Latin American Civ Final
Amancebamiento
Concubinage -when a couple doesn't declare relationship officially, but live together, and have a stable relationship -often between Spanish and indigenous -offspring considered illegitimate
Secularization
Conscious choice of Spanish crown to appoint more secular clergy to parish seats -growth of creole population, who mostly joined secular clergy
Iberian Union
(1580-1640) -King of Portugal dies without heir, Spanish king takes over -Inquisition particularly active in Latin America during this time -since Portugal was more lax, they had a larger population of non-Christians--now persecuted by Spanish Crown
Llaneros
-cowboys in plains of Venezuela (equivalent of gauchos)
Brazillian society and institutions in Mature Colonial Period
-doesn't have laws limiting intermarriage; Portuguese not as concerned about purity of blood; families mixed from very beginning -slave society, not a society with slaves; slaves have no legal status -majority of indigenous live in interior sertao -merchants played key role in connecting city (where ports were) and countryside --essential because of export economy -church remains predominantly Jesuit -no universities in Brazil, elite would send sons to study in Portugal
Civil Codes in Mature Colonial Period
-legitimate children entitled to 4/5 of property, the remaining 1/5 can be given to illegitimate children or anyone else you want (hence the emphasis on preventing illegitimate children) -all marriage is through church -no possibility for remarriage unless someone dies -anullment is possible if someone is physically unable to perform sexual act or already married and didn't disclose to partner -ecclesiastical divorce: women can complain that they are being physically abused, clergy will try to resolve the dispute, and women may be placed temporarily in convent -if illegitimate children born out of wedlock, can become legitimate if the woman marries the father
International Economy of Portugal/Brazil
-main products: started with dyewood (early 1500s), then sugar mid 1600s -sugar starts to decline late 1600s throughout 1700s - gold cycle late 1700s - Haitian Revolution - Brazillian sugar starts going up again, also move on to cacao, coffee -for most products, had open trade system (unlike Spain's closed trade system): depended on foreign merchants to carry Brazil trade -however, during Iberian Union, Spain imposed closed system on Portugal's trade and cut Portugal off from Dutch -1624 Dutch occupied part of Brazil -1640 Portuguese rebelled against Spain and gained independence -- but did not convince Dutch to leave -war between Brazil and Dutch lasted until 1654 - finally expelled Dutch -this war had lasting economic consequences for Brazil because it destroyed many sugar fields and disrupted sugar harvest -also by 1650s there was growing foreign competition to the Brazillian sugar industry, because Dutch and English had set up sugar plantation colonies in the Carribean
Gold mining in Mature Colonial period
-main sites: Chocó in New Granada/Colombia, Minas Gerais in Brazil -use rivers to extract, don't need all the complex techniques of silver mining -indigenous people in the area were semi-sedentary, would flee, so couldn't use for labor force -->increased importation of African slaves (cuadrilla was basic unit) Chocó: -developed in 1680s -gold extracted only using African slaves, who live with little supervision from slave owners (slave owners don't want to live there) Minas Gerais: -developed in 1690s -more controlled by slaveowners -mass numbers of slaves (compared to New Granada, where slaves were fewer in numbers and more spread out)
Silver mining in Mature Colonial Period
-main sites: Zacatecas (Mexico) and Potosi (Andes) - found in 1540s -1560s, 1570s silver mining picks up -skilled indigenous labor force -Zacatecas: individual contracts of labor, more Hispanization -Potosi: mita system/repartimiento still intact, coexisting with individual contracts of labor, less Hispanization -mine owners increasingly becoming people who are aware of mining techniques (specialized) -mercury important to amalgamation process - Spanish Crown held monopoly on mercury -boom and bust
Corregidor de Indios
-oversee a corregimiento -take care of collecting tribute from indigenous people, channeling indigenous labor, ensuring they are Christian, etc. =largely depended on Indian corporate mechanisms (primary tax collection, rotary labor procurement, managing day-to-day affairs)
Peso/Reales
1 peso = 8 reales -in mature colonial period, indigeous start using peso to describe what things are worth, use pesos in market; shifting from bartering to cash economy
Methuen Treaty
1703 With new gold, Portuguese now have access to a lot more cash, which could be used to buy luxury products, etc. Through this treaty, Portugal entered a special trade relationship with England Set cap on taxes charged for Portuguese wines exported to England and English woolen products exported to Portugal
War of the Emboabas
1708-1709 Civil War in Minas Gerais (gold mining area) between new Portuguese immigrants called emboabas (backed by Portuguese Crown) and the Paulistas who were the original settlers there
Treaty of Utrecht
1713 Put Philip V in charge (first Bourbon King of Spain)
Treaty of Madrid
1750 Spain ceded seven missions to Portugal in return for Portugal giving Colonia back to Spain -Area of the seven missions is close to gold area, so favorable for Portugal -Guaranís resist, tensions remain high in border areas
Seven Year's War
1756-1763 War between England and Spain After, Britain agreed to leave Havana, and Spain gave them Florida
Quito
1765 Site of urban Rebellion in Mexico -lower and middle classes against Bourbon reforms
Royal Pragmatic on Marriages
1778 Gave parents power to oppose children's marriage when they are marrying below their class -control mixing -prevent peninsulars from marrying creoles
New Granada (rebellion)
1781 Site of rebellion in Colombia Rebellion also known as Comunero -led by local creoles
Minas Gerais (conspiracy)
1788-1789 -only a conspiracy because it was discovered before rebellion could happen -Minas Gerais' gold was drying out, leading to economic depression and resentment -Tiradentes was only member who was executed (lower class, became scapegoat)
