/perpendicular to one another - sensitive to rotational acceleration - filled with endolymph so when we rotate, the endolymph resists this motion bending the underlying hair cells which send a signal to the brain to determine strength and direction of motion
characteristics of first impressions
- they're long-lasting, strong (tough to overcome) and easily built upon (people put extra emphasis on info that helps reinforce first impression) - called the primacy bias
implicit/non-declarative memory what is it? where does evidence for it arise? where is it stored?
- type of long term memory in which previous experiences aid the performance of a task without conscious awareness. - evidence arises in priming (ex: riding bike, procedural memories) - stored in basal ganglia
explicit/declarative memory and its 2 categories
- type of long term memory that focuses on recalling previous experiences and info - facts or events that you can clearly/explicitly describe. - semantic memory: words/facts - episodic memory: event-related memories
alzheimer's disease
- unknown exact cause - neurons die off over time and as neurons die the cerebral cortex shrinks in size - earliest symptoms usually memory loss (particularly short-term) - as it progresses, greater memory loss like inability to recognize close family and friends - buildup of amyloid plaques in the brain which spread to various parts of brain and affect further abilities such as language
otolithic organs
- utricle and saccule are sensitive to linear acceleration so are used as part of balancing apparatus to determine one's orientation in 3d space - contains CaCO3 crystals attached to hair cells in viscous gel. if we go from lying down to standing up, the crystals move and pull on hair cells which triggers AP - would not work well without gravity and buoyancy can have effects as well (particularly in situations w/o visual cues telling us what way is up or down)
social constructionism related to medicine
- we have preconceptions about different races, genders, subcultures. these assumptions are dangerous to medical profession and affect how you treat patients and their diagnosis - stereotyped assumptions can happen on both sides (pts may feel some symptoms aren't important enough to mention, doctor might make false assumption based on how pt appears) - medicalization: patients/doctors construct illness out of ordinary behavior
linguistic determination (separated into 2 hypothesis that refer to much influence language has on thought) - weak - strong
- weak linguistic determination (relativism): language INFLUENCES thought. it's more common for us to think in certain ways based on how our language is structured (ex: girl pushes the boy. if you imagine that the girl is on left - your native language probably reads from left to right) - strong linguistic determination (Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis): language DETERMINES thought COMPLETELY. people understand their world through language and in turn, language shapes how we experience the world (ex: the native hopi tribe has no grammar for past tense which then affects how they think about time)
sclera
- whites of the eye - thick fibrous tissue that covers 5/6th posterior of eyeball (cornea covers anterior 1/6th). - attachment point for muscles and provides extra layer of protection and structure for eyeball - lined with the conjunctiva
universally attractive traits
- youthfulness, skin clarity/smoothness, body symmetry, low waist-hip ratio, full breasts, muscular chests, V-shaped torso - facial attraction > body attraction - averageness is attractive over unique traits - unrelated physiological arousal influences attraction (individuals who just walked across a narrow bridge experienced sympathetic arousal which lead to increased rating of women)
problems with stanford/zimbardo experiment
- zimbardo himself played role of prison ward so was not a neutral observer - no operational definitions of dependent/independent variables - small sample size - demand characteristics - selection bias (what kind of students willingly sign up to be in prison for 2 weeks?)
EEG (electroencephalogram)
-test that detects electrical activity in your brain using small, flat metal discs (electrodes) attached to your scalp. Your brain cells communicate via electrical impulses and are active all the time, even when you're asleep. This activity shows up as wavy lines on an EEG recording. -cannot tell us about activity of individual/groups of neurons but can tell us about seizures, sleep stages, cognitive tasks. don't get picture of brain from this method but not invasive
oral stage
0 - 1 year old libido/sense of interaction is centered around baby's mouth and infant derives pleasure via oral stimulation. infant is completely dependent on parents/caretakers so baby also develops sense of trust and comfort if fixation of libido occurs here, personality issues pertaining to dependency or aggression. also smoking or biting fingers/nails, suck their thumbs, overeating
1 yr prevalence of schizophrenia among americans 18 yrs +
1%
anal stage
1-3 years old - centered around anus (ex: toilet training)leads to developing control/independence and encourages child to feel positive outcomes and feel capable and productive. - if fixation occurs here, personality problems pertaining to orderliness and messiness
major voluntary motor mile stones of children 1. 2-4 months: 2. 2-5 months: 3. 5-8 months: 6. 5-10 months 7. 6-11 months: 8. 7-12 months: 9. 7-13 months: 10. 10-14 months: 11. 11-15 months:
1. 2-4 months: heads up, chests up 2. 2-5 months: roll over 3. 5-8 months: sit up 6. 5-10 months: stand with support 7. 6-11 months: pull up to standing position 8. 7-12 months: children able to crawl 9. 7-13 months: walk while holding furniture 10. 10-14 months: stand on own 11. 11-15 months: walk alone
3 components of attitude
1. affective - person's feelings or emotions about an object, person, or event "i am afraid of snakes" 2. behavioral - influence that attitudes have on behavior "i will avoid snakes and flee if i see one" 3. cognitive - beliefs or knowledge about a specific object of interest "i believe snakes can harm me"
rational techniques for making sense of world vs. irrational techniques for making sense of world
1. accept reality 2. prevent or correct injustice (with charities, sign a petition, or changes to legal system) 1. denial of situation 2. reinterpreting the events: change our interpretation of the outcome, the cause, and character of the victim
3 categories of depressants
1. alcohol: results in decreased inhibitions/cognitive control, lack of coordination, slurring of speech, think more slowly, disrupts REM sleep/forming memories 2. barbiturates (used to be known as tranquilizers): used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety. anesthesia or anticonvulsant drugs. ex: barbital. not often prescribed due to side effects like reduced memory, judgement, concentration 3. benzodiazepines: most commonly prescribed. same things as barbiturates, for anti-anxiety or anti-convulsant and for sleep aids
ventral tegmental area (VTA) region produces dopamine and releases it to the following areas that contain dopamine receptors
1. amygdala (says this was enjoyable/emotional response) 2. hippocampus (remembers everything about environment like who you're with, what' youre doing so can do it again) 3. nucleus accumbens (controls motor function so let's take another bite) 4. prefrontal cortex focuses attention (attention on food you're eating)
4 elemental mental functions of babies according to vgotsky
1. attention 2. sensation 3. perception 4. memory develop into more sophisticated higher mental functions
3 things intentions are based on
1. attitudes toward certain behavior 2. subjective norms - what we think others think about our behavior (my friends think studying is waste of time) 3. perceived behavioral control - how easy/how hard we think it is to control our behavior
3 types of parenting style
1. authoritarian parenting: very strict, break will of child. punishment 2. authoritative parenting: also strict, consistent, and loving but more pragmatic and issue-oriented and listen to children's arguments. balance responsibility with rights of child. discipline. 3. permissive parenting/indulgent parenting: non-directive and lenient. few behavioral expectations for child
3 types of hormone effects
1. autocrine - affects cell that makes hormone 2. paracrine - regional effect 3. endocrine signals - affects far away
4 main types of sleep wavelengths
1. beta - associated with wake/concentration. highest frequency. if you've been awake too long, your beta wave levels might be too high leading to increased stress and restlessness 2. alpha - daydreaming state, lower frequency than beta waves 3. theta - right after you fall asleep/sleeping lightly. lower frequency than alpha waves 4. delta - deep sleep/coma. lowest frequency
2 categories that regulate our intake of food, sex, drugs
1. biological factors: hormones and brain regulates each drive by controlling them automatically and unconsciously 2. socio-culture factors: our conscious choices on how we express our needs
5 main tastes
1. bitter 2. salty 3. sweet 4. sour 5. umami (ability to taste glutamate)
3 ways to improve self-control and 1 way that doesn't work very well
1. change environment: make object of your temptation harder to get while making better/healthier options easier to get (moving unhealthy snacks to more difficult to reach shelf than healthy snacks) 2. operant conditioning: reinforcing good behaviors with rewards. positive/negative reinforcement or punishment (ex: watch an episode of netflix for each segment of dissertation completed which is positive reinforcement) 3. classical conditioning: ex: eat healthy snack every time you crave chocolate and over time you might start craving healthy snacks 4. deprivation: removing the object of temptation completely is problematic. can make you want it more and leads to ego depletion which is why strict diets are likely to fall to temptation
3 facts max weber believed moderated peoples' reactions to inequality
1. class: person's economic position in society based on birth and individual achievement. differs from marx in that he doesn't see this as the supreme factor in stratification 2. status/prestige: weber notes political power not rooted only in capital value but one's individual status as well 3. power: person's ability to get their way despite resistance of others particularly in their ability to engage social change
3 components of prejudice
1. cognition (stereotype): fundamental underlying thought, overgeneralized belief (cognition) 2. affect: prejudice carries an emotional component 3. discrimination: capacity to carry out a behavior and act on prejudice (tendency for prejudice to lead to behavior)
3 components of emotion
1. cognitive: personal assessment of the significance of a particular situation which leads to subjective experience of the emotion (feeling that results from cognitive appraisal) ex: someone might enjoy surprise party because of previous cognition or someone might hate them 2. physiological: associated with activation of autonomic nervous system. ex: racing heartbeat and sweaty palms can be manifestation of fear or anxiety 3. behavioral: can lead to urges to act in a certain way and thereby lead to actions. if provoked in argument, may feel behavioral urge to retaliate physically
3 types of conformity and obedience
1. compliance: tendency to go along with behavior without asking why in situations where we base our behaviors based on getting reward or avoiding punishment 2. identification: when people dress/act a certain way to be like someone they respect/admire 3. internalization: idea/belief/behavior that has been integrated into their own values. stronger than other types
3 barriers to effective problem solving
1. confirmation bias: actively seeking out only confirming facts 2. belief perseverance: people hold on to their initial beliefs even when rational argument suggests they're incorrect 3. overconfidence: can be example of belief perseverance. overestimation of one's ability to produce answers
3 main parts of external attribution
1. consistency (does person usually behave this way?) 2. distinctiveness (does person behave differently in different situations?) 3. consensus (do others behave similarly in situation?) if person behaves differently in diff situations (distinctive) and others behave similarly in the same situation (consensus) then we know behavior is due to external situation
visual cues allow us to perceptually organize by taking into account the 4 following cues
1. depth 2. form 3. motion 4. constancy
max weber and the 5 main characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy+ pros and cons to each one
1. divison of labor: people trained to do specific tasks. pro = people better at tasks and increased efficiency con = increase alienation among workers (conflict theory) and don't see work from beginning to end which can lead to lower work productivity. also trained incapacity where workers are so specialized they lose touch with overall picture 2. hierarchy of organization: each position is under supervision of higher authority and not all people in org are equal pro = clarify who's in command con = deprive people of voice in decision making and shirk responsibility especially in unethical tasks. allows indivs to hide their mistakes 3. written rules and regulations pro = clear expectations, uniform performance, equal treatment of employees, sense of unity cons = stiffens creativity, too much structure discourage employees from taking initiative. goal displacement (rules become more important than goals of org) 4. impersonality: how individuals and officials conduct activities in unbiased manner pro = equal treatment con = alienation, discourage loyalty to group 5. employment based on technical qualifications: hiring in bureaucracy is based on qualifications on person has and not favoritism/personal rivalries pro = decrease discrimination con = decrease ambition (only do what's necessary to secure job and nothing more) leads to peter principle where every employee in hierarchy keeps getting promoted until they reach level of incompetence (remain at position because not good enough at job to get promoted any further)
5 types of social support
1. emotional support 2. esteem support: expressions of confidence/encouragement 3. informational support: sharing information with us or giving us advice. can come from people or articles 4. tangible/instrumental support: financial assistance, material goods or services, can come from a bank or people who bring you dinner when you're sick 5. companion support: type that gives someone sense of social belonging
pathway of light as it enters eye aka phototransduction cascade
1. enters pupil 2. in retina, it encounters rods and cones 3. hits rod turning it off (usually turned on) 4. when rod is off, it turns on a bipolar cell which turns on a retina ganglion cell 5. retinal ganglion cell goes into optic nerve and enters brain
2 types of cues that can direct our attention
1. exogenous/external cues: don't have to tell ourselves in order to get them (ex: bright colors, loud noises) 2. endogenous/internal cues: requires internal knowledge to understand cue and intention to follow it (ex: mouse arrow)
agents of socialization
1. family 2. school 3. peers 4. mass media
4 types of papillae
1. fungiform papillae are mushroom-shaped and located in front and sides of tongue. contain taste buds 2. foliate papillar are folded structures at back of tongue on both sides that contain taste buds 3. circumvallate papillae are flat mound structures located at back of tongue and contain taste buds 4. filiform papillae do not contain taste buds and are all over tongue especially in center which is why it does not have any taste sensation
pathway of sound wave
1. pinna (external part of ear everyone can see) 2. funneled into auditory canal 3. tympanic membrane/eardum which causes 3 bones (malleus, incus, stapes/hammer, anvil, stirrup AKA THE OSSICLES) in eardrum to vibrate back and forth fun fact - ossicles are smallest bones in our body 4. stapes is connected to oval window which vibrates back and forth and pushes fluid to go around in/around cochlea (round snail shell shaped part lined with hair cells) 5. at inner point of cochlea, fluid goes to round window and pushes it out 6. as hair cells (cilia) move back and forth in cochlea, electric impulse is transported by auditory nerve to brain
4 different types of feminist theory
1. gender differences: socially constructed created via socialization. society creates and passes down norms, customs, and expectations for gender. examines how women's position in social situations differs from men and diff gender roles 2. gender inequality: we have patriarchal society where men constitute the governing body as heads of families and communities and result in gender division of labor 3. gender oppression: women are not only unequal as men but are oppressed and abused. positive state of being a woman not acknowledged in patriarchal society and institution of family especially beneficial to men 4. structural oppression: women's oppression and inequality are due to capitalism, patriarchy, and racism. direct parallel to conflict theory. women like working classes are exploited because of capital model. men expected to be active participants in society, women expected to be passive. even language is gendered
3 biological sources of aggression/behavior
1. genes. evidence = identical twins show that if one is aggressive the other one is as well. not the case with fraternal twins 2. brain structure impact on aggressive behavior. stimulation of amygdala or decreased frontal lobe activation 3. testosterone. high levels can lead to agression, muscle building, wider faces and can lead to irritability/assertiveness/impulsiveness.
