LAND 240
Designed by William Kent in 1730 in Oxfordshire, this landscape was designed as a fermee ornee. Views were framed as a series of visual events and fabriques were implemented. Some examples of the program of the design include a Statue of a Lion vs Horse on a grassy terrace, a hilltop with a sham Gothic ruin, and clusterings and clearings of trees
Rousham
The Islamic states had a much different political, economic, and social structure than the rest of Medieval Europe. Which of the following characteristics DOES NOT describe an attribute of the Islamic States?
Ruled by heads of state known as bedouins
The Islamic open market for relatively small-scale craft sales composed of narrow streets lined with craftsmen's shops with each street often dominated by a particular craft.
Suq
The first book ever published purely on landscape design. It recognized garden making as a distinct profession and attempted to categorize parterre patterns.
Traite du Jardinage
The America version of chateaux which describes a small farmstead with an orchard
Bouwerie
Early Renaissance fortress towns shared many characteristics making them look eerily similar. Which of the following representative features is NOT considered a primary characteristic of these fortress towns?
A disregard for ring roads and access to peripheral areas
Italian Renaissance ideals made their way to Northern Europe for a multitude of reasons. Which of the following answers is NOT a reason behind the spreading of humanist thought from Italy to its northern counterparts?
A synthesis between French humanist thought and Gothic design
As Renaissance ideas spread to Northern Europe, new capitalistic and market economies began to take their toll on nature. Which of the following statements is UNTRUE in regards to the environmental views of the Renaissance population?
Agricultural technology advancement increased immensely
This French Medieval Bastide town was established in 1240 by King Louis IX and served as a base for future crusades to Israel. The wall still exists in its original form and the entire town has been adaptively reused. The Tour de Constance was its major citadel with a lighthouse beacon.
Aigues-Mortes
Select the answer or answers which best characterize the primary spatial, planning, elements utilized in Old World Cave design and layout. a. Art b. Chamber c. Passage d. Both A and B are correct answers e. All A, B, and C are correct answers
All A, B, and C are correct answers
Agrarian landscape style values rural society as superior to urban society, the independent farmer as superior to the paid worker, and sees farming as a way of life that can shape the ideal social values. The agrarian emphasis in English gardens promoted several characteristics. Which of the following answer(s) describes the characteristics promoted by this agrarianism? a. Agricultural self-sufficiency b. Farms as places of private retirement and social entertainment c. Attention to human comfort and scenic prospect d. All of the above answers are correct e. None of the above answers are correct
All of the above answers are correct
Francis I initialized the placement of multiple chateaux within a valley in France which served as the first region to accept absolutism in the country. Which of the following option(s) is an example of chateaux within this valley?
All of the above answers are correct
The Greek Island called Crete was a Minoan civilization which had a few settlement characteristics which made it somewhat distinct from mainland settlements. Which of the following characteristics best describe the Crete Island city of Knossos? a. Wall-less and peaceful b. Placed within a natural megaron c. The most important religious complex on Crete d. All of the above answers are correct e. None of the above answers are correct
All of the above answers are correct
The use of axial planning on an urban scale during the Renaissance merged well with the emphasis on proportion during the time. Which of the following options best describes the primary design elements of axial planning on an urban scale during the Renaissance? a. The Straight Primary Street b. The relatively small utility of the gridiron c. Enclosed spaces such as piazzas and squares d. All of the above answers are correct e. None of the above answers are correct
All of the above answers are correct
Lancelot "Capability" Brown was a major influential garden designer of the 1700's. Which of the following statements is MOST TRUE about Capability Brown? a. Naturalistic style reached its height with him b. Tremendous skill in visualizing the capability of a site to be transformed into a garden c. Primarily re-designed existing gardens into naturalistic fashion d. Apprenticeship at Stowe provided an abundance of horticultural knowledge e. All of the above answers are true
All of the above answers are true
Sebastien Le Prestre de Vauban (1633-1707) was a significant military mind of the Renaissance era. Which answer BEST describes the list of his major accomplishments during this time? a. Created a science out of urban fortification and initialized the use of bastioned walls b. Created the French International Waterway System c. Invented the bayonet d. All of the above answers are true e. None of the above answers are true
All of the above answers are true
Islamic city layout was a result of reasons for their founding, their location, the climate they were settled within, and any pre-Islamic precedents which already existed on the site pre-settlement. Which of the following options ARE considered typical component(s) within Islamic cities? a. Wall b. Palaces c. Citadels d. Mosques e. All of the above options are correct
All of the above options are correct
The art of the Renaissance was really its claim to fame. Which of the following statements is best describes the attributes of Renaissance art? a. The depiction of nudes was original and became commonplace in art b. Pagan scenes and myths were popular subjects with no apologies to the Church c. Stressed proportion, balance and harmony d. All of the above statements are true e. All of the above statements are false
All of the above statements are true
While Mogul, Moorish, and Arabic cities and gardens had their geographic and cultural differences, garden design had an immense amount of overlap in terms of shared characteristics. In regards to this statement, which of the follow statements is UNTRUE?