Haiti (indendence movement)
1791 open call to independence and end to slavery successful! inspired by French Revolution
Royal Decree on Prices for Gracias al Sacar
1795 Decree showing list of prices needed to purchase whiteness -mixed person can purchase document proving they are white if they have the money, letters of rec, etc. -for Bourbons to make revenue, and also make people happy to they can stay loyal
Law of Consolidation
1804 Parish priests ordered to relinquish properties
Peninsular War
1808-1814 pre-1808: Napoleon wants to seal off Britain, not happy with Portugal's relationship with Britain-->wanted to submit Portugal to French Rule In order to do that, needed to go through Spain In anticipation of Napoleon's arrival King of Portugal moves Portuguese court to Brazil-->sets up new court in Rio de Janeiro Napoleon turns back to Spain, forces Spanish king to abdicate, Napoleon's brother becomes new King Peninsular War, (1808-14)Part of the Napoleonic Wars, fought on the Iberian Peninsula. After French forces occupied Portugal (1807) and Napoleon installed his brother Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain (1808), a rebellion in Madrid began what was called in Spain "the War of Independence," and insurrections soon erupted in other cities. By 1810 the French overcame the Spanish rebels in Madrid and elsewhere in Spain. Meanwhile, the British under the future duke of Wellington landed in Portugal (1808), where they fought the French in inconclusive campaigns until 1812. After Napoleon withdrew French forces to bolster his invasion of Russia, Wellington began his gradual advance into Spain. The British victory at the Battle of Vitoria (1813) and their march into southwestern France forced the French to withdraw from Spain and to reinstall Ferdinand VII as king (1814).
Francisco de Miranda
1811 - made clear call for independence of New Granada (against Bourbon and French) Venezuelan revolutionary who helped to pave the way for independence in Latin America. His own plan for the liberation of Spain's American colonies with the help of the European powers failed, but he remains known as El Precursor—i.e., "the forerunner" of Bolívar and other more effective revolutionaries. In 1810 he met Simón Bolívar, who was in London attempting to get British support for the revolution that had finally begun in South America. Bolívar persuaded Miranda to return to Venezuela, where he was made a general in the revolutionary army. When the country formally declared independence on July 5, 1811, he assumed dictatorial powers. The Spanish forces counterattacked, and Miranda, fearing a brutal and hopeless defeat, signed an armistice with them in July 1812 at San Mateo. The other revolutionary leaders, including Bolívar, believed his surrender was treasonable and thwarted Miranda's attempt to escape; they allowed him to be handed over to the Spanish. Transported in chains to Cádiz, he eventually died in his prison cell.
Battle of Ayacucho
1824 Viceroyalty of Peru falls, Peru becomes liberated
Brazil independence
After Portuguese Court arrives in Brazil 1820 Portuguese King returns to Portugal, leaving his son Dom Pedro in charge When asked to leave, Dom Pedro chooses to remain in Brazil and declare Brazil an independent monarchy (1822)-- no battles fought for Brazil's independence
Alteptl/Calpulli
Altepetl and Calpulli are pre-colonial Mesoamerican organizational units -altepetl is larger than calpulli Colonial period: -in each calpulli, there's a cabildo (town council) and gobernador/alcalde mayor/corregidor -fragmentation of alteptl (more calpulli claim indepedence from altepetl
Document: "Mulatta mistress and Mother"
Author: Beatriz de Padilla Time: 1650 Place: Lagos, Mexico Trial records from Tribunal of the Inquistion -Beatriz de Padilla was in a relationship with a local priest, his family members brought her to court: "According to the charges, she had poisoned the first of them, a priest ... and then, several weeks later, she had driven the lord mayor of Juchipila crazy through the exercise of magic" (mayor was already married, they were in a amancebamiento/concubinage) -Beatriz identified not as mulatta, but as a lighter-skinned morisca (the daughter of a white man and a mulatta); she began her life as a slave, but her and her mother were granted manumission; at time of arrest, she was working as a housekeeper at the house of the mayor of Juchipila -when brought to Tribunal, the defendant doesn't know why they are being accused; so Beatriz started confessing to other things that were unrelated to the accusation: "she had been less than exemplary in her conduct while exercising authority in the household of Diego Ortiz [the priest]. She remembered having been an unduly harsh taskmistress to the slaves and domestic servants, despite the fact that she had served as a slave housemaid herself as a young girl." -denied accusation of murder, said that the priest probably died of illness -"these envious relatives had woven a veritable conspiracy against Beatriz when they realized that the priest was genuinely enamored of her and that he proposed to leave his entire estate to her and to their illegitimate son -ended up being acquitted -reflects trend of lower status, castas women being less subject to social regulations
Document: "As for the Spaniards, their time is up"
Author: Father Domingo García Time: 1742 Place: Jauja, Peru -talking about Juan Santos Atahuallpa -- indigenous who claims to be descended of Incan royalty -->wants to bring back Incan King, but also wants to keep Christian religion (wants peninsulars and Blacks to leave): "he calls upon all Indians, as we have said, but does not allow Blacks or Spaniards into his presence because he believes all of them to be thieves who have stolen his crown" -writing to friar to ask him to be a mediator and legitimize him taking over power: "Father Manuel del Santo must come alone, as he wants to write to the viceroy to demand the restoration of the crown that is rightfully his, or else he will come and take it by force" -the friar does not want to meet, eventually killed by rebels
Document: "A Foreign View of the Spanish Commercial System"