paul ekman 6 universal emotions
1. happiness 2. sadness 3. fear 4. disgust 5. anger 6. surprise
4 possible outcomes from signal detection experiment trials
1. hit (subject correctly perceives the signal) 2. miss (subject fails to perceive a given signal) 3. false alarm (subject seems to perceive signal when none was given) 4. correct negative/rejection (subject correctly identifies no signal was given)
types of mnemonic devices
1. imagery 2. pegword system (verbal anchors link words that rhyme with the number. ex: 1 is bun, 2 is shoe, etc) 3. method of loci: good for remembering things in order. link info to locations 4. acronyms
global changes of the brain during puberty
1. increased myelination (faster communication of neurons) 2. increase in brain volume in early adolescence and then decrease later in adolescence 3. synaptic pruning - breakdown of connections between certain neurons to focus resources are the ones we use most. what we do during our teenage years shapes us for life
3 things we gather info about somatosensation
1. intensity (how quickly neurons fire for us to notice. slow = low intensity. fast = high intensity) 2. timing 3. location (location-specific stimuli is sent to brain by nerves. relies on dermatones)
4 factors that can affect someone's self-efficacy
1. mastery of experience: strengthens self-efficacy 2. social modeling: seeing people similar to ourselves complete the same task increases self-efficacy 3. social persuasion: when someone says something positive to you helps overcome self-doubt 4. psychological responses: learning how to minimize stress and control/elevate mood in difficult and challenging situations can also improve self-efficacy
3 main things that impact how we are persuaded
1. message characteristics: message clarity, logic, thoughtfulness, eloquency, length 2. source characteristics: environment around the message and the speaker's background. level of expertise, do they seem credible and trustworthy? 3. target characteristics - characteristics of listener such as their mood, self-esteem alertness, intelligence, passion for topic
4 things to reduce cognitive dissonance
1. modify our cognitions - change thinking process in a person's actions/behaviors to reduce discomfort a person has with it. ex: smoker might say "i really don't smoke that much" 2. trivialize - make less important/change importance of their cognition. ex: smoker might say evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer 3. add - adding more cognitions to make contradictions more comfortable. ex: i exercise so much it doesn't matter if i smoke 4. deny - deny the facts. ex: smoke might say there's no evidence that smoking and cancer are linked
1. free recall 2. cued recall 3. recognition
1. most difficult retrieval. no cues. better recalling of first items in list (primacy effect) as well as last few (recency effect) 2. medium difficulty. having extra clues to remember words. getting more cues tends to do better than free recall 3. least difficulty. present two words and say which one you heard so retrieval of correct word is highly likely (ex: what was on list? fork or spoon? you say fork)
3 ways neurons code for timing of somatosensation
1. non-adapting: neuron consistently fires at a constant rate 2. slow-adapting: neuron fires at beginning of stimulus but calms down after a while 3. fast-adapting: neuron fires as soon as stimulus starts but then stops. then starts again when stimulus stops
pathway of olfaction
1. olfactory bulb 2. amygdala 3. piriform cortex 4. orbitofrontal cortex
5 components of language
1. phonology: actual sound of language 2. morphology: refers to structure of words 3. semantics: association of meaning with a word 4. syntax: how words are put together in a sentence 5. pragmatics: dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge
1. positive reinforcement 2. negative reinforcement 3. positive punishment 4. negative punishment
1. positive reinforcement: adding something to increase tendency of behavior 2. negative reinforcement: taking something away to increase tendency of behavior 3. positive punishment: adding something to decrease tendency of behavior 4. negative punishment: taking something away to decrease tendency of behavior
2 things for audition to occur
1. pressurized sound wave as stimuli 2. hair cell as receptor located in cochlea
2 ways a person can conform
1. privately: change behaviors and opinions to align with group ex: would leave dog training situation genuinely believing shock collar is best way to train dog 2. publicly: outwardly changing and agreeing with group but maintain core beliefs ex: you agree to use shock collar but you know using treats is more effective and continue to think so
1. central apnea 2. obstructive sleep apnea 3. hypoventiliation disorder
1. problems with the brain's central control system for ventilation 2. airways are obstructed potentially by soft tissue around neck 3. results from buildup of CO2 and decrease in O2 (may result from meds that decrease respiratory functions)
3 animal mating strategies when searching for mate
1. random mating = all indivs w/n species are equally likely to mate with each other. mating not influenced by environment/heredity or any behavioral/social limitation. ensures large amount of genetic diversity (hardy weinberg) 2. assortative mating: non-random mating where individuals with certain phenotypes/genotypes/similarities/genes/physical appearance tend to mate with each other at a higher frequency. can result in inbreeding. tends to be harmful to species overall and increases likelihood of harmful recessive traits being passed on to offspring (scientists think this is best strategy despite dangers because it helps increase inclusive fitness of organism) 3. disassortative mating (non-assortative): situation where individuals with individuals with different or diverse traits mate with higher frequency than with random mating
3 main types of innate behavior
1. reflexes (sensory and motor nerve loop w/o thinking) 2. orientation behaviors (regulating specially in our environments) 3. fixed action patterns (FAPs) sequence of coordinated movement performed w/o interruption
5 strategies for encoding
1. rote rehearsal: say same thing over and over w/o having to process. least effective 2. chunking: group info we're getting into meaningful categories 3. mnemonic devices: link what you are trying to learn into previously existing long-term info already stored in memory 4. self-referencing: think about new info and how it relates to you personally 5. spacing: spreading out study sessions over time in shorter periods rather than cramming into one study session
4 major categories of stressors
1. significant life changes 2. catastrophic events 3. daily hassles 4. ambient stressors (perceivable but hard to control like pollution, noise, crowding)
3 factors that affect our ability to multi-task/divided attention
1. task difficulty: harder tasks require more focus (ex: texting while driving is more difficult than talking to passenger in car) 2. task similarity: listening to radio or listening to interview while writing a paper. better to listen to classical music because it's harder to multitask with similar tasks 3. practice: activities well practiced become automatic processes or things that occur without need for attention. whether task is automated or controlled determined by amount of practice. controlled task is harder and would struggle to complete if attention is divided
other ideas as to why dreams occur
1. to maintain brain flexibility which allows us to be creative when we're awake 2. consolidate thoughts to long-term memory and clean up unnecessary ones 3. preserve and develop neural pathways. b/c infants who are constantly developing new neural pathways spend most of their time in REM sleep
4 methods of problem solving
1. trial + error: take random guess until something finally works. not efficient 2. algorithm: methodical approach. logical step-by-step procedure of trying solutions. not efficient but guaranteed to find correct solution eventually. 3. heuristics: mental shortcut/rule of thumb that allows us to find solution quicker than others. reduces # of solutions we need to try by taking an approach as to what possibilities could exist and eliminating unlikely possibilites. doesn't guarantee a correct solution but can make problem more manageable - intuition: relying on instinct. high chance of error
herbert blumer's 3 proposed tenants to explain symbolic interactionism
1. we act based on meaning we've given something (ex: we believe tree is a place to rest) 2. different people assign different meanings to things. we give meanings to things based on social interactions 3. meaning we give something isn't permanent (ex: got bitten by bug under tree we were resting on so now a tree is place you could potentially get bitten under)
problems can be broken down into what 2 categories:
1. well-defined problems: clear starting and ending point. well-defined problem has clear criteria 2. ill-defined problems: more ambiguous starting and ending point. does not have an obviously stated goal or lacks relevant info to solve the problem
1 yr prevalence of anxiety disorders among americans 18 yrs +
18%
range of frequencies we can hear
20 - 20,000 Hz
approx how many genes do humans have
20,000 - 25,000
how many sleep stages and how often do they occur? which ones are in non-REM and which are REM?
4 main stages that occur in 90 min cycles - first 3 stages categorized in non-REM (non-rapid eye movement) - last stage is REM (rapid eye movement)
phallic stage
3-6 years old children discover difference between males and females. oedipus complex and electra complex at this stage. boys view fathers as rivals for mother's affection. electra complex is equivalent (carl jung). resolved through process of identification where child starts to understand and develop similar characteristics as same-sex parent if fixation occurs here, causes homosexuality/exhibitionism
how long do symptoms have to persist for ptsd to be diagnosed?
4 weeks after an event
latent period
7-12 years old no focus of libido as it's a period of exploration where libido is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. important in development of social and communication skills. children concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests. play is between same gender children. fixation here doesn't develop into any adult fixation
difference in thought of how others affect how we view ourselves between Charles Cooley and George Herbert Mead
Charles Cooley - thought everyone a person interacts with in a lifetime influences their identity George Herbert Mead - thought this was more restricted and that only certain people can and only in certain periods of life. also thought the way others influence us changes across the lifespan
DSM-5
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition, from American Psychiatric Association
what taste cells rely on GPCR receptors? what about on ion channels?
GPCR receptors - sweet, umami, bitter cells ion channels - sour and salty
how do babies develop their elementary mental functions to higher mental functions according to vygotsky?
It requires cooperation and collaborative dialogue (sharing of language) with a MKO (more knowledgable other). vgotsky proposed development of a child can be defined in terms of child's current and potential levels of achievement at any point in time. current developmental level consists of those tasks that a child can perform without help from others. by contrast, the potential developmental level represents the most advanced tasks that a child can do with guidance from MKO. range of activities between current developmental level and potential development level is the zone of proximal development meaning all of the skills that can accomplished with the help of others
sexual response cycle
Master and Johnson - studied 100s of male and female volunteers during sexual activity and measured the physiological indicators which they turned into sexual response cycle 1. excitement phase: marked by increased heart rate, muscle tension, blood pressure 2. plateau 3. orgasm 4. refractory/resolution period
5 factor model of personality (big 5)
OCEAN openness conscientiousness extroversion agreeableness neuroticism
somatosensory homonuculus
a map of your body in your brain. in the sensory cortex (part of parietal lobe/cortex) different parts of your body goes to different places on the somatosensory strip
shape constancy
a changing shape still maintains the same shape perception (door opening means shape is changing but we still think door is a rectangle)
overt orienting
a person turns all or part of the body to alter or maximize the sensory input of an event
what does sensation require in order to converted into a neural impulse?
a physical stimuli
social anomie
a situation in which society does not have the support of a firm collective consciousness thus there's a breakdown of social bonds b/w individuals and community social norms must be strengthened and groups must redevelop sets of norms to resolve
what happens once rhodopsin changes conformation after light hits triggering the phototransduction cascade?
a transducin molecule (made of alpha, beta, and gamma subunits) breaks from rhodopsin and the alpha subunit binds to phosphodiesterase (which converts cGMP to GMP). there are a lot of Na+ channels on rods which are kept open and on by being bound to cGMP. when cGMP levels go down, the Na+ channels close so cell no longer gets Na+ coming in (hyperpolarization). then, bipolar cells are turned ON which activate retinal ganglion cells which sends signals to optic nerve
neural plasticity
ability of brain's networks of neurons and their synapses to change. allows memories to be stored as changes to networks of neurons
cocktail party effect
ability to concentrate on voice among a crowd or when someone calls your name (meaning draws attention)
self control
ability to control our impulses and delay gratification which influences how we behave
sleep apnea
about 1 in 20 people - stop breathing while asleep and body realizes youre' not getting enough oxygen so periodically wake up to gasp for air. people with it often unaware - don't get enough N3 sleep (slow wave sleep) - snoring or fatigue after full night of sleep are indications
what are the 2 main neurotransmitters in the PNS?
acetylcholine and epinephrine
covert orienting
act of bringing the spotlight of attention on an object with body or eye movement
acute vs. post-acute withdrawal symptoms
acute - physical withdrawal symptoms, different for each person post-acute - less physical and more emotional/psychologic symptoms, same symptoms for everyone (irritability, mood swings, anxiety, low enthusiasm, variable concentration, disturbed sleep) feels like rollercoaster of symptoms. can last up to 2 years.