An external focus on features outside of the garden was a typical design concept
An optical illusion used in design which creates hidden distortion to establish decelerated perspective (i.e. pools in Versailles were narrower at closest points to viewer and wider at further points)
Anamorphosis abscondita
The belief that elements such as wind and water had conscious life and that spirit forces dwelt within trees, birds, fish, reptiles, and mammals
Animism
The transition from prehistoric times to the time of language and writing saw many forms of stacked stone structures. Select the answer or answers which are used to describe Paleolithic or Neolithic stone stackings which were used as graves, sacred sites, or land art. a. Dolmen b. Megalith c. Menthe d. Answers A and B are correct e. All of the above answers are correct
Answers A and B are correct
The Early Mediterranean Region was composed a multitude of areas which consisted of differing settlement characteristics. Select the answer or answers which describe some of the major cultures and settlements in the Classical Mediterranean Landscape: a. Greek b. Carthaginians c. Romans d. Only answers A and C are correct e. Answers A, B, and C are all correct
Answers A, B, and C are all correct
The Islamic social structure was based on a categorization of its population which created its primary economic components. Which of the following class(es) ARE considered portions of the Islamic social hierarchy? a. Nomadic Bedouins who herded livestock and regularly raided one another b. Traders who formed the economic elite c. Farmers who worked the agricultural lands d. Only answers A and B are correct e. Answers A, B, and C are correct
Answers A, B, and C are correct
A level space in a garden or yards occupied by an ornamental arrangement of flower beds consisting of surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage.
Arabesque
Mogul Islamic gardens in India typically had four primary characteristics which defined their layout. Which of the following characteristics does NOT CHARACTERIZE a typical Mogul garden?
Based on humanist philosophies and mannerism
Medieval towns can be either organic or planned. Which of the following types of towns is NOT a type of Medieval town?
Bastion
An Italian garden structure dependent upon a "beautiful view" usually used as a lookout area whose purpose is the aesthetics of its surrounding scenery
Belvedere
Built by King Francis, this French garden was built in a style based on three terraces of different levels bordered by old walls. Besides the parterres of flowers, the gardens produced a wide variety of vegetables and fruits, including orange and lemon trees in boxes, which were taken indoors in winter. The building that sheltered them, still standing, was the first orangerie in France.
Blois
The collection of villa water elements packaged through many large scale French Renaissance gardens
Buffet d'eau
This public space designed by Michelangelo was built at Capitoline Hill - the point where ancient Romans thought to be the center of the world. It was designed as a hilltop piazza with artfully framed vistas and its placement and orientation signified the new, developing sections of the city rather than emphasizing ancient ruins
Campidoglio
Roman cities developed around a grid layout oriented toward a central intersection generally forming the town center. What are the two principle streets which create this central intersection
Cardo and Decumanus
A Near East Neolithic community, this settlement is located in Turkey, with a fortress-like wall surrounding, mud-brick structures whose entrances were on the roof, and became a huge trading post for obsidian
Catal Huyuk
Cosmogony seemed to be a universal belief at one time in our prehistory. All of the following are examples of cosmological landscapes in the Pre Spanish Conquest Americas EXCEPT:
Chemi Shanidar Mounds in Mesa Verde, Colorado
A Renaissance art style which utilizes light-dark contrasts used to suggest the volume and modeling of the subjects depicted and for dramatic effect
Chiaroscuro
The entirety of outlying environments and regional space in Greek city structure where connections for trade, defense, and building materials where made from the polis
Chora
The plan developed for London after the Fire of 1666 destroyed 400 acres of the city, 87 churches, 13,200 houses, and most public buildings. The plan called for all of the following design strategies EXCEPT:
Commercial center and religious center to have subordinate positions
This Islamic city is home to the Mezquita and was an important center of arts and trades as well as a center for studying botany and medicine in the Middle Ages. The Mezquita has horseshoe-shaped double arches atop a forest of columns within its interior which originally aligned to the Court of Orange-trees in its exterior. It was originally a pagan temple, then a church, then a mosque, then a Catholic Church again.