Author: John Campbell Place: London Time: 1747 -Reflection on mature colonial period -criticizing Spain's economic policies (restricted trade, mercantilism; used wealth to finance expensive wars instead of in trade and commerce) -"there is nothing more common than to hear Spain compared to a sieve, which, whatever it receives is never the fuller" - can't accumulate wealth because Spain is not moving Spanish products, only buying products from other places; plus, they are spending a lot on war -"if ... the government had encouraged trade or manufactures, there is great probability that the supreme direction of the affairs of Europe would have fallen into the hands of the Catholic Kings" -"they erred, not through want of capacity, or want of application, as their successors did, but for want of considering things in a right light, occasioned purely by their fixing their eyes on that dazzling meteor, universal empire" - Spain wanted to rule over the whole world, but too costly to maintain -"instead of looking upon it as an estate, they seemed to think it only a farm, which they were to make presently the most they could" (talking about Spain's view of Latin America) - Campbell seeing it as Spain squeezing as much out of their colonies as possible; but this criticism is not completely true, because haciendas also participated in markets -"and thus numbers went over thither, not to cultivate the country, or to improve trade, but to strip and plunder those who were before them" - in reality, Spain stayed not to kill people but to make a profit -since the author is English, there are definitely inherent prejudices. Even though there were problems, Spain still had the wealthiest colony at the time.
Document: "Sentiments of the Nation"
Author: José María Morelos Time: 1813 Place: Chilpancingo, Mexico José María Morelos is the mestizo priest who took over Mexican independence movement after death of Father Hidalgo This document expresses his belief in liberty and equality -direct response to Bourbon reforms -"government posts shall be held only by Americans" (creole participation) -"foreigners shall not be allowed to enter the country unless they are artisans who can instruct others and are free of all suspicion" -calls for reduction of taxes -abolition of slavery -also calls for Catholic religion to be "the only one, without tolerance for any other" Even after independence, equality for all was not achieved, because former slaves and indigenous people were not guaranteed participation in government, and since they were now considered citizens, had to speak Spanish, no "special privileges"-->land taken away
Document: "The World of the Sugar Plantation"
Author: João Antonio Andreoni Time: late 17th century Place: northeast of Brazil roles on plantation: -chaplain: say masses, teach the children of the plantation owner -overseers -emphasizes checks and balances: "it is fitting that the slaves should understand that the chief overseer has power to command and reprove them, and to punish them when necessary, but they should also know that they have recourse to the master and that they will be heard as justice requires" "if [the overseers] exceed their authority he should check them with the punishment that their excesses deserve" -talking about the African slaves: "they are usually of different nations, and some more primitive than others, a differ greatly in physical qualities, the assignments should be made with great care" -mulattoes are higher in hierarchy than blacks: "even more apt for every task; but many of them, taking advantage of the favor of their masters, are haughty and vicious and swagger about, always ready for a brawl" -"some masters have the custom of giving their slaves one day a week to plant for themselves" -says plantation owners should let slaves keep their festivities, because otherwise is to "condemn them to sadness and melancholy, to apathy and sickliness" --primary concern is productivity of slaves -unlike Spanish, Portuguese plantation owners mostly live in countryside -talks about needing to control children; avoid them becoming country bumpkins but also not letting them "fall into vicious habits" in the city-->"best course is to place them in the household of some responsible or honorable relative or friend"
Document: "Letter to the Governor of Buenos Aires"
Author: Nicolás Nenguirú (indigenous corregidor of the Mission of Concepcion) Time: 1753 Place: Paraguay -Paraguay is located near border between Spain and Portugal, so had a long military tradition -Jesuit missions brought in Guarani, offered protection against Brazillian bandeirantes -in 1750 Treaty of Madrid (to settle border disputes), Spain agreed to cede some territories in Paraguay to Portguese, which affected seven Jesuit missions, one of which is the one in the document (called Concepción) -the Guarani in these missions resisted their transfer to Brazil -->Guarani war in the document: -describes mission as their home -argues for an implicit contract between the king and the guaranis; "this is not the will of our king"; "by our own free will we chose to place God above all, and then also our king so that he would always be our protector"
Document: "Taming the Wilderness"
Author: Pamplona Time: 1769 Place: Minas Gerais -describes a bandeira (military expedition) into the wildnerness flanking mining sites of Minas Gerais -Activities: -exterminating indigenous -flushing runaway slaves from their quilombos -searching for gold -brought slaves, musicians (to perform rituals) -document describes Pamplona's bravery; e.g. after slave was hurt, "The Field Officer rushed to this danger, throwing himself into the river from a very high embankment ... " -->report to governor
Document: "Letter to Sor Filotea"