positive reinforcement
adding something to increase a behavior operant conditioning
cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for drug addiction
addresses both cognitive and behavioral components of addiction. patients learn to recognize problematic thought patterns and learn more positive thought patterns and coping mechanisms. learn to anticipate problematic situations and self-monitor cravings in order to develop healthier coping strategies early on
genital stage
adolescence + individuals develop strong sexual interests that lead to achievements of adult sexuality
postconventional level of kohlberg's moral development
advances beyond personal and interpersonal considerations, rising to the level of universal principles and fully-developed ideas about right and wrong 5 - moral reasoning is guided by the recognition of a social contract that is in place for the good of society as a whole 6 - characterized by belief in a set of universal ethical principles. own beliefs about what is right or wrong but share a commitment to these principles above and beyond considerations of consequences and the disapproval of others
dependency ratio
age-based measurement takes place less than 14 and greater than 65 who are not in the labor force and compares that to # of people who are 15-64. the higher the ratio the more dependent people there are. living longer = older residents can contribute to workforce for longer time
life course theory
aging is a social, psychological, and biological process that begins from time you born until you die. a holistic perspective that calls attention to developmental processes and other experiences across a person's life
bobo doll experiment
albert bandora - group of children doing arts + crafts but in middle of it a man suddenly appears and starts hitting an inflatable bobo doll. some children observed the behavior. others weren't fazed but found many kids reacted to frustration by being violent
gordon allport
all of us have different traits. came up with list of 4500 diff descriptive words for traits and from those was able to come up with 3 basic categories of traits 1. cardinal traits: characteristics that dierct most of person's activities (dominant trait that influences all our behaviors) 2. central trait: less domination then cardinal 3. secondary trait: preferences or attitudes (ex: love of modern art, reluctance to eat meat)
all right side vision goes to _____ side of brain all left side vision goes to _____ side of brain
all right side vision goes to left side of brain all left side vision goes to right side of brain
broadbent's early selection theory and problems with it
all sensory information goes into the sensory registry. it is then transferred to selective filter which filters important info and unimportant info. then info moves to perceptual processing where the sounds are assigned meanings and then can go on to other cognitive processes (that can determine how to respond for ex) sensory registry -> selective filter -> perceptual processing -> conscious acronym: someone with the name broadbent just filters out everything except what he wants to hear problems: if you completely filter out unattended info, you shouldn't be able to hear your name in a room
directed attention
allows attention to be focused sustainably on single task
benefit of humans having 2 eyes
allows us to receive cues from environment by binocular cues which gives a sense of depth
counterconditioning
also called stimulus substitution - form of respondent conditioning that involves the conditioning of an unwanted behavior or response to a stimulus into a wanted behavior or response - common treatment for aggression, fears, phobias
methamphetamine
also triggers release of dopamine leading to feelings of euphoria for up to 8 hours - regular meth users may lose ability to maintain normal levels of dopamine because brain tries to adjust to intense highs
primary reinforcers
innately satisfying like food, water, sex
attitude to behavior process model
an event triggers our attitude (something that will influence our perception of an object) attitude + some outside knowledge together determines behavior (ex: tommy has attitude thank junk food is unhealthy bc many of his relatives have heart related diseases associated with poor eating habits. so when he's at home, he does not eat chips/soda/candy bc his knowledge that these foods are bad for his health and maintains a healthy lifestyle no matter where he is)
social psychology
analyzes the situational approach to behavior and emphasizes influence of social phenomena and people interactions with each other on influence
cluster c of personality disorders
anxiety and fearful traits - avoidant: inhibited, feel inadequate and try avoid putting themselves in situation to be criticized - dependent: submissive and clingy - obsessive-compulsive PERSONALITY disorder: very focused on life being ordered and things being perfect for them to be in control to an extent.
retrieval
anytime you pull something out of long-term memory and bring it into conscious memory (working memory)
exchange theory
application of rational choice theory to social interactions and addresses decision making in interpersonal interactions via cost-benefit analyses (behavior of individual in interaction can be figured out by comparing rewards and punishments) rewards - social approval, money, gifts, positive gestures punishments - negative gestures, social disapproval, humiliation criticisms - some people don't act rationally and others often act in interest of others
posterior chamber of eyeball
area behind iris at back of lens that's filled with aqueous humor
inattentional/perceptual blindess
aren't aware of things in our visual field when our attention is directed at something in our current visual field (ex: missing something right in front of you) - due to psychological lapse in perception
social constructionism
argues that people actively shape their reality through social interactions/agreement. reality is something constructed and not inherent. self is a social construct as well (identity is created by interactions with other people and our reactions to other people) - main criticism is it doesn't consider effects of natural phenomenon on society. strong SC has difficulties explaining those phenomena because they don't depend on human language or action - berger and luckman
freud's pleasure principle
as a young child, or if you're immature, you want to immediately feel pleasure to avoid suffering and are not willing to compromise
steric theory/shape theory of olfaction
asserts that molecules fit into receptors like lock-and-key
gate control theory of pain
asserts that non-painful input closes the gate for painful input which prevents painful sensation from traveling up to central nervous system thus stimulation by non-noxious input can suppress pain
vibrational theory of olfaction
asserts that the vibrational frequency of a molecule is what gives it a distinct odor profile
bipolar ii disorder
associated with hypomania (similar to mania but does not cause impairment in functioning). may be mixed with periods of depression
bipolar i disorder
associated with mania that occurs in episode lasting at least one week. when mania is not present, person may have normal mood or experience depression
when does mesopic vision occur?
at dawn or dusk and involves both rods and cones
when does photoptic vision occur?
at high levels of light
when does scotopic vision occur?
at levels of very low light
how does the auditory nerve get activated? include details including the terms kinocilium, Na+ channels, endolymph, Ca2+, spiral ganglion cell
at upper membrane of cochlea, the hair cells/cilia are in bundles made of little filaments called kinocilium. the tip of each kinocilium is connected by a tip link which is attached to gated K= channel. when this tip gets pushed back and forth by endolymph, the K+ channels allow K+ to move into cell from K+ rich endolymph. Ca2+ cells get activated by presence of K+ inside cell so they cause AP which then activates a spiral ganglion cell which activates the auditory nerve
suspensory ligaments
attached to the ciliary muscle and together they make the ciliary body which secretes aqueous humor
prejudice
attitudes that prejudge a group, usually negative and not based on facts. make same assumptions about everyone in a group without considering their differences
stereotyping
attributing a certain thought/cognition to a group of individuals and overgeneralizing ex: people who wear glasses are smarter, people who live in cities are abrasive can involve race, gender, culture, religion, shoe size it's inaccurate but it allows us to rapidly assess large amounts of social data
consciousness
awareness of our self and environment can have different levels of it ranges from sleep to alertness can be induced by drugs or internal mental efforts
optic nerve
axons of ganglion cells
retina
back of the eye filled with photoreceptors, rods, cones and is location where light is converted into electrical impulses that can be interpreted by brain - made up of approx 6 mill cones and 120 mill rods. covered primarily in rods except in specific areas
actual self
balance between the I and the me
bandura and the social-cognitive theory
bandura developed the theory. the social-cognitive theory view behaviors as being influenced by people's traits/cognitions and their social context. talks about interactions between individual and situation they're in. cognition -> environment -> behavior (order can change as well). our learning is through observation of others and observations of behaviors on others
myers brigg personality test
based off carl jung 4 letters that characterize you in one of 16 personality types
how come the ear is able to break up all the different frequency waves coming into cochlea?
because sound waves travel different lengths in cochlea
bottom-up processing
begins with the stimulus and the stimulus influences our perception - occurs with completely new stimulus (no preconceived cognitive constructs of stimulus) - data-driven and stimuli directs cognitive awareness of object you're looking at - inductive reasoning (starts with specific object/q and works way up to general theory) and is always correct
prototype willingness model (PWM)
behavior is a function of 6 things - the combo of which influences our behavior: 1. past behavior 2. attitudes 3. subjective norms 4. our intentions 5. our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior 6. models/prototyping
labeling theory
behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant. depends on what's acceptable in society ex: steroids can be labelled as deviant and not right or wrong. in some situations, they're neccesary. in others, they're deviant and wrong
partial reinforcement schedule
behavior is reinforced only some of the time. - more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcemet
mass hysteria
behavior that occurs when groups emotionally or irrationally to real or perceived threats. characterized by panic and spread of information or misinformation by the media
taboos
behaviors completely forbidden/wrong in any circumstance and violation results in the most extreme sanctions (law punishment + alienation from community) ex: incest, cannibalism
self-efficacy
belief in one's abilities to succeed to situation/to organize and execute the courses of action required in a particular situation. developed by bandura due to his dissatisfaction with idea of self-esteem - people with strong self-efficacy recover quickly from setbacks and have strong/deep interest, strong sense of commitment to activities, enjoy challenging tasks - people with weak self efficacy focus on personal failures/negative outcomes, avoid challenging tasks, quickly lose confidence in personal abilities
optimism bias
belief that bad things happen to others but not to us
vgostky's sociocultural development theory
believed children learn actively through hands-on processes and suggests parents/caregivers/cultural beliefs/language/attitudes are all responsible for development of higher function of learning - child internalizes information with interactions with others and social interaction is important for cognition development - no proposed series of sequential developmental stages but focused on the process by which children attain higher levels of development with guidance of adults and peers
freud's psychosexual theory of development
believed early childhood was most important age/period in which personality developed. most of personality developed by age 5. early experiences plays a large role in personality development which influences behavior later in life - 5 stages and if completed successfully, result is a healthy personality but if issues aren't resolved at a certain stage - fixation occurs 1. oral: 1st year, nursing and other oral stimulation (trust vs mistrust) 2. anal: 2nd year, toilet training (autonomy vs. shame and doubt) 3. phallic: 3-5 yrs, gender and sexual identification, children attempt to develop ability to execute a plan such as in play (initiative vs. guilt) 4. latent: 7-12 yrs, social development (industry vs. inferiority) entails crisis of whether child views him or herself as capable of mastering skills that are societally valued 5. genital: adolescence +, sexual maturation (identity vs. role confusion) OLD AGE PARROTS LOVE GRAPES
piaget's thoughts on language in children
believed once children were able to think a certain way, they then developed language to describe those thoughts therefore language is influenced by cognitive development (ex: when children develop object permanence, they start to develop words like gone or missing)
lens
bends the light (by adjusting its shape via suspensory ligaments) in order for it to focus on the back of eyeball specifically on the fovea and retina
activation synthesis hypothesis of dreams
brain gets a lot of neural impulses in brainstem which is sometimes interpreted by frontal cortex so our brain is simply trying to find meaning from random activity in the brain so dreams may have no meaning
basilar tuning for tonotypical mapping
brain's way of distinguishing different frequencies (tonotypical mapping). basically hair cells at base of cochlea (start of it) activated by high frequency sound waves. hair cells at end of cochlea can detect low frequency soundswaves (low frequency sound waves have longer wavelengths so can travel farther)
cognitive theory of personality
bridge b/w classical behaviorism and other theories like psychanalytic theory - considers contributions of an individual's mental life and personal choices and explores how thought and emotion affect both the learning process and the experiences and surrounding peoples choose for themselves
muscle stretch reflex
causes muscle to contract after it is stretched as a protective response ex: knee jerk response (involuntary response of leg kicking out. hammer hits tendon right below knee cap which hooks onto lower leg bone on one end and a large group of upper muscles on other known as muscle spindles) - somatosensory neurons (afferent) in muscle spindles form excitatory synapse in spinal cord with another neuron in the spinal cord which sends axon out back to same muscle that was stretched which excites skeletal muscle cells to contract - lower motor neurons (efferent)
libido
central to freud's theory of psychosexual developemt - natural energy source that fuels mechanisms of mind
sensory adaptation
change over time of a receptor to a constant stimulus aka downregulation of a sensory receptor in the body which is important because if cells are overexcited, they will die ex: when you push hand down, you will initially feel pressure but as time goes on - sensory receptors will stop firing
role-playing
changed attitude as a result of our behavior and carrying out a specific role
bipolar and related disorders
characterized by episodes of mania and usually involve episodes of depression as well mania characterized by little sleep, talking quickly, making bad decisions due to impaired judgement, making bad decisions based on bad assessment of risks
anomia
characterized by problems in naming objects or retrieving words
pheromone
chemical signal released by one member of a species ans senses by another member of a species to trigger an innate response
pavlov
classical conditioning + dog experiment ex: places a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to trigger an involuntary response (ringing a bell in presence of food causes dog to start salivating at sound of bell)
communism
classless system, money-less community where all property is owned by community
primary groups
closest members of the group to you. close intimate long-term relationships. core social group (parents, close friends from childhood, long term relationships formed which have a great social impact on the individual)
CAT (computerized axial tomography) scan aka CT scan
computerized composite of x-rays images of the brain but can't tell us anything about what areas of brain are active in given time
conjunction fallacy
co-occurence of 2 instances is more likely than a single one aka people tend to think the probability of 2 events occurring together is higher than the probability of one alone (ex: people thinking Linda is a feminist bank teller rather than just a bank teller though statistically, it's more likely she is just a bank teller than a feminist AND bank teller)
inner ear
cochlea and semicircular canals
schachter-singer theory of emotion
cognitive theory that states the physiological arousal is first component of emotional response. for cognitive appraisal (identify reason for initial arousal) one takes into account both physiological response and situational cues. main diff between this and james-lange theory is that this theory recognizes higher level thinking
basal forebrain
collection of structures located to the front of and below the striatum that are important in the production of acetylcholine which is then distributed widely throughout the brain
complex behavior
combination of innate and learned. can be a spectrum ex: ability of insects to fly. starts off innate but through learning, become more efficient in ability to fly
erikson stage 5
crisis is identity vs. role confusion transition from childhood to adulthood. want to start feeling they belong in society and in this stage, child has to learn rules he needs to occupy as an adult so may re-examine identity to figure out who they are. body image plays a big role virtue is fidelity and seeing oneself as unique failure results in role confusion which can cause rebellion/unhappiness
erikson stage 4
crisis is industry vs inferiority teachers take an important role in child's life and child works towards competence. virtue is gaining greater significance, self-esteem, and competence if crisis not resolved and child's initiative is restricted the child will feel like they are inferior but some failure is needed so child id modest
erikson stage 3
crisis is initiative vs. guilt children attempt to develop the ability a execute the plan such as in play activities children feel more secure in their ability to lead others and play virtue is sense of purpose if tendency to ask questions is controlled, they develop guilt and act as more of a follower which inhibits their creativity and outcome is inadequacy but some guilt is necessary so child has self control
erikson stage 8
crisis is integrity vs despair 65+ people face dilemma as they evaluate their lifetimes and develop a sense of how well they have lived. may feel guilty about past or feel unaccomplished virtue = wisdom (look back on life with sense of closure and accept death without fear) failure may lead to despair and dissatisfaction upon death
erikson stage 6
crisis is intimacy vs. isolation occurs in young adulthood and involves ability to form emotionally significant relationships with others virtue = completion leads to comfortable relationships failure leads to avoiding intimacy which can lead to isolation/loneliness/depression
erikson stage 2
crisis: autonomy vs. shame and doubt centered on child's growing sense of whether he or she is competent to carry out self-care. children develop independence by walking away from mother, what they eat, etc. it's critical parents allow children to this. virtue achieved is will (independence) and if child is overly criticized/controlled they will feel inadequate and lack self esteem
erikson stage 1
crisis: trust vs. mistrust infant develops lasting ideas about trust according to the actions of his or her parents. if an infant's physical and emotional needs are not met as an adult they may mistrust everyone. virtue is hope and failing to acquire virtue can lead to fear/suspicious/mistrust
global aphasia
damage to both broca's area and wernicke's area. combo of impaired comprehension and production of speech
thantos
death drive, self-destructive/harmful to others. comes with hate, fear, anger
mortality
death, decreases population
dementia
decline in memory and other cognitive functions to the point of interfering with normal daily life (results from excessive damage to brain tissue)
aging + cognitive abilities what declines? (4) what is stable? (2) what improves? (3)
declines: 1. recall 2. episodic memory 3. processing speed 4. divided attention stable: 1. implicit memory 2. recognition improves: 1. semantic memory until about 60 years old 2. crystallized IQ (using knowledge and experience) 3. emotional reasoning
habituation
decreased response due to repeated exposure to same stimulus ex: medical students as they see more and more cadeavers
N3
deep, slow wave sleep. very difficult to wake person up. - characterized by delta waves - where sleep walking/talking happens - declarative memory consolidation
dishabituation
defined as the recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred. often noted when, late in the habituation of a stimulus, a second stimulus is present thus interrupts the habituation process causing an increase in response to original stimulus
anxiety disorders
defined by experience of unwarranted fear and anxiety, physiological tension, and behaviors associated with the emotional and physical experience of anxiety
social potency trait
degree to which a person assumes leadership roles and mastery of roles in social situations
somatosensory tracts
deliver somatosensory information to spinal cord which carries info to the brain in one of the tracts, crosses other side immediately, then goes to cerebellum why is why injury to one side of brain often results in damage to other side (bc all the somatosensory pathways cross to other side)
4 main categories of psychoactive drugs
depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens , opioids/opiates
decay
describes fading of memory aka the fate of information in working memory that does not get encoded into long-term memory. weakening of connections that make up the neural network that holds a memory
obedience
describes how we follow orders/obey authority
preconventional level of kohlberg's moral development
describes moral judgements that are based solely on consideration of the anticipated consequences of behavior. 1 - involves concern with punishment 2 - moral judgements motivated by reward
discrimination
differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities. actions are being taken on negative-attitude
ludwig gumplowicz
expanded on marx by proposing that society is shaped by war/conquest and cultural/ethnic conflicts which lead certain groups to be dominant over others
labeled-line theory of olfaction
describes scenario where each receptor would respond to specific stimuli and is directly linked to brain
smell adaptation
desensitized receptors in your nose to molecular sensory info over time
color constancy
despite changes in lighting which change image color in our retina, we understand that the object is still the same color
systematic desensitization
developed by joseph wolpe and is a process that involves teaching the client to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation. works great for phobias
alfred-binet
developed first intelligence test without intending to. developed a est in order to establish a child's mental age and intellectual development to predict how well they would do in school later on
pathological defense mechanisms
distort reality by pretending something hasn't happened
gender dysphoria
distress/disability caused by person identifying as a different gender than society represents them as. must cause distress/disability
dissociative disorders
distress/disability from abnormalities of identity or memory
sexual dysfunction
distress/disability from abnormalities pertaining to sexual performance
depressive disorders
distress/disability from abnormally negative mood.
