Kin 3H03: Quiz 2

Environmental and policy approaches: Modifying Policy and Curricula for School-Based Physical Education

(no evidence0

financial health incentive

- A financial health incentive is any monetary reward that is contingent on a pre-specified behaviour - The monetary reward may be cash, vouchers or loyalty points - The pre-specified behaviour may be going to the gym, using a pedometer or taking public transit

Enthusiasm > Evidence

- A lot of physical literacy is program based —> Governments are funding programs if they use a physical literacy approach - Schools love this approach because it encompasses a lot of domains - The enthusiasm behind physical literacy is outpacing the actual evidence of it - We can talk really well in theory about what physical literacy does, should do and incorporates —> But we haven't done a good job yet of actually measuring if physical literacy is what it says it is and whether we can actually create true physical literacy interventions that will have benefits in terms of increasing activity, health and other indicators

How to devloping maximally effective informational interventions

- Adapt or "tailor" physical activity information/messages to specific populations - Emphasize the benefits of physical activity rather than the risks of inactivity. Information on benefits should be specific (rather than generic) and meaningful to members of the target population. - Provide simple but detailed "how to" information for starting an activity program.

Family support

- Among adults, the positive effects of a supportive spouse or partner on exercise behavior have been consistently demonstrated. - Study: cardiac rehab program usually has 48% drop out rate, change to invite family drop out now 10% for partners, drop out without partner 33% - parnters may have similar exercise habits, if engage is similar level of exercise are more likely to recognize and appreciate one another's attempts to be supportive than partners with dissimilar exercise habits. - note new mothers tend to experience a greater decline in activity than new fathers. Study done and findings suggest a direct link between partner support and activity levels in mothers of young children.

P-PLAy

- Anyone in the childcare setting would be trained on how to use the tool - Then they would rate the children on a number of different areas —> Ex. movement competencies, the leader's perceived motivation and enjoyment for that child, their overall physical literacy level - It is hard to assess young kids on physical literacy —> We can't gauge their actual confidence, motivation or knowledge —> Have to rely on others' assessments of them

ExTracker

- Are paying cardiac rehabilitation patients to exercise after they are done the 6 month program - They earn $1 worth of vouchers every time they do it

Findings

- At 6 months, compared with control, the cash group logged an additional 29 MVPA bout min per week and the charity group an additional 21 MVPA bout min per week (2-39; p=0·0310); the difference between Fitbit only and control was not signify cant (16 MVPA bout min per week [-2 to 35; p=0·0854]). - Increases in MVPA bout min per week in the cash and charity groups were not significantly greater than that of the Fitbit group. - At 12 months, the Fitbit group logged an additional 37 MVPA bout min per week and the charity group an additional 32 MVPA bout min per week compared with control; the difference between cash and control was not significant (15 MVPA bout min per week. - A decrease in physical activity of -23 MVPA bout min per week was seen when comparing the cash group with the Fitbit group. There were no improvements in any health outcomes (weight, blood pressure, etc) at either assessment.

Physical Literacy Gender Gap

- Boys are typically more active than girls come adolescence —> Girls drop out of physical activity at higher rates during adolescence —> In particular, boy outperform girls in object control skills - Wanted to see if the gender gap existed if you looked at it from more of a physical literacy lens - Multi-stage study that involved measurements of movement skills (their competence), confidence and motivation —> Also had interviews with kids - Found that the gender gap was still present through a physical literacy lens —> Also found that girls were typically saying that they were less confident to engage in physical activity, that they didn't think they had the skills to participate and that boys sometimes made them feel that they shouldn't be engaging in gym class or recess type settings - Created a physical literacy intervention that took place in after-school programs

New Review- Intervention

- Built in smartphone accelerometers mean that you can track and reward physical activity immediately - Historically people would use incentives, but they weren't that sophisticated —> They were not as informed - In the last four years, people have been inducing loss-aversion type incentives, lottery incentives, etc. - Found that gym attendance wasn't the most common outcome —> Steps per day was - In the studies, people were usually rewarded for getting 7,000 or 8,000 steps and they were usually rewarded $2 a day - The incentive condition was favoured by about 750 steps - On average people walked just under 25% more when incentives were in place The studies were 12 to 14 weeks in duration

Time and Health

- Can think about nudge theory in 2 broad ways - It is about choice architecture and decision biases

Choice Architecture

- Choice architecture is about how can we make things easier —> Is there a way we can redesign medical forms or organ donor forms so that people are more likely to do the things we want them to —> Ex. big stickers of footsteps leading people from the elevator to the stairs

Physical Competence

- Competence in movement skills - Fundamental movement skills are things like running, jumping, kicking, etc. —> Are the basic skills you need to be engaged in other activities —> Can combine these skills for different situations - Fundamental movement skills are often broken down into more specific skills Such as - Locomotor skills —> Skills that get you from one point to another —> Ex. running, skipping - Object manipulation of skills —> Sending and receiving skills —> Ex. throwing, catching, kicking - Balance skills

Decision biases

- Decision biases is about human tendencies to do certain things

#1 and #2

- Decision makers are looking for new ways to maintain physical activity on a population scale - The first trend has to do with smartphone penetration —> In 2017, 80% of Canadians own a smartphone and most smartphones have built in accelerometers —> Researchers have been able to use the accelerometer data - The second trend is related to the influential book called Nudge —> The book provided behavioural insight to public policy decisions starting with the Obama administration in the United States and then in the UK —> Created Nudge units —> There are Nudge units all over Canada

Self-motivation

- Dishman undertook one attempt to develop an exercise Dishman undertook one attempt to develop an exercise-specific theory that incorporated personality. He proposed a psychobiological model as an attempt to explain exercise adherence

expressions of empathy

- Empathy refers to the ability to identify with another person and understand his or her feelings. In order for clients to open up fully to a counselor and discuss their thoughts and feelings about change, they need to know that the counselor truly accepts and understands them. By expressing empathy, the counselor helps to create an environment where clients are comfortable discussing their thoughts, hopes, and fears regarding the possibility of change.

Are people Physical literate?

- Everyone has the ability to become physically literate - We all have various levels of physical literacy —> Is like a spectrum (very broad) —> The most physically literate individuals should be highly active

Exercise psychologists and social influences

- Exercise psychologists are interested in - why social influence has an effect on exercise and other forms of physical activity, - under which social influence has its greatest effects. - These understandings can facilitate the development of interventions that use social influence to increase physical activity participation.

Community-Wide Campaigns: Conducting fitness appraisals.

- Fitness clubs often use informational interventions to motivate people to buy a gym membership. Similar to health risk appraisals, fitness appraisals are designed to provide people with personalized information about their level of fitness. The rationale behind this intervention is that people will be motivated to exercise when they learn how unfit they are.

Passport for Life

- Focused on the school setting - Kids in classes fill out questionnaires on their participation and living skills - Then teachers would conduct fitness and movement skill assessments - Is used a bit in the school setting but overall it is not the most widely used physical literacy assessment —> It wouldn't really be used in the research domain at all - Is easy to use —> There's not too much for students and teachers to fill out - A downside is that teachers aren't usually properly trained to assess movement skills or fitness - Should think of and measure fitness as an outcome of physical literacy, not a component of it —> Having a high level of fitness is something that is going to come from being physically active, but you need physical literacy to get there

The Steps Study

- Giving people $1 a day to hit a daily step target - Increase their goal by 500 steps

Phase Three Findings

- Had a lot of issues with attrition and sites —> Ended up with really unbalanced groups - There was no significant overall intervention effect - Kids increased their confidence —> They were more confident in making and keeping friends of the same and opposite sex —> Is important in decreasing this gender gap (opposite sex) - Kids were more confident in getting their program leaders to help them out —> Where RISE comes into play

Community-Wide Campaigns: Conducting health risk appraisals

- Health risk appraisals provide opportunities within the community for people to be screened, without cost, for diseases such as diabetes or cardiovascular disease (CVD). For example, many drugstores have a device that measures people's blood pressure and provides them with immediate feedback about their level of CVD risk. Many workplaces routinely hold "screening days" when employees can have their health risk appraised by a nurse. It is hypothesized that if people are told that they are at increased risk for a particular disease, this information will motivate them to change their health habits, such as increase their level of exercise.

So what?: Why is Physical Literacy important?

- If an individual has a high level of movement proficiency that doesn't automatically mean they are going to engage in physical activity - This is where physical literacy really ties it all together by adding in physical competence, confidence, motivation and the knowledge and understanding - If we combine those it's a really nice way we can explain an individual's level of activity and is also a nice framework we can use to create interventions to get people to be more active

JC Article: Impact of PA during kids life

- Impact during 1-4 year due to high neuroplasticity - Impact in utero There is at least some evidence that maternal PA during pregnancy is positively associated with cognitive and academic achievement in their children. Evidence from animal models suggests that the mechanism of this effect may be through enhanced neurogenesis in central learning areas of the brain (e.g., hippocampus). Together, evidence from school-aged children and children in utero, suggest that the period of early childhood would not be exempt from the positive effects of PA on cognitive performance. There is compelling evidence that PA can have an important impact on executive function from very early childhood through to adolescence and beyond.

Development of discrepancy

- In order for motivational interviewing to be successful, clients must develop an awareness of a discrepancy between their current behavior (e.g., being inactive) and their broader goals and values (e.g., being healthy and fit). In an exercise counseling session, this awareness would develop by exploring the pros and cons of remaining inactive and the pros and cons of becoming active. When people are aware of a discrepancy, they begin to make changes so that their behaviors become consistent with their goals and values.

A physical literate person would be

- Individuals who are physically literate can move with poise, economy and confidence in a wide variety of physically challenging situations —> These skills can be applied to many different physical contexts and throughout everyday life (not necessarily referring to a specialized athlete) - Have to be able to respond to these different situations —> Ex. running across ice or a field —> You should be able to be confident to do both and have the actual movement ability to do both - Have a well-embodied sense of self —> You are confident in your abilities and you know what to do in certain situations —> You have positive self-esteem and high levels of self-confidence -A physically literate individual should have that knowledge and understanding of why it's important to be active and what goes into being an active person —> Ex. exercise, good nutrition, adequate sleep

Move 2 Learn

- Infant and Child Health Lab (InCH lab) - Working on interventions to try to bridge this knowledge gap and build evidence around the benefits of physical literacy - Move 2 Learn focused on developing fundamental movement skills and cognitive functioning - There was a pre-literacy component and a focus on building self-efficacy through skill building techniques - Had some of the components of physical literacy —> Competence, a bit of the confidence piece, maybe a little bit of the motivation piece —> But not really tapping into the knowledge and understanding piece - Overall, found that after the program they were able to improve movement and pre-literacy skills of the children —> This is key for the preschool age range - Due to their age they couldn't use the traditional measures typically used for older kids or adults to measure their confidence or motivation —> Preschool aged children can't fill out questionnaires —> Is a limitation to be able to measure all the domains of physical literacy

What is physical literacy?