Author: Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz Time: 1691 Place: Mexico City Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz -1651-1695 -from Mexico -illegitimate daughter of Creole Spanish parents -child prodigy, but since she was a woman, not allowed to enter university -entered a convent, spent rest of her life as a nun -didn't want to get married -unfortunately, ends up renouncing her studies bc of people's criticisms -died of smallpox Sor Filotea -not another nun but rather her sometime friend and advisor, the Bishop of Puebla, Manuel Fernandez de Santa Cruz, who wrote to her under this pseudonym warning of her intellectual activities (which he himself had encouraged) -criticized the fact that she was writing things that were not religious in nature This letter is an autobiographical response to Bishop's concerns and criticism, defending her writing -talks about how she attended a girl's school called Amigas, where she was taught domestic tasks like embroidering, but that wasn't what she wanted to learn. -strong desire to learn, natural curiosity -talking about the choice to enter convent: "it would, given my absolute unwillingness to enter into marriage, be the least unfitting and most decent state I could choose, with regard to the assurance I desired of my salvation" -chose to enter convent so she could study and get access to books -in convent, uses every opportunity to learn, e.g. when cooking, thinks about the chemical reactions involved -defending the content of her writing: "I went on in this way, always directing each step of my studies ... toward the summit of Holy Theology; but it seemed to me necessary to ascend by the ladder of the humane arts and sciences in order to reach it"
Document: "Petitions from the Maya Cabildos of Tahnab and Dzaptun"
Author: indigenous cabildos Time: 1605 Place: Yucatan (Maya) First petition: -writing to: Viceroy, King, governor -shows their impressive understanding of colonial politics, though they did confuse the relative hierarchy of viceroy and King -complaining about governor, appealing to higher level officials to intervene -used religion to appeal to Spanish. e.g. "we the cabildo have assembled ourselves in the name of God Almighty and also in the name of our redeemer, Jesus Christ" -complaining of poverty, want to end forced labor rotations: "poverty is upon us ... every day there are not enough of us to do so much work ... we are unable to manage the tribute burden that is upon us ... we want there to be an end to the labor obligations under which we serve" Second petition: -writing to king, viceroy, and oidor (judge) -"there are many deaths among us, your children, because the provincial governor causes troubles, because of the fatigue of the people, because they carry planks of wood two or three leagues and raise up beams, and because we carry hay and firewood" --describing a form of tribute
Document: "The Structure of Class and Caste"
Authors: Jorge Juan, Antonia de Ulloa (Spanish officials who traveled across Latin America) Time: 1740s Place: Cartagena (port on Carribean Coast of Colombia) -"the whites may be divided into two classes, the Europeans and Creoles" -elite: hacendados and merchants -for mulattoes, there are tercerones, quarterones, etc. -->very complicated labelling system -no special label for indigenous, because many died from disease -"the class of Negroes ...is divided into two parts: the free and the slaves ... these last are again subdivided into Criollos and Bozales" -includes dehumanizing description of African mothers breastfeeding their children - seen as uncivilized
Revolt of the Tailors
Bahia, 1798 multiclass, but mostly led by Black and mulatto working class, artisans, etc. Inspired by Hatian revolution, call for abolition of slavery didn't call for independence, but officials are scared that they will, so suppress it
Bourbon vs. Pombaline Reforms
Bourbon was against mixed marriages, while Pombaline fostered miscegenation (to increase control over population) Bourbon had strict divide between creoles and peninsular, while Pombaline did not have division between Brazillian elite and peninsular Portuguese; in fact the Brazillian elite worked closely with Pombal
Bozal/Criollo
Bozal: slave imported from Africa Criollo: slave born and raised in Latin America -Criollo slaves had higher prices than Bozal slaves, because they were seen as more accustomed to the land, speak the language, are Christian -Bozals were treated badly to subdue them and avoid rebellion; slave owners isolated them and created divisions among slaves
Tupac Amaru II (Micaela Bastidas)
Cuzco and Upper Peru led 1780 Andean rebellion for independence with very strong indigenous component -mestizo, educated in school in Cuzco set up by Jesuits -good relationship with creole elite -->rebellion largely led by creoles and mestizos -Took up name of Tupac Amaru II symbolically, wants to create Incan kingdom, kick out peninsulars, work with King of Spain to rule the area During rebellion, one of the corregidores de indios was killed, creoles start getting worried, told Spanish authorities -->Tupac Amaru II is captured and publically executed (just like Tupac Amaru)
Document: "Decrees for the King's Subjects in Mexico"
Document 1 Author: José de Gálvez Time: 1769 Place: Mexico -Jose de Galvez served as minister general of the Indies -shows rationalizing: ensuring labor force by regulating salaries -pay using money or food depending on race and class -maximize productivity byprohibiting vagabonds; punished if found without a job -regulating debt peonage: "to remedy both abuses, I declare and order that the worker who is in debt to his master cannot leave him without first fulfilling the terms of the contract, and no other employer may accept him without having assurance that this is the case ... and no master may advance the wages of his workers or servants more than the amount of two month's wages" --Bourbon reforms not always benefiting the elite Document 2 Author: José de Gálvez Time: 1778 Place: Madrid -responding to creoles complaints about the new Decree by the Mexico City municipal council, which they interpreted as a quota on how many creoles can hold high office positions, since they had become dominant during Hapsberg rule -Galvez claims that this decree is only creating equal opportunities for creoles and peninsulars; "this wording makes it perfectly clear that at least one third of the prebends must be from the Indies [creoles]. It does not exclude the possible appointment of many more, as there have always been, are now, and will be." -however, clearly the Bourbon reforms do have a preference for peninsulars over creoles, so the creoles' concerns were valid