feeding and eating disorders
distress/disability from behaviorial abnormalities related to food (
disruptive, impulse-control, conduct disorders
distress/disability from behaviors that are unacceptable disruptive or impulsive for someone's culture. inability to control inappropriate behaviors
paraphilic disorders
distress/disability from having sexual arousal to unusual stimuli for a person's culture. must cause distress/disability or if causes harm to another person, particularly people or a child who does not have decision making capacity for proper consent
obsessive compulsive and related disorders
distress/disability from obsessions or compulsions obsessions - thoughts that occur involuntarily, often unwelcome, occur repeatedly compulsions - activities that one must do and are often related to an obsession
sleep-wake disorders
distress/disability from sleep-related issues. insomnia, breathing-related disorders, abnormal behaviors during sleep
somatic symptom and related disorders
distress/disability from symptoms similar to those that may occur to illness unrelated to mental disorder but of psychological origin with or without having a general medical condition at the same time
substance-related and addictive disorders
distress/disability from the abnormal use of substances that affect mental function. include alcohol, caffeine, cannabis, hallucinogens, inhalants, opioids, sedatives, etc can cause mood abnormalities, anxiety symptoms, psychosis. also includes gambling
elimination disorders
distress/disability from urination/defacation at inappropriate times or places
personality disorders
distress/disability related to personality. involves long-term mental and behavioral features that are characteristic of a person, huge spectrum of personality types considered acceptable from a culture. involve ones outside those accepted or societal norms
trauma or stress related disorders
distress/disability that occurs after stressfu/traumatic events. leads to mood, emotional, behavioral abnormalities. ex: PTSD which is common after wars, rape, natural disasters
mary ainsworth's strange situation
done to try to understand why some babies have stranger anxiety and some don't. this research focused primarily on mother-child interactions 1. mother and child in room with a strange. child allows to explore. neither stranger nor mother interact with child. purpose: would they explore the space? 2. then mom leaves the room (w/o calling too much attention to herself) and quietly leaves. baby left alone with stranger. purpose: what is child's response when mother leaves? 3. then mother returns. mother + stranger + baby in the room. purpose: what is the child's response when mother returns? children could be split into 2 groups. those with secure attachment and those with insecure attachment. caused by parenting style (mothers who are sensitive to child and responsive had secure attachment, and those with insensitive/unresponsive formed insecure attachments
sight adaptation
down regulation or up regulation to light intensity - down regulation: light adaptation. when it's bright out, your pupils constrict so less light enters back of eye and the desensitization of rods and cones leads to desensitization of light - upregulation: dark regulation. pupils dilate when it's dark out and the rods and cones start synthesizing light sensitive molecules
cluster B of personality disorders
dramatic, emotional, erratic traits - antisocial: little or no regard for others. inconsiderate of others - borderline: unstable relationships, unstable emotions, variable self image - histrionic: very attention seeking and displays emotions outwardly - narcissistic: huge ego and need for admiration and praise
why dreams occur according to sigmund freud? include manifest content and latent content
dreams are our unconscious dreams and desires that need to be interpreted. has little scientific support backing this theory - manifest content is the literal meaning of the dream (monster chasing you) - latent content (job is pushing you out)
why dreams occur according to evolutionary biology?
dreams provide threat simulations to prepare for real world and provides a way for problem solving. or has no purpose
dual coding hypothesis
easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone. can use method of loci
framing effects
effects on decision-making due to how you present the problem ex: disease that will kill 600 people. option A = save 200 people or option B = let 400 people die. both are the same but more people likely to choose A
monozygotic twins
egg splits into 2 after fertilization. share 100% of genes
transmission
electrical activation of one neuron by another neuron
cannon-bard theory of emotion
emotional "feelings" and physiological reactions to stimuli experienced simultaneously. criticized james-lange theory because many physiological experiences have multiple emotional correlates (racing heartbeat could be fear, excitement, or anger)
pluralism
encourages racial and ethnic variation
why does dizziness/vertigo (feeling of movement even if not moving) occur?
endolymph doesn't stop spinning at the same we do so it continues moving even though we've stopped which results in us feeling like we're still moving
encoding specificity
enhanced memory when testing takes place under same conditions as learning
normative influence
even if you know what's right or have an opinion, you go with what group says to avoid social rejection ex: you're part of group responsible for training dog. group wants to use shock collar. you're an expert trainer and know it's better to train dog with treats but go along with group to avoid being a social outcast
iron rule of oligarchy
even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by a select few. conflict theory explains this - once person gains leadership role in organization they might be hesitant to give it up and also those who achieve power might have skills that make them valuable
modified semantic network
every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge. some links might be shorter/longer for different individuals and there may be direct links for higher order categories
deutsch's and deutsch's late selection theory
everything goes through sensory registry and through perceptual processing and then there's a selective filter that which decides what passes onto conscious awareness - selective registry comes after perceptual processing sensory registry -> perceptual processing -> selective filter -> conscious problems: seems too wasteful to assign meaning to all info even unimportant things
stimulants
excite CNS and increase HR/BP and alertness ex: caffeine, amphetamines (adderall), methamphetamine (meth), MDMA (molly/ecstasy), cocaine, nicotine, THC (marijuana - also a hallucinogen/depressant) - increased glucose metabolism in brain
sick role
expectation in society that allows you to take a break from responsibilities when you're sick but if you don't get better or return, you're viewed as deviant and harmful to society - society adapts to this situation and allows for a reasonable amount of deviation from behavior that would be viewed as typical of a well person
asch conformity studies
experimenter holds up a card with a target line and 3 comparison lines. participants need to figure out which comparison line matches target line. all except one participant were actors and gave wrong answer. found 75% of participants conformed and gave wrong answer at least once. 37% conform every single time group does. - no actual pressure, only perceived pressure why did individuals conform? - normative social influence: most said they knew answer was incorrect but went along bc they were afraid of being ridiculed by group - informational social influence: some doubted their own response because everyone else gave diff answer - perceptual error where some truly believed answer given by others was correct
diffusion of responsibility theory
explains bystander effect - when individuals are in presence of others when help is needed, they feel less personal responsibility and less likely to take action when needed
priming
exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus even if we haven't been consciously paying attention to it - recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory - type of implicit memory effect
4 sources of social stigma
extreme disapproval/discrediting of individual by society. comes in 2 forms: 1. social stigma: can be fueled or associated with several other key concepts: stereotypes, prejudices, discrimination. derived from symbolic interactionist perspective and calls attention to how certain individuals or groups face social disapproval. (ex: social stigma against mental health is big problem. stereotype is mentally ill people are violent (cognition) so people become scared of mentally ill (affective, prejudice), and don't want to hire them (behavior, discrimination) 2. self stigma: when individual can internalize all the negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory experiences they've had and may begin to feel rejected by society, and avoid interacting with society
change blindness
fail to notice changes from previous state to current state of environment ex: don't notice when mom gets a haircut
marshmallow test
famous self-control experiment. kids in preschool given marshmallow and could eat it whenever but if they waited 15 minutes, they could get another marshmallow. some ate it right away, but other kids licked it. who who were able to wait tended to have better life outcomes when followed 10 years later (higher SAT scores, lower drug use, etc)
3 types of nerve fibers
fast, medium slow acronym: A-B, A-D, C - alpha beta fibers: fast, thick, covered in myelin - alpha delta fibers: smaller diameter, less myelin - c fibres: unmyelinated, smaller, lingering sense of pain
stranger anxiety
fear of strangers babies start to experience around 8 months
anterior chamber of eye
filled with aqueous humor which provides pressure to maintain shape of eyeball. also allows nutrients and minerals to supply cells of cornea/iris
vitreous chamber
filled with vitreous humor which provides pressure to eyeball and also gives nutrients to inside of eyeball
primacy bias
first impression is more important than later data
ebbinghaus and memory
first person to look at decay in human memory. - greatest contribution is the forgetting curve which had memory on y-axis and time remembered (days) on x-axis - forgetting curve describes exponential loss of information one has learned
N1 dominated by what wave? 3 characterstics
first stage of sleep cycle dominated by theta waves - strange sensations and hypnagonic hallucinations (hearing/seeing things not there) - tetris effect (if you just played tetris before bed, you might see visual images of blocks during sleep) - hypnic jerks - muscle twitches you sometimes experience while falling asleep
fixed mindset vs. growth mindset
fixed mindset = intelligence is biologically set and unchanging growth mindset = intelligence is changeable if you learn more those with growth mindset accomplish more in careers
kohlberg's moral development theory
focused on moral reasoning and difference between right and wrong - moral reasoning develops through level of cognitive development and people pass through 3 stages of development (each w/ 2 stages) so 6 levels total - level I: preconventional morality. stage 1 = punishmen. stage 2 = reward - level II: conventional morality. stage 3 = social disapproval. stage 4 = rule following. - level III: postconventional morality. stage 5 = social contract. stage 6= universal ethics.
drive reduction theory of motivation
focuses on internal factors in motivation suggesting people are motivated to take action in order to lessen the state of arousal caused by a physiological need. best applied to innate biological drives critical for immediate survival like hunger or thirst - negative reinforcement
joint attention
focusing on an object by 2 separate individuals
selective attention
focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli and thus acts as a filter between our sensory stimuli and our processing systems
foraging and 2 main strategies
foraging is searching for food in animal's environment. strongly genetic - solitary foraging: look for food by itself (ex: tigers) - group foraging: look for food in groups and hunting based on both your behavior and those around you. can lead to competition w/n group if food is scarce but can also take down larger/more aggressive prey and everyone can benefit (ex: lions)
secondary groups
formal, impersonal, temporary, and business-like relationships, based on a limited purpose/goal. usually short-term and only see them sometimes. do a few goal-oriented activities with these people. only part of the group to accomplish a task
bipolar cells
found in retina send visual signals from rods and cones to the retinal ganglion cells
ganglion cells
found in retina after receiving signal from bipolar cells, goes to optic nerve
dizygotic twins
fraternal twins. develop from 2 separately fertilized eggs. share 50% of genes like regular siblings
superego
freud - develops later in life through internalization of society's rules for moral behavior, learned primarily through interactions w/ caregivers - unconscous and conscious
ego
freud part of personality that is forced to direct behavior in a way that balances the demands of the id and the superego. this is who we identify/believe ourselves to be - conscious and unconscious
middle ear
from malleus to stapes (ossicles)
external/outer ear
from pinna to tymbanic membrane/eardum
important difference between evolutionary game theory and general game theory
game theory involves intention, where participants reason about behaviors of others. evolutionary game theory different because decisions might not have a conscious intention on part of players
phenylketonuria (PKU)
genetic disorder caused by mutation to a gene that encodes a liver enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) so phenylalanine does not get converted into tyrosine so there's a buildup of Phe which causes brain probs. - can be managed by specific diet that is pneylalanine free/low - even though PKU is highly heritable, it is still modifable via the environment (ex of gene-environment interaction)
innate behavioral traits and 5 characteristics
genetically programmed behavior. present at birth and requires no experience with the environment. - inherited (encoded by DNA) - intrinsic (present even if raised in isolation ex: pooping) - stereotypic (performed same way each time) - inflexible (not modifiable by experience) - consummate (fully developed right away and not influenced by experience)
according to rogers, what allows us to live up to our real self?