- Is a concept that we can use to help explain participation in physical activity - There are a lot of definitions of physical literacy out there —> But they all capture these main components (motivation, confidence, actual physical ability/skill level, and the knowledge implement) - It is a way we can talk about what factors go into making people be physically active - It incorporates a lot of different ideas and domains that are out there - The key piece is that it's being used to explain why people are or aren't active, and it can be used as an intervention piece to increase people's activity level - When we talk about physical literacy, physical activity should be an outcome from it

PLUS Study

- Is a physical literacy intervention aimed at attenuating the decline in physical activity when you get to first year - Physical activity tends to drastically decrease as you go from high school to university - There are 30 students from the Healthy Active Living community in residence in the intervention group —> There are about 60 control students (30 from the Healthy Active Living residence and 30 from other residences) - In September, looked at their movement skill and fitness levels —> They filled out questionnaires about their confidence, perceived competence, motivation, knowledge of their activity behaviours and understanding of the importance of being active —> Was a comprehensive set of assessments - The intervention group is now involved in a weekly program during the semester —> Every week is a different activity —> Try to level the playing field in terms of skill by providing experiences that might be new - The study is currently ongoing - Everyone in the intervention and control groups are also filling out weekly questionnaires —> Ask about their motivations and affect that week

Canadian Assessment of Physical Literacy

- Is the most comprehensive assessment - Has the most research published on it in terms of validation —> But is still limited - Incorporates physical competence, daily behaviour, knowledge and understanding, and motivation and confidence - Is pushed for teachers, program leaders, and researchers to use - It takes more time to assess using it —> Takes about 1 hour to assess one kid with the questionnaires and fitness tests - The physical competence aspect of this is really all based on fitness - There is an obstacle course that measures motor coordination —> Is great at getting at that competence piece, but that fitness piece we should think of as more of an outcome of physical literacy and not a component of it - Daily behaviour requires kids to wear a pedometer to measure activity levels for a week and to self-report sedentary time - If we think about physical literacy as what we need to be active then physical activity should be an outcome of physical literacy and not a primary component of it - This assessment tool is the only one to incorporate knowledge and understanding —> Is still limited, but is a starting point

BC Program Effectiveness: Steps - 8 Month Analysis

- Looking at 8 months of the Carrot walking program in British Columbia - Compared to baseline we saw on average an 8% increase in the whole group - Saw 34% increase in people who had fewer than 5,000 steps at baseline (lower active group) - People who are less active are more sensitive to incentive interventions - Positives: Are able to deliver it on a population scale —> Using loyalty points increases the effectiveness because people over value loyalty points —> Can reward people immediately after they meet their step goal

Physical Literacy Assessment for Youth

- Measures objective assessments of movement skill —> Gets a little bit of confidence and comprehension but not as much as it could - Then there are other tools to measure how many activities kids are doing - PLAY Self asks about how confident kids are in their abilities to engage in different skills - Example of the PLAY Fun —> Is the actual movement competence piece - Is designed for anyone age 7 and up - Ask individuals to perform these 18 tasks and rate their competence on a modified VAS scale - Looking at whether they are developing the skill or have acquired the skill - There are some other parts looking at whether the individual seems like they are lacking in confidence or don't know what to do

Motivational interviewing is effective for?

- Motivational interviewing is effective for helping people initiate and maintain an exercise regimen - Studies have shown that participants assigned to motivational interviewing treatment conditions are more likely to change their behavior than participants assigned to "no treatment" control conditions. Furthermore, participants who receive advice delivered according to motivational interviewing principles are more likely to change than those who receive advice from counselors who do not apply the principles

The Lego of Movement

- Movement skills are the building blocks - If you only have one or two skills you can draw upon, there's only so many games you can play - The more movements you have, the more opportunity you have to be active —> You can combine the movements to do a greater variety of activity —> You can combine the movements in different situations

Carrot Rewards

- Need to involve all kinds of people and all kinds of partners - The federal government paid to develop the app and pays Canadians to download the app - From there the provinces pick up the tab —> They pay people to use the app - Most people use the app for the step count - Mostly females use this app and the average age is 33

What About Individuals with a Disability?

- None of these tools are designed for individuals with disabilities - There is some work being done on how to adapt these assessment tools to look at individuals with physical or developmental disabilities

Influence of exercise group

- People who exercise as part of a group are more likely to be adherent than those who exercise alone - However, not all groups are equally effective at promoting and sustaining exercise adherence - three aspects of exercise group: cohesion, size and composition

Support from exercise leader/instructor

- People who provide exercise leadership or instruction (e.g., fitness class instructors, strength and conditioning coaches, personal trainers, physical education teachers) can have a powerful social influence given their potential to provide multiple types of social support. - provide informational support regarding what exercises to do and how to do them. - provide emotional support (e.g., providing encouragement and praise), - provide instrumental support (e.g., designing workouts), - companionship support, providing distractions from feelings of pain, fatigue, and boredom).

PAGEQ and GEQ

- Physical Activity Group Environment Questionnaire made to measure cohesion in exercise groups - group environment questionnaire measure group cohesion in sport teams and was used in early studies measures - how group members feel about social aspects of the group (e.g., their liking of group members, - the extent to which they interact with members outside of the exercise setting), - as well as task-related aspects of the group (e.g., their liking of group goals and activities). These questionnaires assess group members' level of attraction to the social and taskrelated aspects of the group and group members' perceptions regarding how well the group is integrated in terms of its social and task-related activities.

The Benefits of PA and Exercise

- Physical activity reduces the incidence of diabetes by 25% —> If you meet the physical activity guidelines (exercise) you can reduce it by 58% - Physical activity reduces the risk of premature death by 31% —> If you meet the physical activity guidelines (exercise) you can reduce it by 50%

More than just physical health what is PA also good for -

- Positive affect - Higher self-efficacy - High levels of motivation - Overall subjective well-being - Mental well-being - Executive functioning can be improved from being physically active —> Inhibition, attention, working memory, shifting between tasks, etc. - There are a lot of important physical health and psychosocial health outcomes of being active

Assessment in the Early Years

- Preschool Physical Literacy Assessment (P-PLAy) is to be used by EAs, ECEs, etc. (anyone working in a childcare setting)

Relation-Inferred Self-Efficacy (RISE)

- Relation-inferred self-efficacy is how I think someone else thinks I will do at that task - Is particularly important for kids —> They have a hard time judging their own confidence levels or self-efficacy - It also important up through adulthood - But it can also have negative effects if you think that someone thinks you aren't good at it —> It might lower your self-efficacy

Supporting self-efficacy

- Self-efficacy is a key ingredient of successful behavior change. For example, in order to adopt a physically active lifestyle, nonexercisers must be confident in their abilities to overcome barriers and successfully implement exercise into their weekly routines. A counselor can help strengthen self-efficacy beliefs by targeting the four sources of self-efficacy discussed in Chapter 3: past performance accomplishments, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and physiological/ affective states. When people believe that they can change, they are more motivated to change.

Effect of transformational leadership in the class room

- Students report: greater self-efficacy for performing in-class physical activities - stronger intentions to engage in physical activity during their free time - stronger intrinsic motivation for participating in physical education classes - greater satisfaction with their teachers

Size of the social network

- Study: those with more Significant Others to exercise with were more likely to be exercising at recommended levels than people who had few to no S/O - However, because support was operationally defined as the number of people to exercise with, the results do not shed any light on the types or amounts of support that are most valuable to exercisers.

Two ways to operationally define and measure social support

- The first approach is to measure the size of one's social network, and the second is to measure the amount and type of support that a person receives.

Motivation Mountain

- The higher you are, the more internalized the motivation - See if you can use incentives to move people up the mountain - If you can use incentives to increase ?? without being to coercive, you will be able to get people to move up the mountain - List of the types of behaviour change techniques that are out there - Use other behaviour change techniques besides financial incentive techniques The incentives don't exist in a vacuum

Do rewards motivate people? Yes. They motivate people to get rewards

- The incentives work when they are in place - But when you take them away people will stop doing it or they will be worse than before because you have undermined their motivation - Incentive for weight loss study - The incentives worked —> People lost up to 10kg during the 6 month intervention - They followed the people after and found that they gained almost all the weight back - The belief was that financial incentives were not a good way to stimulate quality health behaviour change

Making Movement Matter

- The kids in the focus groups wanted one-on-one support from their peers - The program leaders were really conscious of not grouping kids based on gender

studies with different social support types

- The researchers found that as perceptions of emotional support increased (specifically, support that increased feelings of self-esteem and belongingness), so did adherence to the program. In contrast, greater perceptions of instrumental support (specifically, having someone to turn to for exercise information and advice) were not associated with greater adherence to the program. - The authors also noted that the relationship between the different types of social support and adherence fluctuated over the course of the study. For example, emotional support was more strongly related to adherence toward the end of the program than at the beginning of the program.

studies with different social support types depending on goals

- The results of a prospective study of more than 5,000 British adults suggest that different types of exercise support may be needed depending on whether people are trying to increase, versus maintain, their activity levels - among adults who were insufficiently active at baseline, those with high levels of instrumental support were more likely to have become sufficiently active at the five-year follow-up. - Levels of emotional support were not associated with increases in physical activity. - Among participants who were sufficiently active at baseline, those who had high levels of both instrumental and emotional support were more likely to have maintained their activity levels at follow-up than participants who had low levels of these two types of support - Thus, high levels of instrumental support may be important for helping people to increase their activity levels, whereas a combination of instrumental and emotional support might help people maintain their activity levels. -

Physical Literacy Assessment

- There are currently three published tools and one that is currently under development specifically for physical literacy - A lot of the constructs of physical literacy have been pulled from other domains —> So a lot of the assessments we use for it are surveys from psychology measures that are already out there and valid that we know we can use to measure things like motivation and self-efficacy

Elderly

- There is no work looking at physical literacy in the elderly - Increasing physical literacy throughout the lifespan could limit falls, reduce dementia, reduce cognitive declines associated with physical inactivity, etc. - Physical literacy could be framed throughout the whole life course —> Have positive benefits throughout childhood and young adulthood, but also as we age

New Review - Follow-Up

- This review found that 8 of the 9 studies followed people for three or four months afterwards - The data suggests that once the incentives are removed, people that belong in the incentive study groups are still walking more than their control counterparts —> They aren't walking quite as much as during the intervention, but the difference persists —> This is contrary to what people were suggesting for years

Types of leader ship styles

- Transformational leadership - Socially supportive and autonomy-supportive leadership behaviors

Adulthood

- Use the PLAY Fun assessment tool for adults - But there hasn't been a lot of work done on how physical literacy might look in adults or how it might benefit adults

Making Movement Matter - The Program

- Was a 12 week program - Tried to create an atmosphere where the kids and program leaders were really keen on helping each other - The kids worked one-on-one with each other to help improve skill levels and work on particular movement skills with the idea to build their self-efficacy and motivation to be active - Hitting on the competence, confidence and motivation pieces of physical literacy through this intervention

Old Review

- Was the first systematic review to examine financial incentives and exercise adherence in adults - Only about 8 of the 11 studies had a similar outcome - The outcome was gym attendance - When comparing the incentive groups (were paid to go to the gym) to the controls they found a 12% better attendance in the incentive groups - The incentive groups outperformed the controls - One of the conclusions was that when the incentives are better designed you can get upwards of a 25% increase - There are 15 different ways you can manipulate the incentive

Costs on the Rise (Green) - Outpacing Inflation (Orange)

- Will we spend $228 billion on health in 2016 - Inflation is about 2 or 3% growth - Since 2000 the health care budget has been growing at a rate of 7% - Most people spend just over half of their overall budgets on healthcare, leaving less of their budget for education, tourism, etc. - It is in the best interest of provinces and big insurance companies to curb the cost of health care - One of the best ways to curb the cost of health care is to get people (especially sick people) to use the healthcare system less —> The best way to do this is to get people to be more physically active - A few things have been driving the increasing cost of health care - Insurance covers 30% of the healthcare tab —> Is mostly paying for prescriptions - People who are physically active and exercise are much less likely to be re-hospitalized and need more expensive prescription medications

Exceptions to the Eysenck theory:

- Yeung and Helmsley (1997) found that extraversion was actually inversely related to attendance in an eight-week exercise program. - Extraversion and neuroticism can also influence the behaviors people might engage in to regulate mood. Thayer, Newman, and McClain (1994), in a study examining behaviors that would increase energy and decrease tension, found

The five-factor model and exercise.

- aain not alot of attention in the exercise domain - Courneya and Hellsten (1998) found E, N, and C to be significantly related to exercise behavior and adherence. Specifically, E and C were positively related to both moderate (e.g., fast walking) and strenuous (e.g., jogging) exercise behavior, and N was a significant predictor of exercise adherence, with greater levels of N predicting lower levels of adherence. Courneya, Bobick, and Schinke (1999) reported that E, N, and C were, again, all related to exercise behavior in two samples of female undergraduates. E and C were positively related to self-reported exercise (in the first sample of female undergraduates, this was based on both intensity and duration of activity in a "typical" week; in the second sample, this was based on attendance in aerobic classes over an 11-week span), while N was negatively related. Later, Rhodes, Courneya, and Bobick (2001) showed again that E, N, and C were important personality dimensions in examining exercise participation in female breast cancer survivors. Again, E and C were associated with adaptive exercise patterns and more advanced exercise stages, whereas N was associated with maladaptive exercise patterns and less advanced exercise stages activity trait and physical activity, noting that this sub-trait is a "reliable and strong predictor of physical activity" (p. 216).