Cordoba
This Paleolithic settlement in Marseilles, France is characterized by wall paintings of hands using negative space and four-fifths of the interior, including any art on its walls, was submerged and obliterated by rising levels
Cosquer
This city was the spiritual center, belly button of the universe, sacred to ALL Greeks and was said to housevthe most important oracle in the classical Greek world. Pilgrimages were made to consult oracles and journeys for men who lacked governmental roles and didn't take part in athletic contests.
Delphi
The Enclosure Acts privatized of the 1700's altered agricultural properties tremendously. Which of the following statements is UNTRUE about the Enclosure Acts?
Economic and political potential of landowners decreased immensely
Which of the following statements is UNTRUE about Versailles?
Employed informal and irregularity in bosquet plantings
This Assyrian city in Mesopotamia was organized around water resources and parks (known as pairidaeza) were its key feature, generally walled hunting parks. Also, Exotic non-native trees characterized the landscape and it rested upon a mound of debris from constant rebuilding of its fallen mud and clay structures
Erbil
One of the first major urban expansions of the Renaissance in Italy, this city's alteration was designed by Biagio Rossetti using three principle features: Streetwidening, town enlargement, and extension of the current layout. The Palazzo Diamenti was its most famous structure.
Ferrara
This semicircle of alluvial soils in an otherwise arid landscape housed a bulk of the Neolithic settlements clustered and is generally accepted as the original site of agriculture
Fertile Crescent
The spirit of a specific place and the idea of guardian deities of that landscape
Genius Loci
Large scale mages inscribed on the Earth, generally by carving into stone or the ground plane
Geoglyph
A Polish invention during the Baroque period describing a semicircle of columns acting as an outdoor conservatory
Gloriette
The Egyptian civilization had a theocratic government and thus devoted many of their landscape structures to their god-kings. All of the following are design characteristics of the temples of Mentuhotep II at Karnak, Egypt EXCEPT
Golden triangles atop linear columns
Medieval architecture was characterized by Gothic style of design, replacing the previous Romanesque style. Choose the statement which is INCORRECT when comparing Gothic style to Romanesque style of architecture
Gothic Style utilized rounded tipped arches while Romanesque style utilized pointed tipped arches
Built during the Renaissance (1611), this site of English Country House was the childhood home and residence of Queen Elizabeth I. The House comprised four wings in a square surrounding a central courtyard while the gardens covered 42 acres and included orchards, fountains, scented plants, terraces, herb gardens, and a foot maze.
Hatfield
Renaissance philosophies stressed the outlook or system of thought which attached prime importance to humans rather than divine or supernatural matters. What was the term used to describe this philosophy?
Humanism
The Renaissance plan of Paris was developed by Henry V. He wanted to establish the city as an indisputable royal capital of Europe and create spaces that would glorify the institution of the monarchal system. Which of the following is NOT part of his program to re-structure Paris?
Implement courtyard agricultural gardens
A distinctive architectural feature of Islamic mosques, generally a tall spire with an onion-shaped or conical crown.
Minaret
The Medieval and Italian Renaissance eras popularized plazas and piazzas in Europe. The idea of an urban plaza did not however penetrate the realm of France until a certain French architect visited Rome and brought the idea back to France. What was this architect's name?
Jacques Androuet Cerceau
This Tuscan Rococo garden in Florence was the first to utilize a water parterre rather than a traditional hedge, lawn, or flower parterre. The program consists of a water fountain, a bowling lawn, a gated entrance, a bosco, a lemonaia, and the water parterre.