genuine relationships with others and acceptance by others
sleep debt
getting more sleep in order to get rid of past deprivation/debt
fixation in problem solving
getting stuck on wrong approach to a problem
benefit of convergence
gives humans an idea of depth as well as having 2 eyes
cost signaling
giving signals to others that person who's giving has resources. people have increased trust in those they know have helped others in the past which signals that the person is open to cooperation.
monarchy
government embodied by single person, king/queen is figurehead
gray matter contains most of the ________ and white matter contains _______
gray matter contains most of the neuron somas and white matter contains most unmyelinated axons
reference group
group to which people refer to in evaluating themselves. people are constantly looking for external groups that align with our beliefs/attitudes/behaviors and these groups influence our social decisions, our own beliefs, attitudes, behaviors.
general adaptation syndrome (GAS)
hans selye's distinct stages of stress 1. alarm phase - stress rxn kicks in, heart races, resources mobilized and ready for fight or flight 2. resistance - fleeing, huddling, temperature elevated, BP high, breathing rate high, body bathed in cortisol 3. exhaustion - if resistance isn't followed by recovery, our body's stress resources are depleted so our tissues become damaged and our dampened immune system becomes susceptible to illness
representativeness heuristic
heuristic where people look for the most representative answer and look to match prototype ex: linda is outspoken and very bright, majored in philosophy, and participated in antinuclear demonstrations. what is more likely? linda is a feminist bank teller or a bank teller. most people will say she is more like a feminist bank teller because she fits the prototype of how a feminist would act - can lead to conjunction fallacy
means-end analysis
heuristic where we analyze main problem and break down into smaller problems. then attack problem that has the most difference b/w current state and goal state (ex: planning a trip to new country. biggest prob would be getting to new country so book a plane ticket to new country)
working backwards
heuristic where you start with a goal and use it to suggest connections back to current state. used in mazes or mathematical proofs
past-in-present discrimination
how things were done in the past (even if no longer allowed) can have consequences for people in the present. ex: after brown vs. board of ed verdict, a girl in integrated school still didn't feel welcome in classroom
galton's idea of hereditary genius
human ability is hereditary
what does a universalist believe about language?
human cognition shapes language thus language is created from set of universal distinctions and constructions (ex: new guinea people only think about dark and light. if they had other thoughts about color, they would develop words for them)
dissociation theory of hyponotism
hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness
cyclothymic disorder
hypomania + dysthymia (persistent depressive disorder)
effort justification
idea stemming from Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance. people's tendency to attribute a greater value to an outcome they had to put effort into acquiring
charles cooley and the looking glass self
idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others but it's critical to the theory that Cooley believed we are not actually influenced by OPINIONS of others but what we IMAGINE the opinions of others would be. thought this happened in 3 steps 1. how do i appear to others? 2. what must others think of me? 3. revise how we think about ourselves ex: teacher grades paper harshly and does it because thinks student has a lot of potential but when student gets back paper, they think the harsh grades were because they think the teacher thinks they're dumb
social selection
idea that an individual's health can influence their social mobility. also that social conditions can affect reproductive rates of individuals in a population. alternative theory to sexual selection
ego depletion
idea that self-control is a limited resource and if you use it a lot, it can get used up and you will have less of it to use in the future which can affect a later unrelated task that also requires self-control (requires a lot of energy and focus) exp: those who resisted eating cookies ended up giving up sooner on another unrelated task that also requires self control than those who didn't resist
just world phenomenom
idea that universe is fair so people must get what they deserve - used as justification by some people in milgram experiments - helps people rationalize their or others good fortune or misfortune - suggests some sort of "cosmic justice" at play
similarity bias
implies we will not befriend people different from us
strain theory
if person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, may become frustrated/strained and turn to deviance. individuals in a group are pushed to attain certain goals, but may not have means or legitimate ways to achieve success. society values a certain behavior but the opportunity to be successful is not made available to everyone and the lack of equal opportunity results in increased access to illegal means to achieve success
why is it beneficial to you that language is separated into smaller tasks that spread into diff parts of the brain?
if you have localized brain damage, won't completely lose everything so when functions are divided it's easier for brain to adapt (when stroke affects left hemisphere and you can't speak, over time with therapy some may be able to retain some speech because brain creates new connections bw neurons)
extensor plantar response
if you take a hard object and scrape along bottom of foot, normal response is flexor (toes come down on object) BUT with extensor, toes extend up
negative priming
implicit memory effect in which prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably influences the response of same stimulus. lowers the speed to slower than un-primed levels
differences in attribution between individualistic cultures and collectivist cultures
in individualistic cultures, success is over-attributed to internal factors and failure over-attributed to external factors in collectivist cultures, success is attributed to external factors and failure to internal factors
master status
in perception, an individual's master status supersedes other identifying traits; for ex: if a woman feels that her role as a mother is more important than her role as a woman, a daughter, etc.,she is more likely to identify herself as a mother and to identify with other women who label themselves as such
difference in location of white and gray matter in spinal cord vs. brain
in spinal cord, inside = grey. outside = white in brain, inside = white. outside = grey
symbolic interactionism related to medicine
in the doctor-patient relationship, we give meaning to the lab coat and stethoscope which can affect interaction. important for doctor to realize the meaning the patient has given to tools of medicine (lab coat is sign of authority, stethoscope is way to interact with pt)
hearing adaptation
in the inner ear muscle: higher noise results in muscle contracting which dampens the vibrations in inner ear and protects ear drum). it takes a few seconds to kick in so does not happen immediately like after a gun shot but it works for being at a rock concert for entire afternoon
how can overdosing result from using cocaine in a new location?
in the new location, your body does not receive external cues to lower HR/metabolism
anosmia
inability to perceive odor
source amnesia
inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned information has been acquired while retaining the factual knowldge
agraphia
inability to write
false information and experiment
inaccurate recollections of an event - participants watched car stop at yield sign. after the video, participants were given written description of what happened some some included false information about car stopping at stop sign, not yield. those who got false info more ikely claimed the car stopped at a stop sign rather than yield
sensitization
increase in responsiveness to repeated stimulus
hyperreflexia
increase in the muscle stretch reflexes. when muscle spindle receptors are activaed without periodic stimulation of LMNs by UMNs, they become hypersensitive and you get bigger reflex
fun fact
increasing people's control over very small things like TV remote can increase the health and well-being
relearning
indicator of memory retrieval - allows for detection of long-term memories that have become inaccessible to conscious recognition or recall and as a result are experienced as lost
bystander effect
individual feels less inclined to taken action bc of the presence of others in the group. larger groups tend to experience more bystander effect than smaller groups - may be due to diffusion of responsibility theory
individual discrimination
individual person acting to discriminate (behave off prejudices) based on something (sex, religion, race, age, etc)
hypnotism
induced state of consciousness usually involves focus on breathing and relaxation in order to make person more susceptible to this state but only if they are willing to be in it - more alpha waves - some use to retrieve memories but can be dangerous b/c memories are malleable therefore someone might create a fake memory - some think it can help inhibit pain but only works if you think it will
meditation
induced state of consciousness - training people to self regulate their own attention and awareness - can be guided and focused on something like breathing or can be unguided allowing mind to wander freely - more alpha waves than in normal relaxation - theta waves of experts in deep meditation - no long-term studies but some evidence showing those who regularly go into deep meditation have increased attention control
5 neurotic defense mechanisms
intellectualization - taking intellectual aspects and detaching to the emotional aspects of situation rationalization - making yourself believe you were not on fault - avoids blame to oneself repression - unconscious process where thoughts are pushed down to unconscious displacement - person angry at someone but displaces it to someone else (safer target) reaction formation - unconscious feelings that make person act complete opposite (ex: mother who bears unwanted child may react to her feelings of guilt by being overprotective to convince both herself and child she's a good mother)
reciprocal determinism
interaction between a person's behaviors, personal factors (motivation/cognition), and environment are all determined by one another
neurodevelopment disorders
involve distress/disability due to abnormaility in development of nervous system. includes intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorders, ADHD
executive attention
involved in goal-directed behavior, monitoring conflicts between internal conflicts, and anticipating the effects of behavior - associated with dopamine
cerebellum
involved in helping you maintain balance
reticular formation
involved in motivation and alertness
schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders
involves distress/disability from psychosis which involves delusion, hallucinations disorganized thinking can occur and negative symptoms like decreased emotional expression, decreased motivation, decreased social behavior
motivational interviewing for drug addiction
involves working with patient to find intrinsic motivation to change. very focused, goal-directed therapy.
olfaction and gustation are both ipsilateral while vision/hearing/touch are contralateral - what does ipsilateral mean and why is that?
ipsilateral means occurring on same side of both and it's because neither synapse onto thalamus contralateral = relating to or denoting the side of the body opposite to that on which a particular structure or condition occurs. "the symptom develops in the hand contralateral to the lesion"
desires
motivations associated with pleasure or release from displeasure
xenocentrism
judging another culture as superior to one's own culture
ethnocentric
judging someone else's culture from the position of your own culture - viewing our own culture to be superior to that of others - can lead to cultural bias and prejudice - using one's own cultural standards, such as norms and values, to make judgements about another's culture
drowsiness
just before falling asleep or right before waking up can be induced by deep meditation
learning (behaviorist) theory of language development
language is a form of behavior and is learned through operant conditioning (BF Skinner). children receive reinforcement such as excitement or kisses when they make correct vocalizations and punishment like less maternal attention when they do not. language develops through continuing interaction w/ environmental reinforcement rather than focusing on innate ability
macrosociology
large scale perspective. looking at big phenomena that affect big portion of population like social structures and institutions, whole civilizations/populations. broad social trends - deals with poverty, war, healthcare, world economy - functionalism - conflict theory
latent learning
learned behavior that is not expressed until required
eros
life drive like health, safety, sex. comes with love, cooperation, collaboration
socialization
life-long process where we learn how to interact with others and the norms of society
what doe the brain waves of someone dreaming look like?
like the ones of someone awake (mixture of alpha and beta)
c. robert cloninger
linked personality to brain systems in reward/motivation/punishment such as low dopamine correlating with higher impulsivity
final stage of memory? what's it's capacity and what are its 2 main categories?
long-term memory. unlimited capacity. explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative)
informative influence
look to group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume group is correct ex: you're part of group responsible for training dog. group wants to use shock collar. you've never interacted with a dog and are uncertain of appropriate training methods so look to group for guidance and assume they're correct
rational choice theory
main assumption is idea that everything people do is fundamentally rational and a person is weighing costs and benefits of each choice to maximize personal gain 3 assumptions: completeness, transitivity, independence of irrelevant alternatives
basal ganglia
major role in motor functions. no upper motor neurons but help motor areas to perform proper movements. also cognition + emotion
manifest functions vs. latent functions
manifest functions: intended consequences of institutions (ex: businesses provide a service. schools educate people to help get jobs) latent functions: indirect effects of institutions (unrecognized consequences) ex: schools expose students to social connections/new activities
megalopolis
many connected metropolises (which have over 500,000 people)
perceived control and stress
many studies show lack of control associated with higher stress (low SES increases stress) sapolsky with baboons who had social hierarchy structures similar to humans. primates at bottom of hierarchy socially experienced more stress than ruling elite
mass psychogenic illness or epidemic hysteria
mass hysteria can be a result of psychology like when large amount of people believe they have same illness despite lack of disease (ex: after anthrax attacks in US, there were over 2000 false alarms)
social behaviorism and the 3 stages (preparatory, play, game)
mead developed idea that mind and self emerge through the process of communicating with others. infants + children merely imitated others and saw themselves as focus of world (related to piaget's concept of egocentrism). as we grow up, our belief on how others perceive us is more important and this happens through 3 stages 1. preparatory stage: interaction through imitation. egocenric 2. play stage: more aware of social relationships reflected in children's tendency to pretend play as others. focused on role-taking: mentally taking perspective of another person and acting based on perceived POV 3. game stage: start to understand attitudes/beliefs/behavior of "generalized other" and with this comes a whole new understanding of society. children start to realize that people act in ways not only based on their personal beliefs but on what society expects and that people can take on multiple roles (not just a teacher). care about the perceptions of their significant people . believes this stage leads to development of the "I" and "me"
feminist theory related to medicine
medicine is still a male-dominated field and there's a disparity/salary gap between the two which translates into a disparity in power
how is alcohol addiction combatted using meds?
meds can block receptors in reward pathway of alcohol. also reduces symptoms of withdrawals and craving
echoic input
memory for what you hear, last 3-4 seconds - goes into sensory registry
iconic input
memory for what you see, lasts half a second - goes into sensory registry
autobiographical memory
memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual's life, based on a combination of episodic and semantic memory
intelligence
mental quality that allows you to learn from experience, solve problems, and use your knowledge to adapt to new situations.
neglect syndrome
occurs when damage is to the brain causes a change or loss in the capacity of the spatial dimension of divided attention
method of loci
method of memory enhancement which uses visualization with the use of spatial information, familiar with one's environment, to recall information
symbolic interactionism
microsociology focuses on the interactions between individuals and the significane they give to objects, events, symbols
absolute threshold of sensation
minimum intensity of stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time which can be influenced by a variety of psychological states and is thus a changing, variable #: - expectations (ex: are you expecting a text?) - experience (ex: familiarity with text msg sound) - motivation (ex: are you interested in receiving the text?) - alertness (ex: are you awake or drowsy?)