Document: "A Black Irmandade in Bahia, Brazil"
Document: Author: members of the Irmandade of Saint Anthony of Catagerona in Bahia Place: Bahia, Brazil Year: 1699 This document is a covenant, or set of statutes/commitments for irmandade of Saint Anthony of Catagerona Contents of the covenant: -anyone who can pay the fee can join (exception can be made for poverty) -officers of cofraternity have to be either Creole or Angolan (no mulattos, etc.) -main functions: -ensuring funerary rites -masses -can help slaves become free Provisor (white, because all clergy members are white) is responsible for reviewing the statutes -response: -cofraternity cannot just help a slave become free whenever they want; should provide a loan, have more regulation, supervision -want only white men to be the treasurer -takes issue with the representation of the saint
Inquisition
Ecclesiastical tribunal intended to preserve religious orthodoxy for all but indigenous people (there's a separate tribunal for them) -mainly Dominicans -first one established in Italy, then in Spain in 1478 under Isabel and Ferdinand -->persecuted Jews and Muslims -also one established in Portugal, but more lax than Spain -comes to Mexico/Peru in 1571 -no tribunal in Brazil, just judges sent once in a while -Jewish and Protestants were persecuted -also punished any deviant behaviors (bigamy, sorcery, etc.)
Leyes de Toro
Enacted in Spain in 1505 Set of laws (civil codes) ruling over marriage/family -extended to Latin America
Free trade in Late Colonial Period
Even though called "free," it is still controlled -trade caried out through licensed ships -free trade between ports in Latin America and ports in Spain (whereas before, only specific ports were allowed) -there are exceptions: -Venezuela: Caracas company had a monopoly -Mexico: very profitable for Spanish Crown, so didn't allow free trade
Phases of independence in Spanish America
First phase: 1810-1814 -1810: formation of juntas in Latin America -1814: pushes out French Army from Spain, Ferdinand the 7th (Bourbon) reinstated -immediately scraps Constitution of Cadiz and reinstates Bourbon reforms Second phase: 1814-1824 -1814: open call for independence everywhere (no longer supporting Ferdinand the 7th) -1824: Battle of Ayacucho
Reparto
Forced sale of Spanish goods into indigenous communities, enforced by curacas -later this becomes a source of tension between indigenous people and corregidores de indios
Fringe/Frontier
Fringe: -some resources to exploit -semisedentary groups -mostly total interaction (setting up missions, forcing assimilation) Frontier: -no resources to exploit -non-sedentary groups -mostly absent interaction (warfare, setting up prosidios, leaving alone) Central areas: Mexico/Peru -rich silver deposits -dense, sedentary indigenous populations with intensive agriculture and highly developed tribute/labor mechanisms Fringe areas: 1. Rio de la Plata (Argentina, Paraguay) and Southern Brazil -Tupí in eastern Brazil and Guaraní in Paraguay and Argentina (semisedentary)-->later join missions and become sedentary -widespread miscegenation-->full acceptance of mestizos, adoption of indigenous customs -Tucuman (northwest Argentina): -became important for its connection to Potosí -plains (pampas): cattle ranching -- development of gaucho culture 2. Amazonia -2 kinds of landscapes: -along riverbanks: productive agriculture; semisedentary peoples (e.g. Omagua), who were also brought into missions -in forest: nonsedentary people (e.g. campa) 3. Venezuela -plains (llanos) -->cattle ranching -coast society that becomes sedentary -encomienda system remains there for much longer after it is banned, works because there are less Spanish -wheat, cacao (as cacao develops, start importing slaves) Frontier areas: 1. North Mexico -Spanish set up presidios (forts) to defend against Chichimecs (nonsedentary) -Jesuits and Franciscans set up missions 2. South of Latin America -nonsedentary Mapuche (southern Chile) -also set up presidios -inshospitable terrain, so left Mapuche alone
Patria Potestad
Idea that women are inferior and subject to male authority (father or husband) -principle of restriction: -women excluded from leadership (can't be corregidor, part of audiencia, or serve as witnesses) -if they want to enter into legal matters, need permission from male authority -principle of protection: -women considered weaker, cannot work -economic protection: father provides dowry; also suitor must provide proof of money before marriage -protection of reputation: emphasis on virginity -if a woman is caught in adulterous act, their dowry can be taken away, and if husband kills her, he doesn't face consequences -men are only punished if they are caught having relationship with a married woman or female servant - usually just have to pay a fine Widows not subject to patria potestad, had a lot more freedom, and become in charge of household Even though women aren't allowed to work, many do anyway out of necessity -running marketstands, working as domestic servants, midwives, etc. Lower status women have more flexibility to do what they want, because don't have to worry as much about protecting their and their family's reputation Upper class women usually married people chosen by parents, within their social class
Late Colonial Period
Spanish America: 1750s-early 1800s (Latin American independence movements) -demographic & economic growth in both Latin America and Europe -expansion of hacienda; fewer and fewer hacendados own more and more haciendas -new role: administrator of all haciendos belonging to an hacendado -individual contracts of labor, debt peonage -increase in sharecroppers -silver mining continues to develop -fewer and fewer mine owners own more and more mines -mita system slowly declining -development of La Plata -Tucuman: develops because now linked to Potosí economy; instead of going up to Carribean, silver now goes down to port of Buenos Aires, and then to Spain -hides of wild cattle become an important export product -->viceroyalty of La Plata established -development of Venezulea: -hides are also a product, but not as much as in La Plata -Caracas company Brazillian: 1695-1808 -1695 -discovered gold in Minas Gerais -1708-1709 War of the Emboadas -1720 Minas Gerais became captaincy -collected quinto tax -by 1760 gold started declining -Mulatto population increasing (overnumbering white people) -sertao --> cattle ranching -1750s Pombaline Reforms -1808 Arrival of the Portuguese court in Brazil