Other work on body type and personality

- although Sheldon saw correlation of .7, other studies show .3, and .4. small to moderate meaning there might be a meaningful association between body type and personality.

informational approach: community wide campaign

- are interventions that engage different community members and organizations in the development and delivery of information aimed at increasing physical activity. - In addition to conveying information through mass media channels, community-wide campaigns employ a variety of interventions to deliver physical activity information. eg. - conducting health risk appraisals - conducting fitness appraisals - training healthcare professionals - community health and wellness fairs - community health and wellness fairs

informational approach: mass media campaigns

- are interventions that provide people with information using some medium other than personal contact with a health professional or provider. - offer a means for reaching large numbers of people that is less expensive than face-to-face services - e.g brief video vignettes, reality teveision - bigger loser

Measuring Social Support: Amount and Type of Support Provided

- assess how much of a particular type of support is perceived by the individual - Five main types of social support exist each of which serves a different function: Instrumental support, emotional support, informaitional support, companiopnship support, validation support

BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES TO INCREASING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

- behavioral interventions aim to increase physical activity by teaching people behavioral skills that will help them initiate and maintain an activity program. - teach skill through form of counseling (one on one, small exercise group.

Mediated approaches: telephone and email support system

- calls from exercise counselor or interventionists - gives emotional and informational support - those with more call= greater increase in PA. Even if just to touch base and not actually provide any support - email may be better fro younger and more busy people. but lack the in-person aspect

Typical responses

- characterize our fairly predictable behaviors and ways of reacting to our environment. For example, an outgoing person might be very engaging, introducing herself to people when sitting in a classroom prior to the beginning of a class.

Children intevention with parents

- children's compliance was best when their parents took part in the intervention with them because these children perceived the greatest amount of social support. - obesity study

Most common and important types of family and parental support.

- differs on child's sex and age - over all though family suppoert is one of the strongest predictors of both boys and girls levels of physical activity at all grade levels

Environmental and policy approaches to increasing physical activity

- direct interventions toward changing the physical and organizational structures that facilitate or impede activity among an entire population. - are designed to provide environmental opportunities, support, and cues to help people become more physically active. Interventions are not directed toward individuals but rather to the policy, built, and social/cultural factors that are depicted in the social ecological model of physical activity - alot of these intervventions take a long time, money and alot of planning. becuase of this not much evidence it works yet - though there is evidence that it can help

Identify high risk thought and feeling

- doing this might prompt a lapse high risk thought= worried about not having enough times, thinking sedentary activities are more fun high risk feelings= the sense that one is too tired to exercise or the experience of boredom with one's exercise routine high risk situations= varactations One may develope cognitive coping strategies to overcome this

Biological theories greek

- early theories relate personality to various biological processes. - greeks focused on bodily humors or fluids. There are 4 fluids, if there is an imbalance there is a manifest in a discernible personality type. A preponderance of blood predisposed one to be "sanguine," or cheerful and optimistic; yellow bile was related to a "choleric," or irritable, disposition; black bile predisposed one to be "melancholic," or sad and depressed; and phlegm was thought to make a person "phlegmatic," or apathetic and indifferent. Clearly, this approach parallels contemporary thinking that mind and body are closely related to one another.

Social support and physical activity relationship

- evidence shows a relationship between social support and physical activity, regardless of whether social support is conceptualized and measured in terms of the size of the social network or the amount and type of support received.

Group composition

- evidence that characteristics of the people who make up the exercise group can affect exercise adherence Study results: - greater perceived surface-level similarity was associated with greater exercise adherence over an eight-week period. - no association between deep-level similarity and adherence. These results suggest that surface-level similarity may be more important than deep-level similarity for helping people feel comfortable in an exercise group. - group members who share physical attributes (e.g., age, sex, body weight) also share similar exercise abilities. -People may feel most comfortable and confident in exercise groups where they expect to be on an equal footing with the other group members. These findings align with research indicating that people generally prefer to exercise with others who are perceived as physically similar.

Motivational interview: Four basic principles are used to strengthen intrinsic motivation

- expressions of empathy - development of discrepancy - rolling with resistance - supporting self-efficacy

Eysenck's Personality Theory: Extroversion- introversion

- extraversion on one end (a tendency to be outgoing, sociable, impulsive, optimistic, and active) to introversion on the other (a tendency to be reserved, unsociable, quiet, passive, and careful) - Eysenck proposed that extraversion-introversion was driven by level of arousal in the cortex of the brain and is expected to have an influential relationship on pain threshold, pain sensitivity, and/or pain tolerance, essentially reflecting arousability and sensory modulation.

Downside of family suppoer

- family can add preasure, make one feel guilty - may have behavioural reactance if they see parents acting with social control rather than social support - can also have over protection as a problem

Parental and other family member support

- for children and youth social support from parents and other is shows a consistently positive correlate of participation in all forms of physical activity, including competitive and recreational sports, physical education, play, and structured exercise

informational approach: mass media campaigns -effectiveness

- for traditional media evidence only half of the campaigns have led to signifcant increases in physical activity . problem only portion of people recall the messages - new media, some work some dont - not good enough alon this is, because they do not provide adequate or sufficient information to help inactive . people start an exercise program - maybe good if combined cons: can be exspensive, may not reach target (people through out flyers, change channels) , protray PA as bad (biggest loser people crying in pain). New media may be cheaper but can fail, only people looking to be motivated would go to a health web site

Benefits of socially supportive or autonomy-supportive behaviors

- greater exercise self-efficacy - more energy and enthusiasm - less post-exercise fatigue - less concern about embarrassing themselves and trying new things during the exercise class - more enjoyment of the exercise class - greater confidence in the instructor's capabilities - stronger intentions to join an exercise class in the future - better exercise adherence

Informational support

- includes giving directions, advice, or suggestions about how to exercise and providing feedback regarding the exerciser's progress. - Health practitioners and fitness trainers are formal sources of informational support for exercise, but informal sources, such as family and friends, can also provide informational support by sharing their own exercise experiences and by providing tips for maintaining an active lifestyle

Results of sheldon's work

- initial work with this framework resulted in correlations of .7 better between the body types and associated personality characteristics

Cognitive ciping strategies

- involve the use of non-observable thought processes, such as self-talk and visualization, to overcome disruptive thoughts and feelings. Self-talk refers to the statements that we make to ourselves, which can be used to increase confidence, regulate arousal, and focus effort in order to overcome high-risk situations. eg. telling ur self that there no need to panic and that exercise is good Visualization (also known as mental imagery) refers to seeing and feeling an experience in one's mind. EG visualization to gegt excited for an aerobics class, imagine the fun they will have doing PA. how fit they will look

Validation support

- involves comparing oneself with others in order to gauge progress and to confirm (or "validate") that one's thoughts, feelings, problems, and experiences are "normal." - For example, many people with chronic health conditions, such as heart disease or obesity, say that exercising in groups of people similar to themselves gives them the feeling that "if they can do it, so can I," and it provides a sense that they are not alone in their struggle to adhere to the exercise regimen.

Instrumental support

- involves providing tangible, practical assistance that will help a person achieve exercise goals. - Examples of instrumental support include spotting a weightlifter at the gym, driving one's father to his cardiac rehabilitation exercise class, or taking care of a friend's baby while she exercises

Transformational leadership

- is a leadership style that cultivates positive changes in the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of those who are being led - transformational leader motivates his or her followers through actions designed to empower, inspire, and challenge them to achieve higher levels of functioning Transformational leadership consists of four related behaviors: Idealized influence, Inspirational motivation, Intelletual stimulation and Individualized consideration

Group cohesion

- is defined as "a dynamic process reflected in the tendency of a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its instrumental objectives and/or for the satisfaction of member affective needs - a cohesive exercise group would be one in which members are drawn to a common goal and are integrated around the pursuit of that goal, as well as one in which the members have enjoyable, meaningful social interactions and communications - more cohesive exercise groups foster greater exercise adherence than do less cohesive exercise groups

Measuring Social Support: Size of the Social Network

- it is typically measured as the number of groups or individuals that an exerciser can turn to for support (e.g., exercise class members, family, friends, health care providers, fitness instructors, colleagues from work, and so on). - does not take into account the quality or type of support provided. - Exercisers may have many social contacts, but that does not necessarily mean that they are receiving adequate comfort, care, assistance, or information from these contacts to help them to exercise.

What are the two ways to study personality? Exsplain them

- learnin/situational: emphansis on the environment - dispositional/ trait: enphasis on the individual Both approaches endorse what has been termed an interactionist perspective to studying personality Such a perspective essentially views both the individual and the environment in which he or she finds himself or herself (i.e., the interaction of the person with the environment) as important in determining behavior. Learning approaches include conditioning or behaviorist theories and social learning theories. Dispositional approaches include biological theories and the trait theories, both of which propose a biological/genetic foundation.

Task cohesion

- may be the most important one

Soacial approaches: Face to Face

- most basic social intervention is simply to bring together people who want to exercise - include exercise groups and buddies

Study: health care provider

- nearly 25% of canadains survered said they would ask a health care provider for advise on becoming physically active - in US 65% of patients would be more interested in being physcially active if a focter told them and gave them more resources

Eysenck theory: application

- not received a lot of attention - new version with more dimensions to personality in general though studies show that individuals involved in physical activity tend to be more extraverted than nonparticipants; also, extraverts tend to be more likely than introverts to adhere to exercise programs. Other studies find that extraverts have greater persistence while exercising, but evidence also indicates that extraversion and neuroticism have increasingly weaker relationships with measures of self-reported effort as exercise intensity increases. Others show that N was inversely associated with physical activity, albeit with a small effect, whereas E was positively associated with physical activity, with a small-to-moderate effect. Another study: that N was inversely associated with physical activity, albeit with a small effect, whereas E was positively associated with physical activity, with a small-to-moderate effect. (1990), in a prospective study, found that those individuals possessing vital, well-adjusted personalities as young adults were more likely to engage in frequent exercise 40 years later. Conversely, those with more sensitive, anxious (high N) personalities as young adults were likely to exercise less frequently 40 years later. It has also been consistently demonstrated that extraversion is associated with involvement in physical activity. Arai and Hisamichi (1998) noted in a study of more than 22,000 40- to 64-year-old Japanese residents that extraversion was positively related, whereas neuroticism was inversely related, to exercise frequency. Another population-based study of more than 19,000 adolescent and adult twins and their families (De Moor, Beem, Stubbe, et al., 2006) found that exercisers (defined as exercising as least 60 minutes per week) scored significantly higher on extraversion and lower on neuroticism than those who did not exercise.

Active counseling during doctors appointments

- occurs less then half of doc appointments - only a small minority of primary care physicians give physical activity prescriptions and exercise programs - even if they do prescribe exercise they spend less than 5 minutes doing so ( not enough time) - many docs have lack of knowledge and confidence to provide exercise counseling and prescriptions - new partnerships with local health clubs

Emotional support

- occurs through the expression of encouragement, caring, empathy, and concern toward a person. - Praising an exerciser for her efforts, encouraging her to work harder, and sympathizing with her when she complains about aching muscles are all examples of emotional support. - This type of support enhances self-esteem, reduces anxiety, and gives the person a sense of comfort, acceptance, and reassurance of self-worth.

Why is parental support important to children/s activites?

- parents can provide so many different types support such as: instrumental support (e.g., organizing physical activities, providing transportation and equipment, paying activity fees) emotional support (e.g., encouraging their children), informational support (e.g., giving instruction on how to perform or participate in a new physical activity), companionship support (e.g., playing with their children). Physically active parents may even provide validation support and influence activity patterns by serving as role models for their children, thus establishing norms for a physically active lifestyle

Social approaches: Face to Face- exercise groups

- people like it because they like the social support and structure that an exercise group provides.

Self-reported effort and exertion

- people report lower RPE- rating of perceived exertion - men have been shown to report lower RPEs when a woman conducts the test than when a man conducts the test want to impress the opposite sex - danger can cause injuries

Dogs as social Influence?