intercolonialism
minority group is segregated and exploited
id
most primitive part of personality according to freud. seeks instant gratification with no consideration for morality or social norms present from birth and motivated by the desire to achieve immediate gratification and avoid discomfort/PAIN - unconscious
sleepwalking/sleeptalking
mostly genetic occurs during N3 more common with children who spend more time in N3 sleep
monocular cues can also give a sense of _______
motion motion parallax/relative motion: things farther away move slower and closer things move faster
socialism
motivated by what benefits society as a whole, common ownership of production that focuses on human needs and economic demands
suburbanization
movement away from cities to get a larger home but commute for work can be long and harder to get quick medical help. however, suburbs form own economic centers and become independent to cities they border. ex: silicon valley created on outskirts of san jose by tech ompanies urban decline - as people move out of city centers, city can fall into disrepair. unemployment/crime rises, population o city declines, buildings abandoned
urbanization
movement of people from rural to urban areas
fertility
natural ability of human beings to have babies which add to population
sexual selection
natural selection arising through preference of one sex for charactertistics in individuals of the other sex
- evidence for nature component of motor development - evidence for nurture component of motor development
nature: identical twins walk on same day, children all over world develop motor skills in same time and order, blind children tend to show same timing and progression of motor development nurture: back sleeping reduces SIDS chance but makes it longer for children to start crawling. diapers also result in baby walking a bit later
geographical proximity
nearness is most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships. people date/like/marry people of the same neighborhood for ex
processing
neural transformation of multiple neural signals into perception
4 neonatal reflexes
newborns have some motor skills (reflexes/automatic involuntary responses) - breathing reflex: inhalation and exhalation - eyeblink reflex: when something comes near head/bright light - pupillary reflex: constrict pupils when bright light - swallowing reflex
biological basis of depression - include 2 brain abnormalities
no consistent abnormalities but may have: - decreased activity in frontal lobe - increased activity in limbic structures - large increase in risk when first-degree relative had it. heritability found to be about 40%. multiple genes involved
rat model showing that negative consequences of drugs cannot overcome desire for drug
non-addicted rat given food that made them sick. no longer wanted food. addicted rat given food laced with cocaine. even though food made rat sick, they still wanted the food
I
nonconforming, non-socialized aspect of self
laws
norms based on right and wrong have formal/consistent consequences
mores
norms enforcing the moral standards of a society violating more leads to more serious negative sanctions ex: person who commits a murder commited a societal more
folkways
norms governing casual interactions - violations of folkways not punished harshly ex: folkway: don't cut in line. if someone cuts in line, they will be glared at
daydreaming
not as alert, more relaxed can be induced by light meditation
sleep
not aware of self or world around you
frustration aggression hypothesis
not personality based, but more emotional. ex: someone getting frustrated can lead to prejudice because frustration turns to aggressive impulses and direct that towards a scapegoat because you can't actually direct it towards who you want due to consequences (if employer, might lose job). often aggression directed towards minorities
fad
novel social pattern that has a quick rise and fall in popularity
migration
number of people moving permanently to live, work, eventually die into/out of countries. doesn't change total people on planet but does change number of people living in region/country
transduction
occurs when energy is transformed from one form to another. in this case, light is transformed into electrical energy by rods and cones
attentional capture
occurs when attention is attracted by the motion of an object or stimulus
distal stimuli
objects and events out in the world about you
ethology
observations of animal behaviors
source monitoring
occurs when a person attributes a memory to a particular source, correctly or not, such as recalling that a story was told by a particular person
groupthink and what to do do to avoid it
occurs when maintaining harmony among group members is more important than carefully analyzing problem at hand. - happens in very cohesive, insulated groups - often have important/respected leaders - "unity" of group leads individuals to suppress/censor own opinions to avoid groupthink: bring in outsiders, have leader of group not disclose opinion, discuss options in smaller groups
escape conditioning
occurs when the animal learns to perform a desired behavior in order to terminate an ongoing, aversive stimuli (to escape pain/annoyance) behavior that produces escape is negatively reinforced
cluster A of personality disorders
odd and eccentric traits - paranoid: profound distrust + suspicion of others - schizoid: emotionally detached in relationships and shows little emotion - schizotypal: odd beliefs/magical thinking
disengagement theory
older adults and society separate and assumes they become more self-absorbed as they age. separation allows for self-reflection but considers elderly people still involved in society as not adjusting well
size constancy
one that appears larger because it's closer but we still think it's the same size
opiates/opioids
opiates = natural opioids = synthetic - decrease CNS function so decrease HR/BP, induce sleep which is why used to treat anxiety and pain - NOT a depressant bc works on diff neurochemical level. act on endorphin receptors rather than GABA receptors - analgesic (reduces perception of pain) - leads to euphoria ex: heroine, codine, morphine, vicodin, oxycodone, oxycodin)
vgostky's theory on language
opposed piaget language and thought independent but converge through development. believed children developed language and learned to connect it with thoughts through social interaction with adults
piaget's stages of cognitive development in relation to language
opposed vygostky - self-initiated 1. sensorimotor = child understands world through sensation and action 2. preoperational = world is understood mainly through use of language and mental imagery 3. concrete operational: child will use categories, logic, and concrete reasoning to understand world 4. formal operational: person will describe and understand world through scientific reasoning, hypothetical situations, abstract relationships
institutional discrimination
organization discriminating including governments, banks, schools, etc.
schema
organizing patterns of thought that are used to categorize and interpret information thus shaping individual attitudes and perspectives
social cognitive theory
originally called social learning theory - theory of behavioral change that emphasizes interactions bw people and their environment
impression management
our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage and we do this because we want to be viewed in a positive way. there are multiple social situations which require different scripts from you as an actor and hence there are multiple front stages, and you have to play a different front stage role every time. we manage our senses of self in social interactions
audition
our sense of sound
sensory adaptation
our senses are adaptable and can change their sensitivity to stimuli (hearing, touch, smell, proprioception, sight)
misleading information experiment
participants watched a traffic safety vid in which they observed car crash. they were than asked questions about what happened. key q was "how fast were cars going when they hit/smash each other" participants who got q with word smashed were more likely to say there was glass on ground in video even though there wasn't
why can things that defy logic in our dreams seem not so illogical while we are dreaming?
partly because activity in our prefrontal cortex is decreased
proximal stimuli
patterns of stimuli from the objects and events that actually reach your senses (eyes, ears, etc) - the light that actually falls on your retina
kin selection
people act more altruistically to close kin than distant non-kin people. natural selection in favor of behavior by individuals that may decrease their chance of survival but increases that of their kin (who share a proportion of their genes).
principle of aggregation
people are more likely to be honest when general patterns of behavior are observed versus a single one
social influence theory of hypnotism
people do and report what's expected of them like actors in a role
rural rebound
people getting sick of cities and moving back to rural areas. people who can afford to leave the city and looking for simpler lfe.
reciprocal altruism
people more cooperative if they will interact with that person again in the future giving with expectation of future reward, feel more obliged to help someone else if they have helped us which is why charities send out small gifts
need-based theories of motivation
people motivated by desire to fulfill unmet needs via maslow's the hierarchy of needs
incentive theory of motivation
people motivated by external rewards. highlights the psychological feeling of pleasure that comes with receiving an incentive (which is why it's diff from just operant conditioning) ex: person who goes to work every day because they enjoy receiving a paycheck - positive reinforcement
yerkes-dodson law
people perform best when they are moderately aroused resulting in a bell shaped curve (relationship bw arousal and performance) meaning extreme emotional arousal usually impacts performance/long-term memory negatively whereas moderate emotional arousal arousal is associated with optimal memory recall
partial report technique (sperling)
people required to report a subset of the characters from visual display using cued recall. the cue was a tone which sounded at various time intervals following the offset of the stimulus. frequency of tone indicated which set of characters within display were to be reported. revealed that immediately after stimulus offset, participants could recall most letters in a given row suggesting that 75% of the entire visual display was accessible to memory
rational choice - exchange theory related to medicine
people run every aspect of medical system and those people will make decisions that benefit themselves more than random sick stranger. some people avoid doctors if they don't think they will benefit them which can cause something that would have been easily treated to become a larger problem . self interested behavior of people in charge can trickle down and affect well-being of pts
maslow's hierarchy of needs
people strive to meet a hierarchy of needs in ascending order physiological -> safety -> belongingness/L -> self esteem -> self-actualization PLEASE STOP LIKING STUPID SHIT
continuity theory
people try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives overtime and as they age, people make decisions that preserve the structure and use it to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging
optimum arousal theory of motivation
people want to reach full arousal/alertness because we enjoy that state (ex: amusement parks)
devil effect/reverse halo effect
perceive people with an overall negative impression or if one attribute is very negative (ex: a kid that often acts up in class and is considered a "bad kid" can never do right)
heritability
percentage of variation of traits due to genes ex: if say heritability of intelligence is 50% - not saying intelligence is 50% but that the difference in intelligence among people is 50% attributable to genes
prodome
period of time before schizophrenia symptoms actually present - marked by deterioration in person's behavior and functioning
learned behavioral traits and 5 characteristics
persistent changes in our behavior that result from our experiences. not present at birth but acquired after experience w/ environment 1. non-inherited - extrinsic (absent when animals raised in isolation) - permutable (pattern/sequence that is changeable) - adaptable (capable of being modified in response to changing conditions) - progressive (subject to improvement or refined through practice over time)
insomnia and potential treatments
persistent inability to fall asleep treatments: - medication but this can result in habituation where you need more to get same effects - psychological training -lifestyle changes (exercising before bed)
behaviorist theory of personality
personality is result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment and is thus deterministic in that people begin as blank slates and environment completely determines their behavior/personality - focuses on observable and measurable behavior rather than mental/emotional
kinaesthesia
pertaining to behavioral aspects of movement of body (you teach yourself how to move successfully in order to complete a task)
group polarization
phenomenon where group decision-making amplifies the original opinion of group members and thus stronger, more radical decision adopted than any individual member in the group would want
rods have rhodopsin. cones have ______
photopsin
james-lange theory of emotion
physiologically-based external stimulus elicits physiological response. emotional experience depends on recognition and interpretation of this physical reaction
piaget - schemas, assimilation, accomodation
piaget believed we use schemas (mental models of reality) as frameworks for organizing and interepreting new information. when getting new information, we can: - assimilation: include them into our preexisting schema - accommodation: adjust by changing schema
place theory of sound
place posits that one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along cochlea's basilar membrane
optic chiasm
point of convergence of optic nerve that comes from each eye aka fibers from nasal half (closer to nose) of each retina cross paths. these fibers carry the temporal visual field (further toward side of head) from each eye. temporal fibers do NOT cross in chiasm which is why all fibers corresponding to left visual field from both eyes project into right side of brain and vice versa
primary auditory cortex
receives all info from cochlea and is separated by regions that detect different frequencies
mcdonaldization
policies s of fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society. primarily, principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, uniformity, and control. these principles have come to dominate everything from medicine to sporting events to entertainment ex: all mcdonalds look the same and serve pretty much the same food and thus provide consistent, efficient service at cost for creativity
fecundity
potential reproductive capacity of a female
heinz dilemma and kohlberg's moral development
presented this dilemma to children to determine what stage of moral development they are in: man named heinz had wife dying from cancer and drug was discovered by local chemist that could save her. chemist charged 10x the price it took to make drug and more than heinz could afford. heinz desparate to save his wife broke into chemist' office and stole the drug if in preconventional level, you might argue you shouldn't steal drug because you might get caught and arrested OR that you should steal drug because you'd be sad if your spouse died. if in conventional level, you might decide not to do it because it's against the law and people will think less of you if you get caught OR might do it because people will judge you for not saving your spouse If in postconventional level, you might not steal because you believe it's always wrong to steal OR you might steal because you think it's morally wrong for a dying person to be denied medication
how does your brain try to reduce the effects of amphetamine use resulting in habituation?
pretend you're a cocaine addict. if you use cocaine at the same time each day in the same place, your brain can take in external cues and lower your heart rate in preparation. this is why addicts need more and more cocaine over time because you're body adapts to it
primary deviance vs. secondary deviance
primary deviance: no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild and does not affect person's self esteem. individual able to continue to behave in same way without feeling immoral/wrong ex: all athletes of team use steroids so act of player not labeled as deviant and actions go unnoticed secondary deviance: more serious consequences, characterized by severe negative rxn that produces a stigmatizing label and results in more deviant behavior. ex: teammates of an athlete label players behavior as deviant and they exclude him from practices and call him terrible player. rxn might be to use steroids to be better player.