Curacas
Leaders of allyus -become mediators between indigenous and Spanish -some start accumulating wealth of their own
Asiento
License sold by Spanish Crown to bring slaves into Latin America -The Spanish Empire rarely engaged in the trans-Atlantic slave trade directly from Africa itself, choosing instead to contract out the importation to foreign merchants -from beginning of Conquest to 1640, license mostly issued to Portuguese merchants -after 1640, British government won right to asiento →brought huge numbers of slaves (more than Portuguese did before); though single ships were still allowed (French, Dutch, Portuguese)
Llacta/Allyu
Llacta and allyu are pre-colonial Andean organizational units -llacta is larger than allyu (llacta equiv to alteptl, allyu equiv to calpulli) -in sixteenth century Peru, movement to concentrate indigenous into a smaller number of settlements (called reducciones) -traditionally, you are born into allyu; even when you move away, you're still considered part of your original allyu -but after resettlement movement, allyu forced to become more residential like Mexican calpulli
Manumission/Coartación
Manumission: the process of being freed by slaveowner -many slaveowners freed slaves that they had a personal relationship with (often female) -written contract Coartación: process of a slave purchasing their own freedom -slave starts by calling for a price to be set for them; set by mutual agreement between appraisers -slave puts down a down payment, and then once they pay the full price, they can free themselves -many slaves rented out their labor on Sundays so they could save money
Extirpation Campaigns
Spanish campaigns to enter indigenous communities and prosecute those who worshipped local deities, etc.
International Economy of Spain/Spanish America
Mercantilism The mercantile theory held that colonies exist for the economic benefit of the mother country and are useless unless they help to achieve profit. The mother nation should draw raw materials from its possessions and sell them finished goods, with the balance favoring the European country. This trade should be monopolistic, with foreign intruders barred. -measure wealth by accumulation of gold/silver -restrict trade (prevent other powers from gaining access to gold/silver) -Because Spain had no industry and had to purchase items from other nations, the government ruled that colonists could only trade with Spanish merchant ships. This made trade very profitable for Spain but created tension with other European countries that could not benefit from the monopoly. -use colonies mainly for extraction of raw materials Fleet system: Spain acted upon the as-yet-undefined mercantile theory when, in 1565, it perfected the fleet (flota) system, by which all legal trade with its American colonies was restricted to two annual fleets between Seville and designated ports on the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean. The outgoing ships bore manufactured articles; returning, their cargoes consisted partly of gold and silver bars. Though the system continued for nearly two centuries, Spain was a poor country by 1700. -defend silver from English and Dutch pirates -Age of Buchaneers Manila Galleon -Connects Pacific coast of Latin America with Asia -Leaves from Mexican port Acapulco -Spanish crown restricts connections between Peru and Acapulco--everything is controlled and restricted within Acapulco -products from Asia: luxury products (silk, spices, tea) --paid for using silver Beneficiaries of Fleet System and Mercantlism: -Spanish Crown -quinto -earn revenues from granting licenses (asientos) -monopoly on mercury -merchants of international trade -part of consulados (guilds), need to pay a price to join Problem with Fleet System: -constant attack of pirates -1588 Spain loses fleet from attack by English -Spain not manufacturing enough products -->supply doesn't match demand -contraband trade -import substitution (local manufacturing to meet demand - not good for Spanish)
Jose Antonio Paez
Mestizo Llanero -In 1810 he joined the revolutionary movement against Spain as the leader of a band of llaneros -Became chief Venezuelan commander to Simón Bolívar
Subdelegados
Officials that replaced corregidores de indios -not a big salary -no fixed taxation -mostly creole
Intendants
Officials that replaced the corregidor level of administration -one intendant would replace multiple corregidores -unlike corregidor, would receive good salary, but not allowed to accept bribes -set a fixed amount of taxes (with corregidores taxes used to be nonstandard, negotiable) -ALWAYS peninsulars (whereas corregidores were mostly creoles)
Tithe/Diezmo
Special tax that Church collects -10% of agricultural output
Slavery in Mature Colonial Period
Plantation slavery: -sugar plantations mostly -main sites: Carribean + Brazil -slaves come from Atlantic Africa (captured from interior, brought to coast to be sold) -in Carribean (Hispaniola), Spanish were experimenting with sugar mills (1520s)-->success→model exported to rest of Latin America, e.g. Mexico, Peru, Venezuela -Spanish American plantation owners fostered natural growth of slave population—permitted them to start their own families, so children would also become slaves -Brazil: northeast is area of sugar production. Starts in 1530, booms in late 16th- 17th century -for each product in Brazillian economy (later cacao, coffee, etc.), slavery is labor force of choice (difficult to get indigenous people, also indigenous people more likely to die) -in Brazil, slave conditions were harsher; they kept on importing new slaves instead of fostering natural growth Non-plantation slavery: -mining -silver mining in Mexico, Peru - skilled labor force of slaves -Mexico used less slaves compared to Peru (mostly in Potosí) -mostly GOLD mining -New Granada (Colombia) + Brazil -urban slavery: slaves bought by families in cities (capitals and port cities) —not mass slavery like plantation slavery, but very widespread. Many families owned 1 or 2 slaves -since Spanish and Portuguese are Catholic, slaves not allowed to work on Sunday. Therefore, on that day, slave owners could rent out slaves, or slaves could rent out themselves —can make money for yourself -compared to plantation slavery, more ways to build community (more mobility and more interaction) Slave population: Spanish west indies is minor compared to british and french; Brazil is substantial Spanish West Indies had high number of freed colored population. Mainland Spanish America has highest number and percentage of freed colored population (70%)