La Gamberaia
An Italian viewing gallery or corridor at ground level
Loggia
This settlement in India is thought to be the oldest city in the Neolithic period. It was a farming village consisting of rectangular mud huts compactly packed together
Mehrgarh
Which of the following statement or statements are UNTRUE about Classical Greek city life
Men and women were allowed citizenship and allotments were paid to the city for improvement purposes
A singular large upright standing stone, generally used as a grave
Menhir
A Renaissance fortress town designed by Sebastien Le Prestre, this bastion walled fortified city had nine streets in each direction with a ring road surrounding the perimeter. The central square was an assembly ground for the military and was surrounded by the church, the town hall, and the market place
Neuf Brisach
The function of most Medieval gardens was mostly utilitarian as most formal gardens disappeared with the collapse of the Roman empire. Only the elite had pleasure gardens. Which of the following statements is TRUE about gardens in Medieval Europe?
Non-herb plantings generally included iris, lily, and rose specimen
European influence in the Americas was dominated by Spanish, Dutch, French, and English cultures. Spanish and English cultures left the strongest influences on the landscape. Spanish townships were functionally based while English townships were form based. Which of the following statements is UNTRUE about Spanish colonial settlements in early America? a. Mission or religious settlements had churches, residences, and a large central space b. Military presidios or fort towns had palisaded walls and were generally port cities c. Civilian pueblos or villa towns had small wall, government buildings, and a large central space d. All of the above answers are correct e. None of the above answers are correct
None of the above answers are correct
Select the answer or answers which best describe the primary differences in Paleolithic and Neolithic era human cultures a. The Neolithic Era was characterized mainly by painted cave walls while the Paleolithic Era had much more pottery based art b. The Neolithic Era was characterized by hunting and gathering while the Paleolithic Era was a more stable culture based on Agriculture c. The Paleolithic Era was characterized by mud-brick homes while the Neolithic Era had more cave based dwellings d. Both A and B are correct e. None of the above answers are correct
None of the above answers are correct
An Islamic bucket-scoop waterwheel that raised water into elevated canals and helped facilitate the construction of numerous gardens in the Islamic landscape
Noria
The Renaissance designers developed an intense system of terminology for their design features. Considering this set of terms, which of the following terms IS NOT considered an aspect of Renaissance design?
Noria
Select the word which is best used to describe a tall, narrow, four-sided, tapering monument which ends in a pyramid-like shape at the top and is usually placed upon a pedestal, regularly constructed during the Egyptian times to pay homage to rulers and placed at entrances to other symbolic sites
Obelisk
Which of the following answer or answers best describe the characteristics of Hippodamus' planning strategies? a. Based upon a political system which divided the population into three classes b. Divided land into four categories c. Promoted an oblong rectangular system of blocks and streets d. Only answers A and C are correct e. All answers are correct
Only answers A and C are correct
Initiated during the Renaissance, the French word for conservatory or greenhouse
Orangerie
The market and church square were primary spaces of public forum in the Dark Ages, especially in Italy. Which of the following cities was NOT discussed in class as having a square designed within it during Medieval times?
Palma Nova
The space around the medieval church where people gathered before or after service, or sometimes used as a burial ground
Parvis
Renaissance design was highly influenced by politicians, artists, and philosophers famous although they did all not specifically design space. Which of the following list of individuals DID NOT play a major role in specifically helping in designing space during the Renaissance Era?
Patricia Francesco
A three pronged set of radial avenues, or goose foot
Patte d'oie
A garden feature forming a shaded walkway, passageway or sitting area made of vertical posts or pillars that usually support cross-beams and a sturdy open lattice, often upon which woody vines are trained.
Pergola
This piazza is in a bowl like enclosure of buildings in Siena. The tower acts as a sundial broadcasting the time of day to observers. A sloping surface for drainage, a refined level of detail in the paving patterns, and bollard posts separating the inner circle from outer track make this space unique.
Piazza del Campo
Promoted by William Gilpin, this term describes a landscape that resembles or is worthy of a picture or painting or one that has the scenic qualities of a picture or painting.
Picturesque
This bridge designed during the Renaissance to cross the River Siene is currently the oldest bridge in Paris. Its function was to view the city, view the river, and facilitate traffic. It is composed of two separate spans, one of five arches joining the left bank to the Île de la Cité, another of seven joining the island to the right bank. The bridge is a portion of the early Parisian urban design ensemble of the bridge, square, and sculpture.
Pont Neuf
Medieval European cities were generally small, compact urbanized pockets of developments. While most towns were significantly different in terms of layout and aesthetics, Medieval urban form also had many shared characteristics. Which one of the following elements is NOT a urban form component of a typical Medieval town?