capitalism
private ownership of production with market economy based on supply and demand
bureaucratization
process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy ex: customer service, now move through 12 menu options before reaching someone to help you
stress
process by which we appraise and cope with environmental threats and challenges
illness experience
process of being ill and how people cope with illness. being ill can change a person's self-identity and diagnosis of chronic disease can take over your life where every decision revolves around the disease. stigmas associated with certain diseases like mental illness or STDs can affect how others perceive you
social dysfunction
process that has undesirable consequences and may reduce the stability of society
parietal lobe
processes sensory informaton
vigilance attention and signal detection
processes that attempt to detect a signal or target of interest in order for responses to be primed and quick actions undertaken in response to signal or target of interest (seeing a pothole and avoidance actions are undertaken)
occipital lobe
processes visual information
immature defense mechanism
projection aka throwing your attributes to someone else like accusing another person of being jealous when you're the one being jealous passive aggression
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis + depression
promising area of research for depression treatment - hypothalamus releases ACTH which triggers release of cortisol by adrenal cortex and numerous studies show elevated levels of 1 or more of the hormones involved in the PA axis in individuals with depression (indicating over-activation of stress response system as potential contribution to development of depression)
convergent intelligence
proposed by guilford to describe IQ test related intelligence such as puzzles, vocab words, and arithmetic
hans eysenck
proposed extraversion level is based on differences in the reticular formation (which controls arousal and consciousness) so introverts are more aroused then extroverts so seek lower levels of stimulation 3 major dimensions of personality which encompass all traits we possess but degrees to which we individually express them are diff: 1. extroversion - degree of sociability 2. neuroticism - emotional stability 3. psychotism - degree to which reality is distorted
jeffrey alan gray
proposed personality is governed by the behavioral inhibition (punishment/avoidance) and activation (reward) system -biopsychological reward
erikson psychosocial development theory
proposed personality/identity development occurs through one's entire lifespan (rather than just childhood like freud) and focuses on interactions between self and society - each stage depends on overcoming a conflict and sucsess/failure at each stage affects identity formation of individual/personality
raymond cattell
proposed we all had 16 essential personality traits that represent basic dimensions of personality. turned it into 16 personality factor questionnaire
information processing model
proposes our brains are similar to computers and that we get input from environment, process it, and output decisions but doesn't describe where things happen in the brain - bottom-up or stimulus driven model - assumes limited storage capacity - human brain believed to have limited capacity for attention - assumes serial processing however human brain has capacity for parallel processing
weak social constructionism
proposes social constructs are dependent on: - brute facts (most basic and fundamental facts) - institutional facts (created by social conventions and do not rely on other facts)
pros and cons of conflict theory
pros: models drastic changes that occur in a society cons: doesn't explain the stability a society can experience or how society is held together
3 types of hormones
protein/polypeptide steroid tyrosine derivatives
vestibular system
provides information about balance and spatial orientation and comes from both inner ears and limbs but focus on inner ears
lewis terman
psychologist at stanford who further modified binet's intelligence test and also incorporated adults and teens. named stanford-binet intelligence test to yield an IQ (intelligence quotient)
zimbardo/stanford prison experiment
purpose was to see how conformity/obedience can result in acts different from how one would usually act or would think they'd act - participants knew all details of study and were all white, middle class college students with no medical/psych problems - mimicked environment of actual prison and half group were prisoners and other half guards - experiment had to end early due to multiple breakdowns
REM N4
rapid eye movement below eyelids - dreaming occurs and so does paralysis - most important for memory consolidation - BATS-Drink Blood (beta, alpha, theta, spindle, k-complex, delta, and beta)
rat experiment study of taste aversion
rats were deprived of water and then given sweet water. each time they were given water- a light flashed and a sound beeped. 1. in the first group, substances that make them sick were added to sugar water 2. in second group, nothing was added to sugar water but they received an electric shock 3. the same rats that were shocked in the second group are put into 2 situations: 1. sweet water + no light/beep 2. tap water + beep/light - aversion to sweet only from rats who got sick - no aversion to sugar water because you didn't pair the beep and light with getting sweet - no averison to sugar water because getting shocked remove so sweet water is not what caused the harm - aversion because the environment is still present to cause harm
spontaneous recovery
reappearance of the conditioned response after a period of extinction
cross tolerance
reduction in efficacy or responsiveness of novel drug to a common CNS target
affective flattening
reduction in the range and intensity of emotional expression including facial expression, voice tone, eye contact, and is not able to interpret body language nor use appropriate body language (negative symptom of schizophrenia)
avolition
reduction, difficulty, or inability to initiate and persist in goal-directed behavior. often mistaken for apparent disinterest (ex: no longer intererst in meeting friends, no longer interested in activities they used to enjoy) negative symptom of schizophrenia
perceived behavior control
refers to a person's ability to carry out intentions to perform a certain behavior
medulla
regulates the autonomic activity of the heart and lungs
treisman's attenuation theory
replaces selective filter with an attenuator that weakens but doesn't eliminate input from unattended ear. it still assigns meaning to stuff in unattended ear but not as high priority but switches when important stuff comes in sensory registry -> attenuator -> perceptual processing -> conscious
fixed-interval ratio
reinforcement occurs after a certain amount of time. ex: receives pay check every 2 weeks and pay doesn't change whether they sell 1 or 100 cars. response rate is slower
variable-ratio
reinforcement occurs after variable # of right responses has occurred. lots of uncertainty but provides most effective technique ex: slot machines
fixed-ratio schedule
reinforcement only occurs after a fixed # of responses ex: salesman gets bonus for every 5 cars he sells. reinforcement only occurs after fixed # of 5 regardless of time it takes
variable interval
reinforcements are delivered after a variable amount of time has passed regardless of amount of right responses
trait
relatively stable characteristic of a person that causes individuals to consistently behave in certain ways
when things are far away, the muscles of eyes are ______
relaxed
mere exposure effect
repeated exposure to novel people or objects increases our liking for them. more often we see something, more often we like it. applies to everything - music, nonsense syllabus, numbers, objects, etc. there are exceptions but in general true - especially with attraction. examples of exceptions: you drink a lot of orange juice and start to hate it or hear a song you liked too much ex: study 1 researchers had undergrads rate attractiveness where males rated women's attractiveness then took 2 women rated similarly and placed them in same class as male rater. after 5, 10, 15 classes - males rated the woman who was them in 15 classes higher than those women who they attended classes with 5-10 though they had initially rated the two the same before repeated exposures ex: study 2 indivs with anterograde amnesia (can't form new memories) were shown faces and then again at later date with some new faces along with some old. they asked if they'd seen them before but even though they were incapable of forming the memory they have seen a person before, they'd still pick the face they'd seen before - advertisers depend on this mere exposure effect to sell you different products (more time you see brand, more likely we are to form positive opinion about i)
lexicon
set of vocabulary items
signal detection theory: c
represents strategy (which there are 2) - conservative strategy: always say no unless 100% positive there was a signal. con of this: might get a few misses - liberal strategy: always say yes. con of this: might get some false alarms
whole report technique (sperling)
required participants to recall as many elements from original display in their proper spatial locations as possible. people typically able to recall 3-5 characters from the 12 character display suggesting whole report is limited by a memory system with a capacity of 4-5 items - ionic memory in action (by the time it takes to list a few items, the entire list fades)
operant extinction
results from some response by organism no longer being reinforced (ex: keep getting dog to sit on command but stop giving her treats)
urban renewal
revamping old parts of cities to become better but can lead to gentrification, which means they are redone to target a wealthier community which increases property value. people originally in area are pushed out because can't afford property anymore which leads to great inequality in cities
prosody
rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices
clonus
rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle (ex: foot goes involuntarily up and down. cause is hyperreflexia because if doctor pulls on foot, it activates muscle stretch reflex so triggers antagonist muscle
evidence of reward pathway/biological basis of drug dependence in animal rat model
scientists gave rats cocaine-laced water through IV when they pushed a lever. rats quickly learned that pushing a lever would result in cocaine and would seek drug and would try to increase dosage if allowed
biological sex
sex (male/female - the biological characteristics) person is born with. XY sex chromosome/XX chromosome
N2
second stage of sleep cycle - more difficult to wake people up than in N1 - see more theta waves and spindles and K-complexes - spindles: burst of rapid brain activity. some think they might help inhibit certain perceptions to help maintain tranquil sleep - K-complexes: suppress cortical arousal and keep you asleep. also help sleep-based memory consolidation
stereotype threat
self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype due to exposure to a negative stereotype which can actually cause a decrease in the performance of an individual performing task. stereotype threatens performance
proprioception
sensory adaptation pertaining to the sense of your body position in space. experiment: when goggles were on, it made everything look upside down but over time, you would eventually accomodate it and flip it back over
thalamus
sensory functions because all senses have pathways that lead to thalamus. also cognition + emotion
limbic system
set of structures in brain largely responsible for regulating emotions and storage/retrieval of memories particularly emotional ones structures (HAT Hippo): - hypothalamus - amgydala - thalamus - hippocampus
peripheral processing
shallow processing that occurs if listener is not very interested, motivated, or doesn't think topic is important. focus on superficial characteristics such as attractiveness of speaker, how many points they make, etc. - creates a temporarily attitude change
difference between short-acting and long-acting benzodiazepines
short-acting benzos better for treating insomnia long-acting benzos better for treating anxiety
avoidance conditioning
situations where a signal is given before aversive situation. behavior is to avoid the situation which results in continued avoidance because it is reinforced by the removal of the pain/undesirable stimuli. - persistent even when there's no longer anything to avoid bc an animal that performs an avoidance response never experiences the aversive stimuli but it receives negative reinforcement in form of relief so avoidance behavior is self-reinforcing
are thermoception and nociception fast or flow?
slow
olfaction (include terms, cribiform plate, olfactory bulbs, glomerulus)
smell - the cribriform plate is made of bones with tiny holes. it separates the olfactory epithelium from the brain. olfactory bulbs sends projections of nerve through tiny holes of cribriform plate. the end of each nerve ending is sensitive to one type of molecule so when that specific molecular binds to its specific receptor, an AP is triggered which will end up in a specific molecule olfactory bulb called glomerulus. at the glomerulus, the receptors synapse on mitral/tufted cell which projects into brain
sanctions - positive - negative - formal - informal
social expressions of approval/disapproval for conforming to behavior acceptable in group - positive sanction: reward for conforming to norms - negative sanction: punishment for violating norms - formal sanction: officially recognized and enforced - informal sanction: unofficially recognized and does not result in specific punishment
race
socially defined category based on physical differences between groups of people - all humans are 99.9% identical (there is no genetic basis for race) but it is important on a social level
ethnicity
socially defined, not defined by physical characteristics like race but these groups are defined by shared language, religion, nationality, history, of some other cultural factor. less statistically defined than racial groups and definitions can change over time
symbolic interactionism
society is a product of every interactions between individuals thus this concept looks society at level of interpersonal interactions (leaving out higher/more macroscopic societal forces) says that people actively create meaning through their social interactions allowing for human agency in creating and changing meaning.
insight learning
solve a problem using past skills. the "aha" moment ex: use math skills previously learned to solve a problem
proactive interference
something you learned in the past impairs your learning in future aka earlier information interferes with learning of new information (old passwords impairs ability to learn new one)
tend and befriend stress response
sometimes a better response to stress is to have support systems. oxytocin important for this
personality
stable predisposition towards a certain behavior. pattern of behavior
norms
standards for behaviors set by groups of individuals about what is acceptable and what is not provide structure + standards of how people should behave - reinforced by sanctions
pathway of parasympathetic nervous system
starts at brain stem or bottom of spinal cord -> 2st neuron sends long axon -> synapse with ganglion of 2nd neuron -> sends short axon to target cell 2 chain axons: long --> short
pathway of sympathetic nervous system
starts in middle of spinal cord --> short axon synapses with sort ganglia close to spine -> 2nd neuron goes to the target cell (smooth, cardiac, gland cell) 2 chain axons: short --> long
monamine hypothesis
states that a deficiency in the availability or potency of monamine neurotransmitters (serotonin, norepinephrine, noradrenaline, dopamine) in the synapses contributes to depression - developed in response to successful treatment of depression using monoamine oxidase inhibitors which inhibit the breakdown of monamines
theory of differential association
states that deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others whom violate norms and laws (learn from observing)
strong social constructionism
states that whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits and that all knowledge is social construct and there are no brute facts. we created idea of quarks and everything we know to explain i.
adoption and twin studies to study contribution of nature vs nurture
strong genetic component indicated if: - identical twins =/= fraternal twins - identical twins raised together = identical twins raised apart - adoptive child = biological parents strong environmental component if: - identical twins = fraternal twins - identical twins raised together =/= identical twins raised apart - adoptive child = adoptive parents
nature vs. nurture in terms of intelligence
studied heritability by twin studies (identical twins raised together, fraternal twins raised together). found that strongest correlation between IQ scores in identical twins raised together. raised apart led to less correlation meaning there is some environmental component. fraternal twins raised together showed low correlation suggesting a genetic component
erving goffman and the dramaturgical approach
studied nature of people's interactions and noticed people planned their conduct, people want to guide and control how they're seen, and act differently alone than in public. put the best presentation of themselves that they can - front stage: when people are in a social setting. -back stage: more private area of our lives, when act is over and you can be yourself. you can do what makes you feel comfortable.
ethnography
study of particular people and places and is more an approach than a single research method in that it generally combines several research methods including interviews, observation, physical trace measures.
andrew meltzoff study
study questioned theory that understanding between self and others happens soon after birth. in his experiment, he suggested that babies are born with a built-in capacity to imitate others. a baby 12-21 days old will imitate experimenter by sticking their tongue out when experimenter does. to determine it's true imitation and not a reflex, they put pacifier in baby's mouth and experimenter would stick tongue out. baby would imitate after pacifier was taken out. experimenters facial expression had to be blank during this experiment. suggested we are born with built-in capacity to imitate others and social mechanism critical for our species to learn through others - suggests we have mirror neurons (when one fires another fires when we observe same action performed by other person)
substance induced disorders vs. substance use disorders
substance-induced disorders: conditions that are caused by a substance. cane be substance induced mood disorders (mania/depression) or disorders related to sleep, sexual function, anxiety, psychosis) substance use disorders: occurs when drug causes real serious impairment in life, school, work. looking at a problem with their substance use. 3 things can indicate one: 1. substance usage (using increasingly large amts, stronger desires to use, etc) 2. withdrawal 3. tolerance
cognitive theories of motivation
suggest people behave based on their expectations. that they predict will yield the most favorable outcome aka thought processes drive behavior - intrinsic are those that are internal (feeling satisfied after completing task) - extrinsic driven by external reward
age stratification theory
suggests age is a way of regulating behavior of a generation
biological theory of personality
suggests important components of personality are inherited or determined in part by our genes
empathy-altruism hypothesis
suggests some people are altruistic due to empathy. helping behaviors begin early (which indicates altruism might be a normal human behavior)
surface traits vs source traits
surface traits = evident from person's behavior source traits = underlying human personality and are fewer and more abstract
cochlear implants
surgery to restore some degree of hearing for individuals who have a problem with conduction of sound waves from cochlea to brain - sound goes to microphone which goes to a transmitter outside of skull which goes to receive inside of skull which sends info to a stimulator which sends it into cochlea and cochlea transforms the electrical impulses into neural impulses that go to brain
token economy
system of behavior modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behavior. reinforcers are "tokens" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers (ex: prizes)
conventional level of kohlberg's moral development
takes into account social judgements 3 - moral reasoning focuses on the potential for disapproval by others who find out one's behavior 4 - characterized by desire to obey rules and laws
negative reinforcement
taking something away to increase a behavior operant conditioning
side-effect discrimination
talks about how one institution/organization/sector can influence against negatively. institutions - economics, politics, law, medicine, business, and are all inter-related and discrimination in one area can affect another - it is a side effect) ex: small town where African American always get unfair verdict of guilty because they didn't think they could get off on a fair verdict (so they take lesser crime). then while applying to a job later, don't get the job because of criminal record. criminal justice reached unfair verdict and potential employers are swayed too (employer is swayed and unjustly discriminates unintentional because of another institution - in this case the court system)
operational span testing
task in which subjects are asked to perform simple mathematical verification and then read a word with a recall test following some number of those verify/read pairs. max number of words that can be recalled is "operation span"
4 types of somatosensation
temperature (thermoreception) pain (nocireception) pressure (mechanoreception) position (proprioception)
touch adaptation
temperature receptors can desensitize over time
self-serving bias
tend to attribute our own actions to external circumstances. mechanism for preserving our self esteem and it's more common in individualistic cultures.