Rescate
Portuguese "rescuing" of indigenous groups that justifies enslavement While Spanish relied on encomienda for indigenous labor, Portuguese mainly used slavery, and even after slavery was outlawed, use loopholes to continue enslavement of indigenous Two of the principal arguments used to justify the enslavement of Amerindians were the concepts of "just war" (i.e. the notion that anyone who refused to accept Christianity, or rebelled against Spanish rule, could be enslaved), and "rescate" or ransom (the idea that Amerindians held captive by other groups could be purchased in order to Christianize them, and to rescue them from captors who were allegedly cannibals).
Cámara
Portuguese term for town council (like cabildo in Spanish) -issues local laws, keeps city in order
Constitution of Cadiz
Ratified by Cortes of Cadiz in 1812 Addresses Creole concerns - gains positions back from peninsulars, downscale of taxes (basically reversing Bourbon reforms)
Mexican War of Independence
Started with Hidalgo Revolt 1810 -led by Father Hidalgo (creole priest) -motivation: discontent with taxation -called for racial equality, abolishment of slavery, and restribution of land -movement discovered by the Viceroy of Mexico -movement becomes violent-->creoles back out -Hidalgo is captured and executed -After Hidalgo's death, Jose Maria Morelos (mestizo priest) takes over the movement, but also captured and executed -finally issued a declaration of independence Led to tightening of control in Mexico 1821 declared full independence under a monarch 1823 finally became an independent republic
State of Brazil + State of Maranhao
State of Brazil: area around Salvador de Bahio State of Maranhao: north of Salvador de Bahia two 17-18th century administrative divisions of the colonial Portuguese Empire in South America.
Spanish America's Upperclass and Underclass in Late Colonial period
Upperclass: -peninsulars & creoles -growth of creole identity -audiencias increasingly filled by creoles Underclass: -poor urban population -in late colonial period, urban population is booming -laws issued to combat vagrancy (people who don't work) -packed housing -migration
Francisco de Toledo
Viceroy of Peru Captures last Inca emperor (Tupac Amaru) in 1572, executes him-->signifies end of Inca empire, full acknowledgement of Spanish rule
Religious Life in Mature Colonial Period
Regular Clergy: -part of an order (Franciscan, Dominican, Jesuit, etc.) -take vows of poverty and chastity -highest chain of command was Pope -most born and raised in Spain or other European countries (not creole) -among first to start converting indigenous people (Dominicans/Franciscans in Mexico/Peru, Jesuits in Brazil) -mostly active in periphery areas with semisedentary and non-sedentary indigenous people; set up mission systems -in mature colonial period, Jesuits became the dominant order; they also founded colegios in cities to educate creole elite -in late colonial period, regular clergy started declining due to secularization in Bourbon reforms -Jesuits eventually expelled from both Spain and Portugal Secular Clergy: -not part of an order -organization: parish priests, bishops, archbishops -larger percentage of creoles, so as creole population increased in mature colonial period, secular clergy also grew -in late colonial period, grew relative to regular clergy Churches in Latin America were influenced by locals (indigenous, Africans) -started to incorporate local traditions -published books in indigenous languages to preach to local populations Clergy could be peninsular or creole, but never indigenous Convents: -set up initially to place illegitimate mestizo daughters -urban, not secluded in periphery -women could come and go freely -women didn't live in cells, but apartments, often with servants -types of inhabitants: -daughters of nobility sent in to become nuns -girls who were getting an education -girls who misbehaved and were sent in as punishment -widows -by sending daughter into convent, colonial families got access to its wealth Intellectual Life often associated with religion -Jesuits founded colegios -convents allowed women to access education -Spanish King set up universities in big cities that trained students in theology, law, medicine
Juntas
Response to Napoleon's usurpation of Spain Spanish get together to resist the usurpation by setting up Juntas (councils) in Spain -later also set up in Latin America -sites: areas of turmoil: La Plata, New Granada -political mobilization
Pombaline Reforms
Second half of 1700s -unlike Bourbon Reforms, not a new line of rulers -like Bourbon Reforms, reaction to new geography and new population ADMINISTRATIVE -appointment of ministers above councils -instead of creating intendants, strengthens role of governors - close relationship with Pombal himself -appoints more military men as officials (strengthen defense) -movement of capital from Salvador de Bahia to Rio de Janeiro (in response to development in Minas Gerais) ECONOMIC: -renegotiates trading treaty with England to become more favorable for Portugal -fixation of taxes -crackdown on contraband -set up monopoly companies (like in Bourbon reforms) SOCIAL -encouraging mixing (no notion of peninsular vs creole) -->way to populate Brazil RELIGIOUS -expelled Jesuits (right after acquiring seven missions from Spain in Treaty of Madrid)
Francisco de Paula Santander
Soldier and statesman who fought beside Simón Bolívar in the war for South American independence and who served as president of the newly formed New Granada (Colombia) from 1833 until 1837.