Private peristyle gardens
The ceremonial way developed in conjunction with religious rituals in which priests and populations assembled before ziggurats, pyramids, and temples
Processional axes
A generally level area in the Italian Renaissance intended specifically for walking, usually connecting major public spaces.
Promenade
The Plan of Rome by Sixtus V restructured the entire city in an effort to bring it back to its historic prestige. Which of the following tasks DOES NOT describe the scheme of Sixtus V's Plan of Rome?
Reconstructed the Temple of Apollo in Piazza Del Campo
The garden style which developed in Paris, France as a reaction against the grandeur, symmetry and strict regulations of the Baroque which stressed terraces and stairways over axial extension, larger water fountains, glorification of owners (not rulers), and outdoor theaters.
Rococo Style
This Medieval Planted town was originally settled in 100 AD (then referred to as Old Sarum) then abandoned for 500 years until William the Conqueror built a castle there. The nearby valley town of Wilton was invaded by Vikings and a cathedral was built in 1092 and the 2 towns became 1 city.
Salisbury, England
This is an urban shrine and shopping center set into a hillside above the town of Praeneste, located 23 miles east-southeast of Rome with 7 terraces organized around a central axis. Columns and colonnades decorate the passageways and newly developed arches are celebrated through design
Sanctuary of Fortuna Primiqenia
This Austrian Baroque garden is a good example of French ideals disseminating into other countries. Located in Vienna on a former 1,441 room former Rococo summer residence, the program of this site consists of a Great Parterre Garden, a sun Fountain down the primary axis, and a large gloriette overlooking the entire garden on a high point.
Schonbrunn
Andre Le Notre was the premier landscape designer of the Baroque period. He became so popular that his framework for design spread to many countries throughout Europe and set a standard for French design during the Era. All of the following are principle features of a Le Notre design scheme EXCEPT:
Secret gardens as essential for personal reflection
Which of the following statements best describes the primary characteristics of architectural design in the classical world
Simple forms, harmonious proportions, and detailed ornament
This cosmological landscape is found in the Salisbury Plains in England and evolved from an earthen bankment, to a wooden structure, to the stone stackings
Stonehenge
This site was designed originally in a Baroque style by Charles Bridgeman, then redesigned in a Romantic style by William Kent and later Capability Brown. Kent began in 1734 and relaxed the bounding geometric boundaries subdividing the space. He divided the large lake into two irregular shaped ponds, sculpted large fields, and planned curving passageways and tree clusters
Stowe
The Enlightenment was cultural movement of intellectuals in 18th century Europe and the American colonies whose purpose was to reform society using reason. Which of the following statements is UNTRUE when describing the Enlightenment?
Stresses imaginative processes over logical inquiry
Used by the English to depict many Chinese gardens, this term describes landscapes "of such excellence or grandeur as to inspire great admiration or awe," with a dash of horror.
Sublime
As French adaptations of Baroque design ideals made their ways to other countries, many countries adapted their existing styles to conform to the popular styles of the French. Which of the following statements is UNTRUE in regards to the adaptation of French baroque design into other countries in Europe?
Sweden used parterre patterns to accent interiors and gardens conformed to existing hilly terrains
This mogul tomb garden in Agra, India has proportional characteristics similar to that of a Renaissance garden. The Major structure has the look of a Mosque but was actually built as a gift of love from Shah Jahan in honor of his wife Mumtaz-i-Majal.
Taj Majal
Roman urbanism was based on the philosophy of imperial order, a means of making manifest through planning and architecture common urban spatial arrangements and building types. Which of the following is NOT considered an element of Roman urbanism imperial order
Temenos sanctuaries and ovular oculus'
The spreading of Renaissance ideas to Northern Europe from Italy resulted in cultural variations of design ideals. Which of the following statements if TRUE about distinctions between French, English, and Italian gardens during this time?
The English sought more natural and organic gardens while the French preferred absolute dominance of nature in their gardens
Located in Sperlonga, Rome (79 B.C.) and famous for its luxurious villas, this area functioned as a holy place with a natural seaside cave. The Cave was extended into the landscape and fish pond with an area for outdoor banqueting functioned at its entranceway
The Grotto of Tiberius
While the two Periods overlapped a bit in regards to their time frame, the Medieval and Renaissance eras were extremely different in regards to philosophical thought and design. Which of the following statements is TRUE when comparing the Medieval Era to the Renaissance Era?