conformity
tendency for people to align behavior with group norms
instinctual drift
tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response. originated when BF skinner's former students tried to teach a raccoon to put tokens into piggy bank but it instead was drifted instinctually to put them on the ground and turn them over in paws as they do with food
fundamental attribution error
tendency to attribute others' actions to internal factors like personality rather than external circumstances - can be problematic when looking at patients (ex: obese patients who can't exercise because they're struggling with poverty, we under recognize the situational and social problems and healthcare barrier they can have by blaming them for their own problems)
halo effect
tendency to believe people have inherently good/bad natures rather than looking at individual characteristics ex: the physical attractiveness stereotype: believe attractive people have more positive personality traits
social loafing
tendency to put forth less effort in group task if the individual contributions aren't evaluted.
generalization
tendency/ability of a stimulus similar to conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. the more similar the stimulus is to original conditional stimulus - the greater the conditioned response
flashbulb memories
term coined by Brown and Kulik for highly emotional memories that feel extremely vivid. though they seem as real as life, they are still susceptible to reconstruction as less emotional memories
what is the arcuate fasciculus? what happens when it's damaged?
the arcuate fasciculus is a bundle of nerve fibers that connect wernicke's and broca's area. when it's damaged conduction aphasia/associative aphasia occurs which is the disruption of the ability to conduct between listening and speaking. makes it difficult for people to repeat things even when they understand what is being said
cultural imperialism
the deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture
social facilitation
the effect of the presence of others on your behavior determined by the dominant response - if you are well practiced/it's an easy task, then presence of others make you perform better - if you are not well practiced/it's a challenging task, the presence of others will make you perform more poorly
frustration-aggression principle
the idea that frustration creates anger which can spark aggression and almost anything can cause frustration ex: physical pain, presence of crowd, higher temperatures can also lead to frustration
in-group
the one we are connected with. "Us" stronger interactions with those in the in-group than those in the out-group. interactions are more common and more influential as well within in-group
what splits the cochlea into 2 membranes (upper/lower)?
the organ of corti
how come there is a better resolution when light hits fovea directly vs. going through the periphery?
the periphery is filled with bundles of axons so when light travels through periphery, it loses a bit of energy whereas the fovea has no axons in the way of light
cultural relativism
the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one's own culture.
what begins the phototransduction cascade?
the rods have a lot of optic discs and on these discs are many proteins, including rhodopsin (a multimeric protein that contains small molecule called retinal) - when light comes in and hits rods, some hits rhodopsin which causes retinal to change shape which causes rhodopsin conformation to change from bent to straight
gender schema theory
theory that explains how individuals should be gendered in society. how sex-linked characteristics are maintained and transmitted to other members of a culture. what constitutes
hierarchical semantic network. include cognitive economic principle
theory that suggests wer store information in a hierarchical way. concepts organized from higher order categories to lower order - supported by cognitive economy principle which says our brain is efficient - longer the distance bw nodes of semantic network = longer it takes to verify the connection problem: not true for all categories for people tend to categorize pig as an animal faster than as a mammal
thesis and antithesis
thesis is the existing generally accepted state. ex: bourgeoisie ran factories and working class provided labor. cases the formation of the reaction (antithesis) antithesis is the desire of working class to change the thesis. push-back from those unhappy with status quo struggle would have to lead to compromise which would eventually become new thesis . antithesis always wants to oppose the thesis so there's always a constant struggle
what did johnson and heinz propose about the location of the attenuator and attention?
they proposed that the location of the attenuator may vary by listener depending on the demand necessitated by a particular task
conjunctiva
thin layer of cells that line the inside of your eyelids from the eyeball
what happens when your body takes in external cues associated with using cocaine?
this can result in your body lowering HR/metabolism in preparation for cocaine but no cocaine means your body is now under its normal levels for homeostasis leading to a crash
central processing
this deep processing occurs only if listener is interested, motivated, and think topic is important - creates a lasting attitude change
Deindividuation
those in a group are more likely to act in behaviors unlike their usual because crowd conceals the person's identity ex: black friday
secondary reinforcers
those learned to be reinforcers such as previously neutral stimuli
lazarus theory of emotion
thought must come before any emotion or physiological arousal aka the experience of emotion depends on how situation is cognitively appraised
harlow monkey experiments
to determine what causes attachment between mother and child - researchers separated monkeys from mothers at young age (controversial today) and then gave them the choice between 2 substitute mothers (vaguely monkey-shaped structures) that were placed in cage with baby monkey. first option was wire mother with a feeding tube in the middle. Mom provides food. Second mother was the cloth mother but had a soft cloth blanket around it so this mom provides comfort. - baby overwhelmingly preferred to cloth mother and spent large majority of time clinging to her. if had to eat, tried to eat while staying attached to cloth mother so showed attachment basis to mother is due to comfort (not food) and acts as a secure base
milgram study of obedience
to study willingness of participants to obey authority figures that instructed them to perform behaviors that conflicted with their personal beliefs and morals - an acting learner was hooked up to electrodes and would be shocked if they gave wrong answer - teacher was taken to a diff room and was responsible for delivering shocks in increasing strength - experimenter instructed teacher to continue delivering shocks even after learn started yelping in pain - 65% of participants shocked all the way even though most were trembling and protesting. showered very few resist authority - participants justified their actions due to just world phenomenom and passing responsibility of actions to others
tyranny of choice
too many choices can negatively impact our cognition and behavior ex: too many choices at stores. those who had to pick 1/6 were more satisfied with their choice than those who had to pick 1/30. - due to information overload leading people to decision paralysis and increased regret over choice made
real world application of signal detection theory
traffic lights - on foggy days and you have to decide when you start driving. how strong does a signal have to be for you to start?
encoding
transferring information from the temporary store in working memory into permanent store in long-term memory
hidden curriculum
transmits cultural ideals beyond the stated goals of the institution. encompasses unspoken aims of education, such as teaching children to conform to social expectations
cornea
transparent thick sheet of fibrous tissue, anterior 1/6th it's the first part of the eye that light hits and it starts the bending of the light
gestalt's principles/groupings (8)
tries to explain how we perceive things the way we do - similarity: similar items are grouped together by brain - pragnanz: reality reduced and organized to simplest form possible (ex: olympic rings so brain automatically organizes them into 5 rings rather than more complex shapes) - proximity: objects that are close together are grouped together - continuity/good continuation: lines are seen as following the smoothest path - closure: objects grouped together are seen as a whole aka brain misses in filling information - symmetry: mind perceives image as being symmetrical and forming around a central point - law of common fate: humans perceive visual elements that move in the same speed/direction as parts of a single stimulus (ex: flock of birds) - law of past experiences: under some circumstances, visual stimuli are categorized based on past experiences. (ex: humans know the english alphabet has 26 letters and thus when encountering a new word, may determine the L and I are too separate letters rather than using the law of closure to determine it is supposed to be a U)
type i error vs. type ii error
type i error = false positive type ii error = false negative
imitation
type of individual social influence and is one of the most basic forms of social behavior. begins with understanding there's a difference between others and our self
hawthorne/observer effect
type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed
factitious disorder
type of somatoform disorder - patients want to be sick and will falsify symptoms to get diagnosis/treatment (might injure themselves, falsify tests)
conversion disorder
type of somatoform disorder - symptoms most look like neurological symptoms (probs w/ speech, swallowing, seizures, paralysis) - cannot see symptoms based on test or clinical exam - sometimes have a level of psychological stress or traumatic event resulting in manifestation of neurological symptoms
phobias
under category of anxiety disorders irrationally afraid of specific objects or specific situations - tend to form a pattern - more likely to develop phobias to something that impacted our ancestors rather than things that might be dangerous to use in the real world
panic disorders
under category of anxiety disorders sudden burst of sheer panic and intense fear - heart palpitations and shortness of breath - response to situations that typically don't warrant that level of stress
what was walter cannon interested in?
understanding homeostatic response of animals to stressors, threats, and dangers termed "fight or flight"
availability heuristic
using examples that come to mind. helpful but our easily memorable experiences don't always match real state of world (choices based on quick, accessible examples) ex: more shark attack on news so you think a shark attack is more fatal but firework accidents are more fatal but are less available (less publicized)
game theory
usually talked about in reference to decision making but can also be used for evolution and animal behavior tries to predict behaviors we would expect to see when an individual is playing a game. looks at individual strategy - evolutionary game theory tell us those with best fit to environment will survive and pass onto offspring and those genes will become more common in successive generations (reproduction and environment central bc it can't happen in isolation needs to involve others) - predicts the availability of resources and social behavior (important for who they mate with) and strategy of each individual depends on strategy exhibited by other players - helps predict traits we would expect to see in a population (ex: 2 groups of monkeys, one self and one not. selfish group doesn't alarm others of predators but non-selfish group does which leads to overall success of group over time. making a call at own expense is sometimes good and altruism increases fitness of group)
aversive conditioning
usually used to stop a particular behavior. involves pairing a habit that a person wishes to break with an unpleasant stimulus such as electric shock. if i wanted to stop jim from smoking, i would shock her every time she smokes. shock is the unconditioned stimulus and pain is the unconditioned response. once jim starts associating smoking with pain, they will experience electric shock whenever they smoke so smoking will become conditioned stimulus and pain the conditioned response
- utilitarian organizations - normative organizations - coercive organizations
utilitarian: members are paid/rewarded for their efforts (ex: gov't jobs, businesses, universities) normative: members come together through shard goals (religion groups, mothers against drunk driving), positive sense of unity and purpose coercive: members don't have choice about membership (ex: people in prison, military) usually highly structured and have very strict rules
cocaine
very strong stimulant that causes brain to release so much dopamine, seratonin, noriepinephrine that it depletes the brain's supply which is what leads to such an intesnse crash and feelings of depression
incongruity
when the ideal self does not match the real self
out-group derogation
we are not friendly to out groups and discriminate against them. happens if we feel that the out group is threatening to or are undermining in-group's success
situational approach to behavior
we are placed in new situations every day and these situations affect our behavior
actor-observer bias
we are victims but others are willful actors (we attribute our personal behaviors to situational factors but others on their internal factors)
theory of planned behavior
we consider the implications of our actions before we decide on how to behave. best predictor of behavior is the strength of these intentions and implications
why do humans rely very little on pheromones?
we don't have an accessory olfactory bulb like other animals and insects
in-group favoritism
we favor and are friendly to people in our own group, but those in outgroup we are neutral too. we don't give them favors as we do to our in-group
foot in the door phenomenon
we have a tendency to agree to small actions first. eventually over time, we comply with much larger actions. - ex of how behavior can change attitude
resource model of attention
we have limited resources in attention and resources are easily overtasked if we try to pay attention to multiple things at once - supported by study dichotic listening task where people were unable to recall information said in both their attended and unattended ear
ideal self
what we wish/aspire to be
deviance
when a norm is violated. not necessarily negative but reflects an individual behaving differently from their society and is thus relative ex: most americans eat meat so someone who is a vegetarian is deviant in US
role exit
when an individual stops engaging in a role previously central to their identity and the process of establishing a new identity ex: when person retires from long career, must transition from role of worker with deadlines and responsibilities to a leisurely life
feature detection and 3 things to consider when doing it
when looking at object, need to break it down to component features to make sense of what you're looking at (CARE FOR MORE?) 1. color 2. form - to find out boundaries of object. cones are responsible. parvocellular pathway good for determining spatial resolution and color, not so much for temporal. 3. motion - rods are responsible. magnocellular pathway has high temporal resolution (think time, motion) but has poor spatial resolution.
associative learning
when one event is connected to another ex: classical and operant conditioning
functionalism related to medicine
when people become ill, medicine ensures they return to functional state so they become functional members of society again medical institutions also stabilize social system in emergency situations like hurricanes, earthquakes, etc
learned helplessness and dog experiment
when tone is sounded, dogs in group 1 receive an electric shock but could press a button to stop the shock. dogs in group 2 had no way to turn off the shocks. - after, dogs were placed in a new environment and had 2 sides separated by low partition in middle. given electric shocks, dogs in group 1 learned to escape shock by jumping over the barrier. dogs in group 2 didn't try to escape the shock
false consensus
when we assume everyone else agrees with what we do even if they do not
projection bias
when we assume other share the same beliefs we do
freud's reality princople
when we become mature, you need to sacrifice short term reward and replace it with long term gratification. not always going to get what you want and the outside world might tolerate your behavior
role strain
when you can't carry out all obligations of a status, tensions within one status. causes individuals to be pulled many directions by one status, ex: a student has to write two papers, five reading assignments, give a speech, two lab reports in one week
taste aversion
when you eat something because you like it but then stop eating it because you got food poisoning once from it/something similar or had a bad experience while eating it (may or may not actually be caused by specific food item) ex: you got sick after eating chicken + cilantro so start to hate cilantro even though the chicken might be what got you sick
temporal cortex
where auditory processing occurs
frontal lobe
where complex thinking occurs
population transfer
where group is forcefully moved from territory
blind spot
where the optic nerve connects to the retina - no rods or cones
can a person have low self esteem and high self-efficacy? and vice versa
yes, a perfectionist can have low self esteem (critical about themselves) but high self-efficacy (still see themselves as capable of doing tasks). competent at tasks with clear guidelines but lose confidence when there are no clear rules
sign that you're addicted
you need to take drugs in order to feel "normal" again rather than euphoric
alertness
you're awake and aware of who you are and your surroundings
recency bias
your most recent actions are also very important and people place a lot of emphasis on your recent actions/recent performances more than ones before