- people who own dogs are more likely to meet recommended activity levels than those who do not. - owners feel obligated and responsible to walk dogs regulary. dogs are good partners don't complain

Intervention and the real world

- reason why reseach projects may not translate to the real wold 1. research participants might not represent the population. they maybe people who want to be active hense sign up for project 2. research staff may have more time or put in more effort than a real world intervention health care person would. 3. some research intervention may not work in the real world even if they are successful . example paying poeple to exercise

BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES TO INCREASING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: Behavioural skills

- recognizing cues and opportunities for physical activity - developing strategies to maintain activity levels - learning to recognize and manage situations that can sabotage activity plans - developing strategies to prevent relapse to a sedentary lifestyle More effective skills: Setting goals, developing action plans and implementation intentions, self-monitoring, and reinforcing progressare among the most effective behavioral skills for CHANGING exercise behavior. relapse prevention helps MAINTAiNING exercise

RE-AIM: Implementation

- refers to how well the intervention is delivered in the real world. Typically, the design of a physical activity intervention includes a set of instructions that describe how the various intervention activities should be delivered. Implementation is assessed by determining the extent to which the people who deliver the intervention have followed these instructions. The assessment reveals whether it is practical and possible to deliver an intervention properly in real-world settings.

RE-AIM: reach

- refers to the percentage of people from a given population (e.g., fourth-grade schoolchildren, women with arthritis, factory workers) who participate in the intervention and the characteristics of these people. Ideally, a physical activity intervention should reach as many people as possible, particularly those who are in greatest need of the intervention (i.e., inactive people). Sometimes, the people most likely to participate in a physical activity intervention—people who are already active, for example—are those who need it least.

Companionship support

- reflects the availability of people with whom one can exercise, such as a friend, family member, or exercise group. - Companionship support produces positive affect and may distract people from negative exercise-related feelings (e.g., fatigue, pain, boredom) that might interfere with exercise enjoyment and ultimately cause the individual to quit exercising.

Amount of social support

- studies show that you need adequates amounts of social support for PA - higher levels of social support are associated with higher levels of physical activity. However, this association was much stronger for women than for men - suggests that in young adults, women may have a greater need for companionship and emotional types of physical activity support, relative to men.

Influence of leaders and instructors

- study: significant increases in exercisers' self-efficacy for improving their grip strength after a fitness instructor gave them a goal of increasing their grip strength by three pounds. control groups set own goals and did not show improvemnt in self efficacy - fitness instructor conveys goals to an exerciser, it can inspire confidence in the exerciser by creating the belief that "if an expert thinks I can do it, then I must be able to do it." - study: obeses, with PT vs not PT, at end of 18 months those with PT attended more sessions - PT help with motivation and adherence

Motivation interviewing

- technique that can help people become more receptive to physical activity interventions. -The technique was originally developed as a method to decrease alcohol and drug abuse, but it has since been shown effective for increasing physical activity

Motivational interviewing: counselor

- the counselor's role is to help the client strengthen his or her intrinsic motivation for change and to provide information on how to change

Most effective type of support

- the most effective type of support depends on the exerciser's needs at a given point in time. - needs vary as a function of changes in the exerciser's thoughts and feelings (e.g., changes in self-efficacy for exercising or changes in mood states) or changes in biophysical factors, such as pain and disability. Developmental and age-related changes in social support needs may occur, because the types of support required by children (e.g., instrumental support in the form of transportation to sports practices) can be very different from the types of support required by adults (e.g., informational support on how to start an exercise program). Social support needs may also differ between the sexes; for instance, emotional support may be more important, and more helpful, to female exercisers than to male exercisers

Group Size: what happens are the number of people in an exercise class increase?

- the perceptions of group cohesion decreases as well as satisfaction with the exercise experience. - bigger exercise groups result in more crowding and fewer opportunities for participants to interact with one another

Plan for lapses

- they will happen however people can be trained to cope with lapses before they occur, so as to increase their self-efficacy for returning to exercise after the lapse and thereby prevent a complete relapse. - find wayys to get on the right track

Active physicians

- those who are regular active have a stronger influence on their patients - indicate they are role models

Present bias

- —> Is the most relevant decision bias when talking about financial health incentives —> Time is an issue when you are trying to decide whether you are going to go to the gym —> Often times for kinesiology students, the cost of engaging in physical activity today is too great and the benefits are delayed —> People overweigh the cost they experience in the present —> Time features prominently when making the decision and health doesn't factor into the decision as much —> However, if you induce a small financial incentive you might be able to tip the scales toward exercise - $1 or $2 a day is sufficient to get people to go to the gym

Methods:

-control (no tracker or incentives), Fitbit Zip activity tracker, tracker plus charity incentives, or tracker plus cash incentives. - Incentives were tied to weekly steps, and the primary outcome, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) bout min per week, was measured via a sealed accelerometer and assessed on an intention-to-treat basis at 6 months (end of intervention) and 12 months (after a 6 month post-intervention follow-up period). Other outcome measures included steps, participants meeting 70 000 steps per week target, and health-related outcomes including weight, blood pressure, and quality-of-life measures]

Carron, Hausenblas, and Mack (1996)- meta-analysis

-identified four categories of people who could potentially affect an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors relating to exercise - The four categories were: family (e.g., spouse, children), important others (e.g., non-family members, such as physicians, friends, work colleagues), fitness instructors or other professionals within the exercise environment, and other exercise participants - all of the effect sizes fell in the small to medium range, indicating that family members, important others, exercise class leaders, and class members do exert a modest amount of social influence over various aspects of exercise.

Social support

-probably the most important type of social influence in exercise and other physical activity settings -refers to the perceived comfort, caring, assistance, and information that a person receives from others.

The Self-Motivation Inventory (Dishman & Ickes, 1981), a questionnaire developed to assess self-motivation, includes statements that reflect the following:

1. Low self-motivation (e.g., I'm not very good at committing myself to do things; I never force myself to do things I don't feel like doing) 2. High self-motivation (e.g., I'm really concerned about developing and maintaining self-discipline; I like to set my goals and work toward them). Initial work with this model predicted that percentage of body fat and body mass would be negatively related to adherence, whereas self-motivation would be positively related to adherence (it is interesting to note that Courneya and colleagues' [1999] work with the FFM has also shown conscientiousness to be related to adherence). As with so many other attempts, the initial work was fairly positive, but subsequent research has not supported the model well (e.g., Gale, Eckhoff, Mogel, & Rodnick, 1984; McAuley & Jacobson, 1991). Thus, while the psychobiological model holds appeal, much more work is needed in this area

When was the first systematic investigation of issues relevant to the psychology of exercise began? what was it's focus?

1960-1070 had two primary research objectives that relate to exercise and personality: 1. Determination of the psychological antecedents of participation in physical activity. - what personality (or individual difference) factors might lead someone to participate in physical activity 2. Determination of the psychological consequences of participation in physical activity - whether regular exercise might lead one to become less emotional or more emotionally stable.

Correlation

A correlation is the degree to which two different things vary along with one another. Correlation coefficients, which measure the degree of correlation, range from -1.0 to +1.0, the former reflecting a perfect negative correlation and the latter reflecting a perfect positive correlation. The larger the absolute value of the correlation coefficient, the stronger the relationship (positive or negative) between the two variables. (Bear in mind that a high positive or negative correlation simply means that two factors have a relationship with each other, not that a change in one causes the other to change.)

Behavioural approaches: What are Developing action plans? What is implementation intentions?

Action planning entails forming concrete plans that specify when, where, and how a person will translate exercise intentions into action. implementation intentions involve developing a strong mental association between a situational cue and a specific behavior The exerciser identifies a particular cue and specifies what will occur when that cue is encountered. For example, a student might program his mobile phone to play the Rocky theme on during the week. His implementation intention would be "when I hear the Rocky theme, then I will go to the gym."

Co-Exercisers and Observers influences

Actual effort: the presence of others has a significant, positive effect on the amount of effort exerted by exercisers. Jogging study, people increase speed when being watched. Weight study if watched lift 12 kilograms more

Point Decisions: Drawback

Although point-of-decision prompts are effective for stair climbing, they have several drawbacks. Perhaps their biggest shortcoming is that they are effective only as long as the signs remain posted. Within a few weeks after signs are removed, stair use returns to baseline levels. A second drawback is that the effectiveness of the interventions depends on people being able to use the stairways safely. In many buildings, stairways are difficult to find, poorly lit, or potentially unsafe. Finally, it is not known whether people who are prompted to use the stairs subsequently take other opportunities to be physically active in their daily routines. If not, then point-of-decision prompts have limited utility for increasing activity to health-promoting levels.

RPE

An exerciser might self-monitor by keeping a simple pencil and paper log or calendar and writing down what activities she did and for how long at the end of each workout. Exercisers who use this low-tech approach can track the intensity of their workouts by using the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale. The RPE scale (Borg, 1998) ranges from 6 to 20 (see Exhibit 6.4). Exercisers use the scale to rate their perceived exertion based on the physical sensations they experience during exercise, such as breathing rate, heart rate, and muscle fatigue. Although the RPE scale is a self-report measure, RPE ratings provided during exercise are strongly and consistently correlated with oxygen uptake and heart rate. Thus, the scale is considered a valid and reliable means of assessing and tracking exercise intensity.

Cattell's second-order factors

Cattell has also described second-order factors, derived through the combination of various primary factors. It is interesting that Eysenck has also asserted (as well as demonstrated empirically) that the 16 factors can often be simplified into the two major dimensions of his model (extraversion-introversion, neuroticism-stability) and thus explain the data more parsimoniously.

Cattell's model and exercise.

Cattell's model has not received much attention in the exercise domain. This is particularly curious given the fact that Cattell, in collaboration with exercise physiologist T.K. Cureton, specifically discussed a possible relationship between fitness and personality. Cattell (1960) suggested that fitness would be related to personality in that individuals with high levels of fitness would be likely to have lower anxiety and neuroticism. Furthermore, he hypothesized that individuals with lower levels of anxiety and neuroticism (i.e., those with greater emotional stability) would respond favorably to intense physical training.

Change talk

Change talk refers to statements regarding one's desires, abilities, and reasons for change; for example, "I'm a little nervous about starting an exercise program, but I'd like to be more fit so I can keep up with my grandchildren." Change talk strengthens commitment to change, which in turn leads to observable change.

Community-Wide Campaigns

Community-wide campaigns are interventions that engage different community members and organizations in the development and delivery of information aimed at increasing physical activity. In addition to conveying information through mass media channels, community-wide campaigns employ a variety of interventions to deliver physical activity information. Examples of these intervention activities include the following: - Conducting health risk appraisals - Conducting fitness appraisals. Training health care professionals. - Community health and wellness fairs

Increasing group cohesiveness: Develop feelings of distinctiveness among group members.

Creating a group name or group uniform can help to foster a sense of group identity and "we" among group members that makes them feel distinct from non- group members.

Cattell's model and exercise: Dienstbier

Dienstbier (1984) summarized the results of a number of studies from the mid-1970s to early 1980s that examined the relationship between exercise and personality change by using the 16PF. Upon examination of the dimensions thought to be associated with emotionality (conceptually analogous to neuroticism), Dienstbier found support for a link between fitness and emotional stability; that is, higher levels of fitness were associated with greater emotional stability, placidity (or less apprehension), and relaxation (or less tension). He also noted that exercise programs resulting in changes in fitness tended to result in increases in placidity or relaxation. He speculated that the increased physiological capacity that accompanies physical training might be the reason for the reduced emotionality (i.e., neuroticism).

Community-Wide Campaigns: Draw Backs

Drawback: - require careful planning and coordination, well-trained staff, and sufficient resources to carry out the campaign as planned. Without sufficient resources, the interventions may not reach enough people in the community and the information may not be delivered in sufficient "doses" to change people's knowledge, attitudes, or behavior. - the success of community interventions is often heavily dependent on the extent to which influential members of the community "buy into" the intervention and provide support for it. For example, some community physical activity interventionists have reported difficulty obtaining the participation of doctors, teachers, and other important community members who can play an influential role in conveying physical activity information to large segments of the community

Behavioral approaches Effectiveness and draw backs

Effectiveness: - prob most effective way to increase physical activity. nearly 5 times ore effective than anyother type of interventions, cause 35 % increase in the amout of time people spend PA, and nearly 65% increase in energy expenditure. Is effective for different ethnica, cultural populations and in different settings. Draw backs: One drawback is that people need to be taught the various behavioral techniques such as self-monitoring and goal setting. Thus, the success of a behavioral intervention hinges on having the resources available to deliver online or in-person counseling and educational sessions. Even when delivered online, counseling and educational sessions are not particularly efficient methods for increasing physical activity in large segments of the population because the resources for delivering such interventions pale in comparison to the huge numbers of inactive people.