The Renaissance system of town design was based on the role of designers and persons with money as town developers while the Medieval system of town design was based on the role of an individual as the down builder
This Mogul garden was composed of three square terraces, each with an open sided pavilion placed on a stone platform set in the water within them. Its design epitomized the use of the baradari. Its name can be translated into the "Abode of Love."
The Shalimar Garden of Kashmir
The feudal system was the basis of local government in Europe from the 12-13th century. It structured society around relationships derived from laborers providing services for land owners. Which of the following statements is UNTRUE about the feudal political system?
The church had no authority to tax lands or landowners
French Renaissance gardens were renowned for their collections of water elements. The "buffet" of water features employed within these gardens consisted of a package of 4 typical elements. Which of the following is NOT considered an element within this package of features?
The elevated water channel
Life in the middle ages was harsh, uncertain, and somewhat dangerous which is why many of the new cities were so heavily fortified. Which of the following events DID NOT occur during medieval times?
The famous sculpture of David is unveiled, marking the depiction of nudity in art as commonplace
The market in Islamic cities was drastically different from the market in other medieval European cities. It was highly regulated and had a governing structure in an attempt to keep market operations fair for the population. Which of the following options is UNTRUE about the urban marketplace in Islamic cities? a. The market overseer was known as the caliph b. The government usually set fixed prices for essential commodities c. Each street was often dominated by a particular craft d. Narrow streets were lined with craftsmen's shops
The market overseer was known as the caliph
The Greek civilization attempted to categorize units of the landscape from a regional scale to a site scale. All of the following terms are potions of the structure of Greek City States based on Aristotle's notion of topos EXCEPT
Tholos
This piece of Paleolithic art was sculpted of limestone and believed to be a symbol of fertility to prehistoric peoples and generally describe the ideal woman of the time
Venus de Willendorf
Designed by Andre Le Notre in a suburb of Paris on a marshy, hilly, irregular space, this example of the Grand Manner City was situated where garden and city seemed to radiate from the Palace. Iconography of Sun gods and Greek mythology were represented through sculpture while a central allee led to the principle chateau and throughout the massive garden which linked to a Grand Canal.
Versailles
All of the following are considered to be typologies of Roma villas EXCEPT
Villa Jardin
Designed by architect Giacomo da Vignola, this Renaissance site offers expressions of Bramantian like axial planning combined with a highly imaginative use of water. A series of sequential steps along prescribed routes off of a central spine paves the way and highly decorated grottoes characterize the openings.
Villa Lante
Parterre patterns were the hallmark of French Renaissance gardens. Which of the following patterns is NOT considered a Northern Renaissance parterre pattern?
Villandric
Which of the following statements about Neolithic Art is FALSE
Was developed during the New Stone Age
Scenic quality was a tremendous design intent in the Romantic Era. Many influential persons had differing views on the theories behind what contributed to these qualities. Which of the following statements links the CORRECT people with their theories?
William Gilpin and "Landscape as Picturesque
One of the two ENGLISH bastide towns, this town was built as a replacement harbor for a lost sea town but fell victim to the retreat of the sea and invasion due to extremely weak walls
Winchelsea
Neolithic settlements tended to be sited on areas which were determined primarily by the lay of the land and the resources found within it. All of the following are examples of Natural World Determinants of where Neolithic Settlements began EXCEPT:
available terrestrial space
The Greek concept of sacred spaces was passed down through art and word of mouth from the Paleolithic and Neolithic eras. They took the concept of sacred spaces a bit further by attaching plant specimen to deities, making them sacred. All of the following terms are examples of sacred landscape plants in the Greek world EXCEPT:
cedar trees
The term used to describe the aesthetic values embodied in Greek and Roman art and architecture
classical
A long sequence of columns joined by their entablature, often free- standing, or part of a building.
colonnade
The Aegean settlement landscape differed from the Near Eastern Settlements in all of the following ways EXCEPT
less isolated land masses with unstable cultural patterns
A porch leading to the entrance of a building, or extended as a colonnade, with a roof structure over a walkway, supported by columns or enclosed by walls
portico
The Romans drastically altered the Classical Greek landscape when they took power. Which of the following is NOT an example of the Roman alteration of the Greek landscape?
rebuilding of the parthenon
The notion that within the larger sanctity of nature, some places are especially sacred
spatial hierophany