Cortes
The Cortes of Cádiz was a revival of the traditional cortes (Spanish parliament), which as an institution had not functioned for many years, but it met as a single body, rather than divided into estates as with previous ones. Cortes (Spanish court) called emergency meeting saying Latin American representatives can join so they can help with resistance against French --> first creole representation in Spain's administration
Ranchos
landed property that can be cultivated - owned by Creole families
Tupac Amaru
last Inca emperor who was executed by Francisco de Toledo
Simon Bolivar
a Venezuelan military and political leader who led what are currently the countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Panama and Bolivia to independence from the Spanish Empire. Worked with Jose Antonio Paez and Francisco de Paula Santander
Quinto
a fifth of mining profits paid to the Crown
Palmares
a prominent quilombo in Brazil
Juan Santos Atahuallpa
led 1742 Central Andes rebellion for independence -wanted to create Incan kindgom while also keeping Christian religion -wanted to kick out peninsulars and Blacks
Siete Partidas
civil laws of 13th century Spain
Gaucho
cowboy in plains of Argentina
Jose Francisco de San Martín
from Rio de la Plata led soldiers in Tucuman (assisted by gauchos) liberated Lima converged at Peru with force led by Simon Bolivar
Caracas company
in Venezuela -merchants from Basque country -King gave them license to hold a monopoly over trade in Venezuela
Tupac Catari
indigenous leader of a major insurrection in colonial-era Upper Peru (now Bolivia), laying siege to La Paz for six months. His wife Bartolina Sisa participated in the rebellion by his side. The rebellion was ultimately put down by Spanish loyalists and Catari was executed
Presidio
military forts set up for defense against nonsedentary indigenous groups
Campa
nonsedentary group in forest of Amazonia
Mapuche
nonsedentary indigeous in Southern Chile
Forastero
people who move to a different allyu and who are considered outsiders -don't pay tribute, but also don't receive reciprocal benefits
Corregimiento
region in countryside composed of many aleptls, calpullis, administered by corregidor
Sharecroppers
rent out a piece of land from plantation owner, grow and harvest sugar, use the mill on the plantation to process the sugar, then sell it to plantation owner
Esmeraldas
runaway slave community created in 1540s/1550s in Ecuador, also had indigenous people -Spanish government gave them autonomy (you don't bother us, we don't bother you)
Omagua
semisedentary group along riverbank in Amazonia
Bourbon Reforms
started with change in ruling from Hapsberg to Bourbon line (1713 - continued to early 1800s) Overall trends: -increased centralization -less creole power ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS 1. Appointed ministers that sit on top of audiencias so they can control audiencias and everything on the ground (more hands-on control) 2. Created 2 new viceroyalties (New Granada & La Plata) 3. Created intendants (officials that replaced the corregidor level of administration Additionally, audiencias which became mostly Creole under Hapsburg rule (thanks to sale of offices), started becoming more peninsular under Bourbon rule MILITARY REFORMS -set up standing armies (in case of another occupation like the British occupation of Havana); previously only had forts/presidios -military officers mostly peninsular, local positions are more creole ECONOMIC REFORMS -increase in monopolies (gun powder, mercury, tobacco, etc.; also Caracas company had monopoly) -end of fleet system -free trade (still controlled - need license, only between Spain and Latin America) CHURCH & SOCIETY -expelled Jesuits (1767) -Bourbons thought Jesuits were holding too much power, also were establishing schools for creole elite -increased secularization -replacement of parish seats with secular priests -law of Consolidation: Parish priests ordered to relinquish properties -in response to growth of castas, implemented Royal Pragmatic on Marriage -Royal Decree on Prices for Gracias al Sacar
Safra
sugar cane harvest (term used in Brazil, Cuba, etc.)
Engenio
sugar complex: technology + plantation
Quilombo/Palenque
synonyms that mean communities of runaway slaves (quilombo is the portuguese word, palenque is the spanish word)
Middle Passage
was the stage of the Atlantic slave trade in which millions of enslaved Africans were transported to the Americas as part of the triangular slave trade -could last 1-3 months, terrible conditions for slaves, 10-20% of slaves would die during Middle Passage
Ganado Cimarrón
wild cattle (escaped from haciendas)