Evidence supporting: intensity-preference

Ekkekakis, Lind, and Jones-Matre (2006) examined whether intensity-preference could predict self-selected exercise intensity in a sample of relatively sedentary middle-aged women. It was shown that intensity preference did predict self-selected exercise intensity (i.e., those with a preference for greater exercise intensity chose to exercise at greater intensities).

Fundamental movement skills Chart

Evidence for associations between FMS and —> physical activity —> physical fitness —> weight status —> perceived competence —> cognitive functioning The more proficient an individual is in their fundamental movement skills: —> The more active they are —> The higher their levels of fitness —> They have better weight status (lower BMI) —> Often leads to perceived competence (especially in kids) —> The better you think you are, the more likely you are to keep trying and you'll further improve your skills —> On the opposite side, if you have a high level of skill proficiency you hopefully perceive yourself to be highly skilled —> Improve cognitive functioning —> We know that there are associations that are happening in the brain —> When you are activating the motor area, there are benefits for cognitive improvements as well —> By working on movement skills we can work on cognition at the same time —> Link of what's going on in the cerebellum vs the prefrontal cortex (having them talk to each other when you are doing movement type activities)

JC Article: Cognitive abilities - What is executive functioning

Executive functioning comprises a set of cognitive abilities including: 1) inhibitory control, which refers to the ability to ignore distractions and resist competing stimuli to stay focused on a task; 2) working memory, which is the ability to temporarily hold and manipulate information in one's mind; and 3 ) cognitive flexibility, which allows one to switch between and consider multiple perspectives and concepts at once These three executive functions form the foundations upon which higher-order executive functions such as problem solving, reasoning, and planning develop

JC Article: Cognitive abilities - Executive functioning development

Executive functions begin to develop in early childhood and continue to mature into adolescence.

TABP and exercise

Exercise has been shown to be effective in reducing the TABP but studies have not produced uniform results. For example, Roskies and colleagues (Roskies, Seraganian, Oseasohn, et al., 1986) showed exercise to be less effective than a cognitive-behavioral treatment in reducing heart rate and blood pressure reactivity to stress-inducing laboratory tasks. In contrast, Blumenthal and colleagues (Blumenthal, Emery, Walsh, et al., 1988) showed that a 12-week aerobic exercise program did successfully reduce cardiovascular reactivity to psychosocial stressors compared to a strength and flexibility intervention. There is, however, reason to believe that the TABP might have important implications for individual differences regarding exercise in social contexts. It has been noted that individuals with a TABP tend to have lower adherence rates to exercise programs than do individuals with a type B behavior pattern (e.g., generally more relaxed, reflective, work at a steady pace, lower level of stress; see Oldridge, 1982) and that those with a TABP also have higher rates of exercise- related injuries (Fields, Delaney, & Hinkle, 1990). One aspect of the TABP that might explain such findings is the tendency toward involvement in more intense and competitive exercise for individuals with a TABP (e.g., Hinkle, Lyons,& Burke, 1989). These individuals have also been shown to exert greater effort, causing greater levels of physiological activation during exercise, and to estimate their perceived exertion and discomfort at lower levels during low-tomoderate levels of exercise intensity (Hassmen, Stahl, & Borg, 1993).

Minimize the abstinence violation effect

Exercisers can be taught strategies that will help them cope with the despair they experience when they violate their intention to exercise regularly. One strategy is cognitive restructuring, which involves changing how one thinks about a lapse. instead of thinking of a lapse as the worst thing ever thing of it as a normal barrier that one can over come... no all or nothing thinking

Activity trait: extraversion

Extraversion has also been shown to be related to a preference for a higher level of exercise intensity (Morgan, 1973). Unfortunately, traits related to arousability and sensory modulation have not been shown to account (reliably) for variability in exercise behavior (e.g., selection of exercise intensity) and responses (e.g., affective responses to varying levels of exercise intensity). The small-to-moderate relationships between physical activity and extraversion could possibly be due to the fact that 1. Awareness of interoceptive (i.e., internal, physiological) cues relies on different mechanisms than exteroceptive (i.e., environmental, mainly social) cues, and/or 2. Most of the available self-report measures of E assess exteroceptive stimuli rather than interoceptive stimuli. In an attempt to overcome this potential limitation, Ekkekakis, Hall, and Petruzzello (2005) presented the constructs of intensity-preference and intensitytolerance as genetically determined traits that could help in understanding the exercise intensity-exercise adherence relationship.

Mediated approaches: social networking

Facebook and Twitter, and fitness-specific social networking sites, such as Fitocracy and Daily Mile, represent yet another potential medium for strengthening supportive exercise networks and delivering social support for physical activity. These sites provide opportunities for people to share their exercise challenges and accomplishments and to receive real-time supportive feedback from an online network.

Eysenck's Personality Theory: Extroversion- introversion. Evidence

From neurophysiological evidence, Eysenck proposed that extraversion-introversion was mediated by the reticular formation, With its extensive projections to the cortex, one of the functions of the reticular formation is the mediation of cortical arousal. Eysenck proposed that if the reticular formation is functioning at a high level, the individual feels alert; if it is functioning at a low level, the individual feels drowsy. Theory: introverts have higher base levels of activation; that is, their cortical arousal tends to be higher than the "normal" individual. Because of the relationship between E and sensory modulation, the greater arousal at rest that introverts experience results in an augmentation of incoming stimulation. This makes them feel uncomfortable, and thus they avoid further stimulation that might increase arousal. Extraverts, on the other hand, have lower base levels of activation, that is, lower cortical arousal. This lower arousal results in a reduction of incoming stimulation. This lack of stimulation also makes them uncomfortable; thus, extraverts tend to seek opportunities and situations that might provide additional stimulation. Additionally, because of this augmentation or reduction of incoming stimulation, introverts tend to have lower pain tolerance, whereas extraverts have greater tolerance for painful stimuli.

Emphasize the benefits of physical activity rather than the risks of inactivity. Information on benefits should be specific (rather than generic) and meaningful to members of the target population.

Gain-framed messages, emphasizing the benefits of exercise (e.g., "Exercise reduces your risk of type 2 diabetes"), typically lead to greater increases in exercise intentions and behavior than loss-framed messages, which emphasize risks associated with not exercising (e.g., "Physical inactivity increases your risk of type 2 diabetes"). Although scientists do not yet fully understand why gain-framed messages are superior, it is possible that people process gain-framed physical activity messages more deeply than loss-framed messages (Rothman & Updegraff, 2009). Importantly, gainframed informational messages should detail specific exercise consequences that are personally meaningful to members of the target population. For example, informational interventions targeting new mothers would be more effective if they emphasized the weight loss, stress reduction, and social benefits of exercise (i.e., outcomes that are valued by new mothers) instead of simply referring to the generic benefits of exercise, such as a decreased risk of cardiovascular disease and improvements in physical fitness. Information about these benefits can modify attitudes (theory of planned behavior, theory of reasoned action) and extrinsic motives for exercise (self-determination theory), and can increase the number of perceived benefits or "pros" of exercise (transtheoretical model).

Increasing group cohesiveness: Assign group roles and/or positions.

Giving group members responsibilities for particular tasks (e.g., distributing equipment) fosters greater interdependence among the members. Also, having members choose their own spot in which to stand during the class, or using specific places in the class for low-, medium-, and high-impact exercisers, contributes to the development of a more stable group structure.

RE-AIM

Glasgow, Vogt, and Boles (1999) created the RE-AIM (Reach, Effectiveness, Adoption, Implementation, Maintenance) framework to guide the evaluation of physical activity and other health interventions in real-world settings.

Behavioural approaches: goal setting

Goal-setting is a process that involves assessing one's current level of fitness or performance; creating a specific, measurable, realistic, and challenging goal for one's future level of fitness or performance; and detailing the actions to be taken in order to achieve that goal. - good tool for beginers and exsperts - maybe devide goals into short and long term since for beginners some chanes wont happen until doing PA for a couple of weeks

Behavioural approaches: Locke and Latham goal setting theory

Goals should be challenging yet realistic. - Goals that are too easy=not enough reward, to hard=feels like failures and stop Goals should be very specific - more specific is better than general becuase they define an objective that is more easily quantified and evaluated. eg im ggoing to try running for as long as possible. vs im going to run 3 times a week for 6 weeks. Exercise shoud receive feedback regarding progress towards the goal - have a goal setting sheet to record daily progress. this serves as feed back to show if they are getting close to their goal, need to work harder or modify or set new goals

Community-Wide Campaigns: Community health and wellness fairs

Health and wellness fairs provide a relaxed, informal environment for people to obtain physical activity information. Fairs can be staged virtually anywhere, including at worksites, shopping centers, universities, and local sporting events. Information can be disseminated in a variety of ways, including pamphlets, DVDs, PowerPoint presentations, videos, and face-to-face counseling. s

Community-Wide Campaigns: Training health care professionals

Health care professionals (e.g., physiotherapists, nurses, physicians, physician assistants) within a community can be trained to provide patients with exercise prescriptions, individually tailored physical activity interventions, and information on local fitness programs. Because physicians are credible, key sources of health information, they can be particularly persuasive in encouraging people to be active.

Who are health care providers

Health care providers are individuals who provide curative, preventive, promotional, or rehabilitative health care services. Some examples are kinesiologists, behavioral physiotherapists, physicians, physician assistants, physical therapists, nurses, psychiatrists, pharmacists, naturopaths, and chiropractors. - good source of information!

Practical Recommendations

In general, because we currently have such a vague understanding of which personality factors are important for exercise behavior, it is difficult to make straightforward practical recommendations. Given what research has shown, however, it seems reasonable to propose at least a few suggestions. First, individuals who seem to be more emotional (i.e., neurotic, less emotionally stable) might be encouraged to begin a regular exercise program. The beautiful thing about such a suggestion is that it does not have to be made for the psychological benefits. The current state of fitness for most individuals would allow such a suggestion to be made for the physical benefits, but it seems apparent that psychological benefits (increased emotional stability, in this case) would occur, as well. Essentially, the recommended "exercise dose" could be the same as what would be given for improving fitness or encouraging weight loss, in terms of frequency, duration, and intensity. The key would appear to be to start slowly, with the realization that improvements will take some time. Second, it also seems reasonable to propose that any exercise program include some type of aerobic activity as a primary component. Although time may well show that resistance activities also influence personality factors, such effects have already been shown for aerobic activities.

Rolling with resistance.

In motivational interviewing, the counselor never directly opposes or argues with a client who resists change. Instead, the counselor "rolls" with the resistance (e.g., "you're right—it is very difficult to start exercising"). Arguing and telling clients why they should change is ineffective. When the counselor "rolls with resistance," the "change talk" must come from the clients themselves.

Increasing group cohesiveness: Provide opportunities for interaction

Increasing task and social interactions during the class leads to increased perceptions of cohesion. Task interactions can consist of exercises that require participants to "buddy up" with a partner. Examples of social interactions include introducing class members to one another and asking participants to high-five the person next to them at the end of the class.

INFORMATIONAL APPROACHES TO INCREASING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Informational approaches are designed to increase physical activity by providing people with the information they need to motivate themselves to exercise and to change their behavior over the short and long term. Generally, informational approaches aim to achieve at least one of the following goals: provide information about the benefits of physical activity - arouse fear or concern about the risks of inactivity - increase awareness of opportunities for physical activity - explain techniques to overcome barriers to activity - provide strategies to overcome negative attitudes toward activity Provision of this information is expected to influence cognitive determinants of physical activity—such as self-efficacy, attitudes, and perceived behavioral control. In turn, changes in these cognitions are expected to lead to changes in actual physical activity behavior Three specific types of interventions that use an informational approach are (1) mass media campaigns, (2) community-wide campaigns, and (3) point-of-decision prompts.

Types of interventions

Informational, behavioural, socail and environmental/policy

Intensity-preference

Intensity-preference is defined as "a predisposition to select a particular exercise intensity when given the opportunity (e.g., when engaging in self-selected or unsupervised exercise)"

Social Approach: groups systems

Interventions can strengthen social networks and enhance social support among groups of exercisers. like AA These meetings provide participants with the sense that they are not alone with their exercise struggles, and they give exercisers an opportunity to problem solve with their peers in order to bolster self-efficacy and perceived control. A dditionally, exercisers might be encouraged to establish a telephone or email support network, in which group members check in on one another's exercise progress. Groups might also plan active outings to provide an opportunity for exercisers to commiserate while being active and perhaps to experience a new type of physical activity. For example, group members might organize a hike or bike ride on an unfamiliar trail, they might arrange to go rock climbing or snowshoeing, or they might go paddling or canoeing on a lake. These novel experiences can improve attitudes toward different types of activities, enhance motivation, and strengthen self-efficacy beliefs for performing different activities.

Interventions

Interventions do not directly change behavior, but they modify one or more physical activity determinants, which in turn can increase physical activity. noted that interventions that change theory- and research-based determinants of activity might not always be as effective as desired, but they should be more effective than approaches that attempt to alter factors that have not been shown to influence physical activity

JC Article: Deffinition of Physical literacy

Lots of definitions Each definition also acknowledges that motor skill, though, is not enough; a physically literate person also has the competence and confidence to engage in wide array of activities, in different environments (snow, ice, water, air) and derives both pleasure and an enhanced sense of self through their movement experiences

RE-AIM: maintenance

Maintenance refers to the extent to which the intervention is sustained over time. At the individual level, it is necessary to determine how long people continue to participate in the intervention. At an organizational level, it is important to determine whether an organization, community, or workplace continues to implement the intervention over the long term. An intervention will have little benefit if individuals and organizations cannot maintain their commitment to it.

Examples of second-order factors and the primary factors from which they are derived

Morgan (1980), perhaps echoing the sentiments of Eysenck, noted that more sophisticated analysis of data using the 16PF might clarify relationships between exercise and personality. In particular, Morgan suggested a greater emphasis on the second-order factors, that is, the relationships among the primary factors, rather than focusing on the primary factors themselves

What is PL an intersection between?

Motor development: which includes physical competence Psychology: which includes self-efficacy, motivation, accountability/responsibility - Physical literacy on a whole is a very new concept —> But it is not new in the sense that it's drawing from other areas —> It is trying to tie all of them together into one complete framework

Cattell's model and exercise: conceptual problems

One of the major conceptual problems with research using the 16PF has been the difficulty of interpreting the complicated findings

Loss aversion

People don't like losing something twice as much as they like getting the same thing —> Ex. instead of giving someone $1 a day every time they go to the gym, it's better to give them $30 on the first of the month and take $1 every time they don't go to the gym

Trait Theories

Perhaps the most predominant theories the "modern" era has involved the examination of traits, defined as relatively enduring, highly consistent internal attributes or behavioral dispositions reflective of underlying biopsychological constructs (Rhodes, 2006). Traits are thought to reflect motivational systems that increase adaptation to positive or negative stimuli. Approaches centered on the examination of traits have been referred to as trait theories. The emphasis in such theories is placed on the person as opposed to the situation or the environment. Trait theories assume personality to consist of more specific facet traits (e.g., moody, anxious, restless, rigid) and more general traits (e.g., neuroticism), which subsume the more specific traits. Trait theories vary with respect to the number of more general traits they propose, ranging from as few as two to as many as seven (Rhodes, 2006). The more prominent and relevant theories for physical activity are presented in the following sections

Structures that make up personality:

Personality core, typical responses, Role related behaciorrs

Conclusions

Physical literacy provides a powerful framework from which to view movement in relation to both its fundamental movement skill elements, the environmental context in which those movements occur, and the positive affective elements that produce lasting connections of movement experiences to positive psychological states. When viewed specifically in relation to thinking movements, we have a powerful mix to guide to design of programs and curriculums that can enhance a child's physical, mental and cognitive development. Not only will this facilitate the design of ecologically valid activities, it will provide a framework for the evaluation of interventions to comprehensively model and test proposed mechanisms of effects.

Probability Bias

Probability bias —> People think they have a better chance of winning the lottery than they actually do —> Research has shown that it's better to give someone a 1 in 3 chance of winning $3 every day that they go to the gym compared to giving them $1 each time —> Introduce the lottery-chance based aspect

Provide simple but detailed "how to" information for starting an activity program.

Providing "how to" information ensures that once people are motivated to become more active, they have the knowledge to carry through with their good intentions. An informational intervention might consist of a package of maps showing local trails, tips for starting a walking program, a schedule of activities at local community centers, and ideas for incorporating more activity into one's daily routine. By providing a variety of informational materials and messages, interventionists maximize the likelihood that readers will find at least one tip that is personally meaningful.

informational approach: Point of decision: Effectiveness

Researchers have consistently found that more people use the stairs when pointof- decision messages are posted than when such messages are not posted. These effects hold across different racial groups (e.g., African Americans, Caucasians) and other groups (e.g., obese, non-obese), so long as the messages take into account specific cultural characteristics and values of these groups ( Overall, point-of-decision messages can increase stair use by about 50 percent in both men and women. Impressive since sive effect, especially considering how little time, effort, and money it takes to implement a point-of-decision intervention for stair climbing. An insufficient number of studies have been conducted to determine whether enhancements to stairs and stairwells are an effective addition to point-of-decision prompts Similarly, point-of-decision prompts delivered through text messages and other technologies have not yet been rigorously evaluated to determine their effectiveness.

Behavioural approaches: Self-Monitoring

Self-monitoring simply refers to paying attention to one's own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, and gauging these against a standard. For exercise interventions, self-monitoring refers to keeping a record of one's own exercise behaviors, in order to track progress and identify barriers to goal achievement. Exercisers may self-monitor any or all of the four aspects of an exercise prescription: frequency, type, duration, and intensity. Types of self monitoring: RPE scale, websites and apps. Regardless of type the resulting log becomes an invaluable source of self-efficacy; the exerciser can refer to the log to determine the amount of progress achieved, thus gaining information about mastery experiences. The log can also help an individual identify and overcome exercise barriers. For example notice you skipp working out every monday. find out why and change things if needed. log can suggest opportunities for positive reinforcement. For instance, a personal trainer might give a few words of praise to a client whose log indicates progress toward her fitness goals. Exercisers might also use self-reinforcement, granting themselves personally meaningful rewards (e.g., the purchase of new exercise attire or an appointment for a massage) for progressing toward and achieving their goals.

Gender roles and exercise

Such gender-role personality characteristics have implications for exercise behavior. Cross-gender activities are generally avoided by gender-typed individuals. When cross-gender activities are performed, greater psychological discomfort is often reported. For example, feminine (expressive)- typed individuals avoid masculine (instrumental) activities when given a choice. If forced to engage in such an activity, they often have more negative feelings and debilitating perceptions while involved in the activity.

The five factor model

The FFM, a trait theory, proposes personality to be composed of five dimensions: neuroticism (N), extraversion (E), openness to experience/intellect (O), agreeableness (A), and conscientiousness (C). Neuroticism and extraversion are similar to the same constructs presented in the earlier models (see Eysenck, Cattell). Openness to experience/intellect refers to a willingness to adjust ideas and activities when presented with new ideas or situations and a tendency to be perceptive, creative, and reflective. Agreeableness refers to compatibility with others (e.g., a tendency to be kind, cooperative, generous), and conscientiousness refers to a tendency to be achievement oriented, goal oriented, and self-disciplined. Conscientiousness has been further defined as being determined, strong-willed, and systematic in conducting designated jobs.

Interpretation

The cash incentive was most effective at increasing MVPA bout min per week at 6 months, but this effect was not sustained 6 months after the incentives were discontinued. At 12 months, the activity tracker with or without charity incentives were effective at stemming the reduction in MVPA bout min per week seen in the control group, but we identifiy ed no evidence of improvements in health outcomes, either with or without incentives, calling into question the value of these devices for health promotion. Although other incentive strategies might generate greater increases in step activity and improvements in health outcomes, incentives would probably need to be in place long term to avoid any potential decrease in physical activity resulting from discontinuation.

Increasing group cohesiveness: Establish group norms.

The establishment of group norms includes adopting a common goal (e.g., completing 20 minutes of continuous aerobic activity) and a common work ethic among group members (such as, "We keep our feet moving even if we are too tired to keep up with the exercise"). Essentially, the group develops a common set of behavioral expectations for members. The establishment of group norms, combined with a stable group structure, contributes to a stronger sense of "we," greater conformity, and ultimately greater cohesiveness

How does cohesion foster adherence?

The exact mechanisms by which cohesion enhances adherence are not known; however, some possible mechanisms have been suggested. One possibility is that more cohesive groups foster more positive attitudes toward class attendance, people may simply feel more positive about exercising in cohesive groups because these groups provide greater social support and interaction than do less cohesive groups. According to the theory of planned behavior (see Chapter 3), more positive attitudes should spur stronger exercise intentions and, ultimately, greater exercise participation. A second possibility is that more cohesive groups generate greater self-efficacy in their group members than do less cohesive groups 2000a). For example, highly cohesive exercise groups may provide their members with more efficacy enhancing verbal persuasion (such as encouraging comments like, "You can do it!"). As discussed in Chapter 3, verbal persuasion is a source of self-efficacy. People who have greater exercise self-efficacy adhere better to exercise programs than do those who have low exercise self-efficacy.

The Person-Situation Debate

The interactionist perspective arose from the debate in the study of personality about whether it was most effective to place the primary focus on the person or on the environment. This was termed the person-situation debate, and it dates to the late 1960s. The person perspective, usually referred to as the trait approach, holds that personality is derived from stable, enduring attributes of the individual that lead to consistent responses over time and across situations. The situation approach, on the other hand, proposes that behavior is best explained by examining the environment and the individual's reaction to that environment. Extreme adherents of either approach give practically no credence to the other position. Over time, a more moderate position—one that considers the person, the situation, and, more important, the interaction between them—has been shown to offer the most utility for understanding the influence of personality on behavior.

social facilitation.

The phenomenon in which people increase their effort and performance when others are watching them is known as social facilitation

Behavioral reactance

The phenomenon whereby people respond in a direction opposite to the direction being advocated

cons of inforational, behavioural and social approaches

The success of these interventions depends on people participating in the interventions—such as reading intervention materials or sign. ing up for exercise counseling—and then successfully applying the intervention's information, skills, and techniques to their daily lives. Although many of these intervention techniques have proven effective, they are limited in their reach, because the interventions can work on only those people who receive and use them. Furthermore, the interventions are predicated on the assumption that with enough motivation and knowledge, everybody can be physically active. Yet, unfortunately, this is not the case. Some factors beyond the individual's control—such as a lack of equipment or facilities and unsafe neighborhoods and parks—will deter physical activity regardless of motivation or knowledge.

Type A: Characteristics

The type A behavior pattern (TABP) has been thought of as having several characteristic components (Price, 1982), including: - striving for achievement - competitiveness - sense of time urgency - aggressiveness - preoccupation with deadlines - impatience - hostility - a hard-driving attitude - hyperalertness

Type A behavior pattern

The type A behavior pattern is an action-emotion complex that can be observed in any person who is aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and is required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things or persons" The TABP has been shown to (1) place one at greater risk for developing cardiovascular disease and (2) be prevalent among individuals who already have heart disease.

JC Article: Cognitive abilities - Executive functioning influenced by

They are influenced by a multitude of external factors [12], and themselves influence various aspects of health and overall quality of life Empirical work has shown clearly that deficits in executive function are associated with unhealthy weight and addiction issues and that high levels are associated with academic achievement and overall quality of life. These relationships highlight the critical role executive functioning plays in development, behaviour, and health and demonstrate why executive functions are a commonly-selected primary outcome in studies on PA and cognition.

Gender-role: study

To examine whether gender roles do in fact mediate the perception of strenuous exercise, Rejeski, Best, Griffith, and Kenney (1987) conducted a study with 42 college-aged males. Noting that exercise is typically stereotyped as a masculine task, Rejeski and colleagues hypothesized that feminine-typed males would respond with greater distress to strenuous exercise than would either androgynous or masculine-typed males. Ratings of perceived exertion and affective responses were examined by using a six-minute exercise bout on a cycle ergometer at an intensity equivalent to 85 percent of each individual's estimated aerobic capacity. The results revealed the following: Feminine-typed males had significantly higher ratings of perceived exertion than either masculine-typed or androgynous males, even though the work load was physiologically equivalent for each group. Feminine-typed males also had significantly greater negative affect compared to the androgynous males, and the masculine-typed males responded more like the androgynous males. Furthermore, immediately following completion of the six-minute exercise bout, subjects were asked to continue exercising at a supramaximal intensity (approximately 110 percent of estimated aerobic capacity) for as long as they could. This behavioral measure indicated that the feminine-typed males, now having the opportunity to withdraw from a potentially uncomfortable activity, exercised for half as long (about 20 seconds) as the masculine-typed males (about 46 seconds) and only about 30 percent as long as the androgynous males (about 67 seconds). Essentially identical findings were shown in an earlier study (Hochstetler, Rejeski, & Best, 1985) with women. Here, feminine-typed females reported less optimism about a 30-minute exercise bout and reported higher ratings of perceived exertion throughout the run (especially during the last 15 minutes). Clearly, such personality traits and the psychological discomfort that accompanies the performance of cross-typed activities might predispose an individual either to avoid exercise altogether or to have negative experiences during the activity. Such findings certainly require further study. It is possible that, if this pattern of findings is reliable, exercise professionals could intervene to help, particularly with feminine-typed individuals. This could involve structuring exercise protocols that would not create such negative psychological effects (e.g., by exercising at lower intensities).

Finkelstein: Background

We aimed to investigate whether use of activity trackers, alone or in combination with cash incentives or charitable donations, lead to increases in physical activity and improvements in health outcomes.

Increasing group cohesiveness: Provide opportunities to make sacrifices for the group.

When individuals make sacrifices for the group, such as agreeing to shorten the aerobic workout time on some days so that the group can have a longer abdominal workout, their commitment to the group increases and their cohesiveness is enhanced.

Adapt or "tailor" physical activity information/messages to specific populations

When people identify with or relate to the messages being presented, they are more likely to spend time processing the information; this, in turn, increases the likelihood that they will remember and act on the information. Tailoring physical activity messages involves conveying information in a way that maximizes its meaningfulness to a particular group or population. Exhibit 6.2 provides strategies for cultural tailoring, that is, tailoring informational interventions to specific cultural groups. The same strategies can be applied to tailor messages to other specific populations, as well (e.g., people at risk for heart disease, mothers with young children, men who are overweight).

Intervention to increase group cohesivness

a. Develop feelings of distinctiveness among group members. b. Assign group roles and/or positions. c. Establish group norms. d. Provide opportunities to make sacrifices for the group. Provide opportunities for interaction. studies show that team building intervention will increase ATG-T and GEQ scores, and increase adherence

Social approaches: Buddy system

alternative to exercise group, Exercise buddies provide one another with multiple types of social support, not just during their workouts, when they can motivate and distract one another, but also between workouts, when exercisers might need help overcoming slips in motivation or self-confidence. A good exercise buddy will listen, empathize, and encourage. People with exercise buddies often report that they are less likely to skip a workout because they know thatheur buddy is depending on them

Role- related behaviours

are more variable, daily behaviors influenced by the particular context in which we find ourselves. For example, the same outgoing, engaging person may be quiet and attentive during the class, likely becoming involved in class discussions or giving input when it is asked for by the instructor, but otherwise fulfilling the role of the "typical" student. Of all the aspects of the personality, role-related behaviors are the most easily changed and most influenced by the environment.

informational approach: Point of decision prompts

are motivational cues delivered at points where people must choose between physically active and inactive options. The classic example of a point-of-decision prompt involves posting signs in public buildings (e.g., train stations, hospitals, libraries) at points where people must choose between taking an elevator or escalator versus walking up stairs.

Psychobiological Model

as an attempt to explain exercise adherence (Dishman, 1981). The model specifically advocates consideration of both biological factors (i.e., body composition, body mass) and a psychological factor. The specific psychological factor that Dishman espoused was the construct of self-motivation (which is conceptually analogous to the conscientiousness factor from the FFM), defined as a generalized, nonspecific tendency to persist in the absence of extrinsic reinforcement.

Constitutional theory.

as constitutional theory. According: individuals possess certain body types. These somatotypes are largely genetically determined, and they predispose the individual toward behavioral consistency. Sheldon's formulation defines three major somatotypes. ectomorph, endomorph, and mesomorph

Mesomorphic

body type is characterized by the classic inverted triangle—wide, muscular shoulders and narrower hips. Sheldon referred to this as the classic athletic body type. Individuals with this body type have personalities that express somatotonia—a predisposition to adventurousness, risk taking, dominance, aggressiveness, and a tendency to take charge (i.e., to be leaders)

Personality

can be defined as the underlying, relatively stable psychological structures and processes that organize human experience and shape a person's actions and reactions to the environment. is the individual's unique, but consistent, psychological makeup. Personality is consistent in that it is relatively stable over time and across situations.

Endomorph

characterized by plumpness, fatness, and roundness, was purported to be linked with visceratonia—an affectionate, sociable, relaxed, and jovial personality

Type A vs B

compared to those with a type B behavior pattern, individuals with a type A pattern have greater stress responses at higher exercise intensities (McMurray, Hardy, Roberts, et al., 1989) and more negative affective responses (Hardy, Mc-Murray, & Roberts, 1989; see Exhibit 7.5). Rhodes and Pfaelli (2012) point out that exercise and physical activity may be behavioral manifestations of the TABP. This conjecture is derived from descriptions of the type A personality as having "agitated behavior and continual movement patterns" The literature to date, although limited, appears to indicate a small-tomoderate association between type A personality and physical activity (Rhodes & Pfaelli, 2012).

Gender-role orientations

could there be dimensions of masculinity (M) and femininity Both M and F are conceived as positive, desirable traits that are possessed by both males and females. It is somewhat unfortunate that these constructs were given the labels they were, because the tendency is to relate them directly to biological sex, when in fact they are not sex-linked. In fact, some formulations have referred to M as "instrumental" and F as "expressive" as a way of avoiding the confusion with biological sex. the two dimensions are viewed as independent of one another, an individual can possess each to varying degrees. Individuals who score high on the instrumental dimension and low on the expressive dimension are classified as masculine/instrumental; those who score high on the expressive and low on the instrumental dimension are classified as feminine/expressive. Individuals who score high on both dimensions are classified as androgynous. (Individuals who score low on both dimensions are classified as undifferentiated. Because so few people fall into this category, not much research has been done with this group.)

Individualized consideration

demonstrating care and concern for others' physical and psychological needs Demonstrate caring and compassion for students; recognize their individuality, personal needs, and abilities; and take time to help students who are struggling.

Idealized influence

e ngendering the trust and respect of others and acting as a role model eg: Convey trust in students' capabilities and treat them in a way that builds their respect, role model a physically active lifestyle, and participate in class activities along with the students.

Socaial approaches: Effectiveness and draw backs

effectiveness - does help but can't know if it has the biggest impact out of the interventionsn - studies usally do not just do socail they will combind with other interventions - for obsess social interventions were twice as effective It is possible that people who find physical activity to be particularly challenging—such as those who are obese or who face chronic health conditions—might benefit most from interventions that incorporate social support elements. Drawback - succes is contingent on the cooperation of the group members. they need to like one another and work to gether.

Community-Wide Campaigns: Effectiveness and Draw Backs

effectiveness: these interventions are an effective means for increasing - the percentage of people in a community who are active - energy expenditure - the amount of time people spend being physically active Specifically, looking at the median level of change across all of the reviewed community intervention studies, it was found that community-wide campaigns resulted in a 5 percent increase in the proportion of people who were physically active and a 16 percent increase in energy expenditure

Examples of point of decisions prompt

eg. The signs convey messages about the benefits of stair climbing for health or weight loss, such as, "Do your heart a favor, take the stairs" or, "Walking up stairs burns almost five times more calories than riding an elevator." These signs are believed to be motivational either because they inform people about the health benefits of taking the stairs or because they remind people who already want to be more active that they are about to have an opportunity to engage in physical activity. the motivational messages are combined with environmental enhancements, such as artwork displayed or music played in stairwells. There are even a few places where "piano stairs" have been installed For people who have sedentary occupations, apps are available that provide prompts aimed at reducing sitting time throughout the workday. At intermittent periods, users receive messages prompting them to stand up and take a short walk. Text message services prompt subscribers to exercise at times when they might be tempted to choose a more sedentary activity (e.g., at lunchtime, right after dinner). To reduce children's sedentary television-viewing time, some TV programs incorporate segments that prompt children to stand up and jump and dance and move along with the program's characters.

Intellectual stimulation

engaging the rationality of others and causing them to look at old problems in new ways Invite students to make suggestions to improve the class, create lessons that encourage students to think and make decisions for themselves, and prompt students to look at problems from different perspectives.

Expressive personality

expressive personality is characterized by traits such as understanding, sympathy, affection, and compassion. F

Social Approaches to increasing physical activity

focus on structuring people's social environments to help support their physical activity endeavors. Social interventions recognize the importance of social influence on people's exercise habits, and they are designed to create new social networks and to strengthen existing networks to ensure that people have the necessary support for maintaining an active lifestyle. There are face to face approaches and mediated forms

Environmental and policy approaches: Creating or enhancing access to facilities for physical activity

focuses on providing access to facilities where people can be physically active. Implementation of these interventions often relies on the cooperation of such diverse entities as policy makers, school boards, worksites, local clubs and agencies, neighborhood groups, and municipalities. These entities can work together to change local environments and to create opportunities for physical activity. Such efforts might include developing new opportunities to be active, such as building new community or workplace fitness facilities, walking trails, pools, and gymnasiums. Effort may also be directed toward enhancing access to existing physical activity facilities. - examples: new gym, making parks safer, assessable to all, give employes time to shower Effectiveness: - most studes have been conductive in work place only a few in neighborhood communities - studyes show 25% increase in the proportion of people who exercise at least three times a week, show wight loss and decrease in body fat Drawback: -time and resources, if we build it they will come.. - success will depend on whether people have the information, behavioral skills, and social support networks to take advantage of these opportunities.

Ectomorph

has a body type that is characterized by linearity, tallness, and leanness. Sheldon proposed that such a body type was associated with what he referred to as cerebrotonia—a tense, introverted, socially restrained, inhibited personality.

Autonomy supportive leadership

instructor being sensitive to the needs and preferences of class members, acknowledging their feelings, and providing them with opportunities to choose which exercises to do.

intensity-tolerance

intensity-tolerance is defined as "a trait that influences one's ability to continue exercising at an imposed level of intensity even when the activity become uncomfortable or unpleasant"

Behavioural coping strategies

involve developing and implementing overt plans to manage high-risk situations. eg. A vacation, To prevent a lapse, the vacationer could plan to stay in a hotel with a fitness centre, add PA to his itinerary . Winter: find other activities

Eysenck's Personality Theory: Neuroticism-stability.

is proposed as ranging from neuroticism (emotionality) on one end (a tendency to be tense, anxious, moody, excitable, worried, and indecisive) to stability on the other (i.e., emotional stability, a tendency to be calm, even-tempered, easygoing, and controlled). An individual can be classified as being somewhere along the continuum between neuroticism and stability. It is worth noting that neuroticism (N) is related to many forms of negative mental health, including anxiety, depression, hostility, impulsiveness, self consciousness, and vulnerability. Eysenck proposed that the neuroticism-stability dimension was associated with activity of the limbic system, sometimes referred to as the emotional brain, and the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The ANS is often cited as driving the fight-or-flight response to stressful stimuli. High N individuals tend to have more labile (i.e., readily changeable) and longer-lasting autonomic reactions than do low N (i.e., emotionally stable) individuals. For example, if asked to give a short speech in front of a large group (i.e., subjected to a stressor), the high N person might respond with a large increase in heart rate and blood pressure, which would remain elevated during and following the speech. Even when the stressor was over, it would take longer for the high N person to return to the pre-stressor resting heart rate and blood pressure. In essence, he continues to process the stressor even when it is no longer present

What is a defining characteristic of motivational interviewing?

is the presumption that clients know what is best for themselves. The counselor can provide a menu of intervention approaches (e.g., informational, behavioral), but it is up to the client to decide what will work best.

RE-AIM: effectiveness

lso referred to as efficacy) refers to the positive and negative consequences that people experience as a result of receiving the intervention. Of course, the positive outcomes should far outweigh the negative ones. Some positive consequences that might result from an exercise intervention are increased physical activity and weight loss; some potential negative consequences are exercise-related injuries and a decrease in time available for household tasks. When examining the effectiveness of a physical activity intervention, it is important to examine quality of life, participant satisfaction, and physiological outcomes, not just changes in physical activity behavior.

Self-monitoring with high tech options

options range from websites and apps that an exerciser can use to record and store workout information, to accelerometers and GPS-enabled devices that collect and automatically upload workout details (e.g., distance run, time spent cycling, average heart rate) to a personal log or even to a social networking site such as Facebook. Provides an example of an activity log generated by a smartphone app.

Behavioural Approaches: Relapse Preventions

periodical lapses in an exercise regimen are almost inevitable, lapses become a cause of concern when they lead to relapse back to a sedentary lifestyle.

Cattell's Personality Theory

proposed a theory of personality based on traits. Personality in this conceptualization was composed of 16 factors, derived through a statistical technique referred to as factor analysis. Cattell isolated 16 factors that he felt described the essence of personality. From this conceptualization, Cattell developed what he called the 16 Personality Factor questionnaire (16PF) to assess these factors. The 16PF has enjoyed widespread use in sport personality studies and has been used to some extent in exercise studies, as well.

Eysenck's Peronality Theory

proposed that the relationships between traits generated second-order, or what he referred to as superordinate, trait dimensions. Within his framework were three superordinate dimensions: extraversion-introversion (E), neuroticism (emotionality)-stability (N), and psychoticism superego (P). not that a person is not one thing or another, but rather fall somewhere in between One of the unique aspects of Eysenck's personality framework is that he proposed a biological basis for each of the three dimensions.

Socially supportive leadership behaviours

provide encouragement, verbal reinforcement, and praise; demonstrating a high level of enthusiasm for the class; and showing interest in participants by addressing them by name and engaging them in casual conversation.

Psychoticism-superego

ranges from psychoticism at one end (a tendency to be impulsive aggressive, hostile, egocentric, impersonal, and tough-minded) to superego (a tendency to be empathetic, cooperative, altruistic, and conforming). The biological basis for the psychoticism-superego dimension is hypothesized to be driven by hormonal function or, more specifically, by elevated androgen levels (testosterone) and the relative absence of serotonin (a neurotransmitter) metabolites; this is reflective of poor neurotransmitter functioning, which has important implications for mental health. Such hormonal function is thought to lead to more aggressiveness, impersonal attitudes, and antisocial behavior. It should be pointed out that this last dimension has received relatively little attention in the exercise domain. Some traits associated with psychoticism, such as aggressiveness, may be advantageous in certain sporting situations, but it is somewhat difficult to imagine situations where an impersonal attitude would be advantageous in the exercise context. Some aspects of psychoticism (e.g., lack of self-discipline, a degree of disorder) may work to inhibit the behaviors that facilitate physical activity.

JC Article: Cognitive abilities

refers to mental processes related to thinking, reasoning, perception, judgment and awareness In the PA and cognition literature, the aspect of cognitive ability that has received the most attention is executive functioning.

Social influence

refers to real or imagined pressure to change one's behavior, attitudes, or beliefs

Adoption

refers to the proportion and representativeness of settings (such as high schools, workplaces, and communities) that adopt a particular intervention. For example, consider an intervention developed for Canadian high-school students. Ideally, a large proportion of high schools nationwide would adopt the intervention. Representativeness provides an indication of whether the intervention can be delivered to broad segments of the population or only in settings that have certain characteristics. For instance, if adoption rates were similar among schools in higher- and lowerincome neighborhoods, this would suggest that the intervention can be adopted by schools representing a range of socioeconomic strata, not just those in high (or low) income neighborhoods.

Hardiness and Exercise: Research

research examining the link between hardiness and exercise in the stress-illness relationship has been somewhat mixed. Roth, Wiebe, Fillingim, and Shay (1989) found that, although fitness and hardiness were negatively related to illness, neither fitness nor hardiness moderated the stress effect. They suggested that, consistent with Kobasa's formulation, hardiness might indirectly affect either the occurrence or interpretation of stressful events. Furthermore, exercise serves to increase fitness, which is indirectly associated with reduced illness. Carson (1993) demonstrated that in long-term AIDS survivors, hardiness was positively associated with, among other things, exercise participation. Finally, and more recently, animal research suggests that exercise training can lead to increased resilience to stress (e.g., Greenwood, Spence, Crevling, et al., 2013; Schoenfeld, Rada, Pieruzzini, et al., 2013). At present it appears that hardiness is related to a tendency to engage in more healthful behaviors. Exercise can certainly be included among such behaviors. It should be noted, however, that the majority of research in this area has been correlational in nature. It is not clear whether a hardy personality leads one to engage in exercise or whether exercise participation leads to a hardy/resilient personality. This question certainly has implications for the impact that exercise might have on reactivity to stress and illness

RE-AIM example

see paige 182

Inspirational motivation

showing enthusiasm and optimism about what others can accomplish and articulating a compelling vision of the future eg: Encourage students to try their hardest, be optimistic about what they can accomplish, and show enthusiasm for class activities.

Ekkekakis, Lind, Hall, and Petruzzello

sought to examine whether intensity-tolerance would predict time spent exercising after the exercise intensity exceeded the ventilatory threshold, a point at which exercise has been shown to become progressively more unpleasant. This work, consisting of two separate studies, showed that self-reported intensity-tolerance was related to (1) the length of time a sample of young males and females continued to exercise beyond the ventilatory threshold, even after accounting for factors such as age, body mass index, exercise frequency, and habitual exercise duration; and (2) the length of time a sample of middle-aged, sedentary women continued to exercise beyond the ventilatory threshold, even after accounting for factors such as age, body mass index, and maximal aerobic capacity. Schneider and Graham (2009) have also shown that intensity-preference and intensity-tolerance were positively related to VO 2peak (peak rate of oxygen consumption) and exercise enjoyment in a sample of healthy adolescents. Ultimately, the objective of developing such individual difference constructs is to better understand the physical activity adherence/dropout phenomenon and to develop ways to reduce dropout and/or increase adherence. For example, the American College of Sports Medicine (2000) has stated that "individual preferences for exercise must be considered to improve the likelihood that the individual will adhere to the exercise program" (p. 145). Clearly this is an area of research that could be crucial to improving adherence.

Activity trait

study have preposed have proposed that the key personality factor may be a sub-trait of extraversion referred to as the activity trait. This sub-trait, or facet trait, is thought to reflect a tendency to be busy and energetic and to prefer fast-paced living (Rhodes, Courneya, & Jones, 2004). This particular sub-trait of extraversion has been shown to be significantly related to exercise behavior in a number of studies (Rhodes & Courneya, 2003; Rhodes et al., 2004). In their review, Rhodes and Pfaelli (2012) found a moderate-to-large effect between the activity trait and physical activity, noting that this sub-trait is a "reliable and strong predictor of physical activity"

support Mom vs father

study shows: - moms more instrumental support - fathers give more validation support

What happens after a client is ready to initiate change

the counselor's next step is to provide information on how to change.

Relapse prevention model

the individual's coping response to a high-risk situation (i.e., how he or she psychologically and emotionally responds to the situation) dictates the flow of the model. Specifically, as shown on the right side of the diagram, a negative coping response would lead to (1) decreases in exercise self-efficacy, (2) the anticipation of positive consequences of skipping an exercise session, such as having more time to finish a project, and (3) an initial exercise lapse. When an initial lapse causes the exerciser to believe that all future hope of behavior change is lost and that the entire exercise regimen might as well be abandoned (the "all or nothing" approach to exercise), this is known as the abstinence violation effect. The effect is typically accompanied by a negative emotional response, such as feelings of guilt or shame, and selfattributions for failure (i.e., self-blame). The combination of these, in turn, creates an increased probability of relapse. In contrast, as shown on the left-hand side of the diagram, when an exerciser demonstrates a positive coping response, exercise self-efficacy increases and the probability of relapse is reduced.

Gender-role orientations: instrumental personality

the instrumental personality is characterized by traits such as risk-taking, independence, aggressiveness, and competitiveness M

Type A and CD

the majority of research examining the TABP has focused primarily on its role in cardiovascular disease sometimes been referred to as the coronary-prone personality. Friedman and Rosenman (1974) initially posited that it was the sense of time urgency that distinguished the TABP, but subsequent investigations have implicated the anger or hostility components of the TABP as the most important features for increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Some researchers have even speculated that it is not just cardiovascular disease but disease in general for which the TABP places one at greater risk . Because of the beneficial effects of exercise programs for those suffering from cardiovascular disease, it has been suspected that exercise could also be beneficial for the individual with a TABP.

Hardiness

the personality construct of hardiness (or what has more recently been referred to as dispositional resilience is proposed to be stress buffering and associated with resilience when an individual encounters stressful events Originally delineated by Kobasa (1979), hardiness is theorized to comprise: 1. A sense of control over events 2. Commitment, dedication, or involvement in everyday life 3. A tendency to perceive life events as challenges and opportunities rather than as stressors. This particular constellation of characteristics is thought to protect against the deleterious effects of stress and to serve as a buffer against illness. Indeed, this hypothesis has become a topic of considerable interest with respect to miliexhibittary experiences. As Lee, Sudom, and Zamorski (2013) point out, hardiness/resilience has been shown to be a protective factor against post-traumatic stress disorder, especially when an individual experiences combat stress. Initial studies by Kobasa, Maddi, and Puccetti (1982) and by Kobasa, Maddi, Puccetti, and Zola (1985) supported this notion, suggesting that it exists largely because of the additive effects of the hardiness personality coupled with exercise behavior.

What must happen before interventions?

the potential recipients should be open to the idea of becoming more physically active. If individuals are not even ready to think about changing, then it is unlikely that an intervention will affect their behavior.

High levels of hardness

those higher in hardiness are able to transform stressful events to decrease their stress (e.g., by obtaining information, taking action, learning from experience), and exercise serves to buffer against the strain of stressful events.

Interventions: Informational approaches

to change knowledge and attitudes about the benefits of and opportunities for physical activity

Interventions: Environmental and policy approaches

to change the structure of physical and organizational environments to provide safe, attractive, and convenient places for physical activity

Interventions: Social approaches

to create social environments that facilitate and enhance behavior change

Interventions: Behavioral approaches

to teach people the behavioral management skills necessary for both successful adoption and maintenance of behavior change

Mediated approaches

use of mediated approaches can help people overcome barriers to giving and receiving support. These barriers can include a lack of time to meet with others, inadequate transportation to reach a meeting place, or living in a remote region where social networks are sparse - telephone and email, socal networking

Personality core

which is developed from early environmental interactions and includes such things as our perceptions of the external world, perceptions of self, basic attitudes, values, interests, motives, and our selfconcept; the core is a reflection of who we are. The core is least amenable to change and is relatively unaffected by the context in which a person may be.

Eysenck's framework and exercise

with the theory specific predictions for physical activity/exercise can be made regarding extraversion- introversion and neuroticism-stability. low arousal leads the extravert to seek sensory stimulation through physical activity. Eysenck hypothesized that physical activity/exercise might be one such avenue for increased stimulation. As a result, extraverts would be more likely to adopt and adhere to a physical activity/exercise regimen than would introverts, particularly when the exercise program has variety and excitement. This could be manifested in terms of greater-intensity activity and activity for longer durations. Additionally, the extraverts' higher tolerance of pain is advantageous in such activities. Eysenck does not make specific predictions regarding the neuroticism dimension, because of its basis in the autonomic nervous system one could surmise that activities that modify ANS function might also affect this personality dimension. Given that exercise training typically results in reductions in heart rate, blood pressure, and numerous other factors, it would seem reasonable to propose that exercise training could also result in a change toward a more stable/ less neurotic personality.