Leadership Final Exam
Bagshaw's universals of leadership
#1 - suggests that leadership is a social or group phenomenon and not the behavior outcomes that result from an individual's traits #2 - leadership is a process or dynamic not a static condition or positional arrangement #3 - group process articulated in #2 is purposive, focused on goal accomplishment, and not focused on preserving the status quo #4 - Purposive group process we call leadership involves influence, influence free from the taint of coercion #5 - states that when an agent influences a target, this action is an attempt to affect the thinking and enlist the target's will #6 - mechanics of how influence works and that an agent's ability to influence depends on power resources are concepts whose use is not in dispute #7 - idea that a primary source of the leader's ability to influence others lies in his or her ability to use verbal communications - written or oral to persuade others to give their will to a proposed group process
Fundamental of leadership and communication
-Communication is not a thing, it is a process - it is dynamic and ever changing -Communication is not linear, it is circular -communication is complex - involves more than just one person sending a message to another -Communication is irreversible -Communication involves the total personality - communication can not be viewed separately from the person
Leadership: A special form of human communication
-Leadership is about who you are -Leadership is how you act -Leadership is about what you do -Leadership is about how you work with others -Leadership is human (symbolic) communication which modifies the attitudes and behaviors of others in order to meet shared group goals and needs
Denning's 8 general categories of stories
-Sparking action - describe how a successful change was implemented in the past -Communicating who you are - reveal identity to an audience -Communicating the brand - designed to communicate brand image to customers -Transmitting values - reflect and reinforce organizational values -Fostering collaboration - encourage people to work together to illustrate common concerns and goals -Taming the grapevine - highlight the incongruity between rumors and reality -Sharing knowledge - focus on problems -Leading people into the future
Effectiveness of proactive tactics
-a tactic is more likely to be successful if the target person perceives it to be a socially acceptable form of influence behavior, the agent has sufficient position and personal power, the agent has strong interpersonal skills, and if the tactics is used for a request that is legitimate and consistent with target values and needs -depends on the extent to which the agent is trusted by the target and perceived to have integrity
Combing tactics
-an influence attempt is more likely to be successful if 2 or more different tactics are combined -rational persuasion is very flexible tactic and it is usually compatible with any of the other tactics
Weber's Thoughts on Charismatic Authority
-authority given by followers -follower perception of exceptional qualities of leader -usually occurs in social crisis -radical vision that attracts followers and when successful followers attribute extra ordinariness to leader
Hackman and Johnson's thoughts on the relationship between communication and leadership
-authors believe that leadership is best understood from a communication standpoint -fundamental elements of the human condition - communication and leadership meaning of a symbol comes from value bestowed upon it by those who use it
Coercive Power
-based on authority over punishments, which varies greatly across different types of organizations -this type of power is greater among military and political leaders -not likely to result in commitment but it may result in compliance - can have negative effects - anger, resentment, sabotage
Ingratiation
-behavior that makes someone feel better about you -examples - giving compliments, doing unsolicited favors, acting deferential and respectful, and acting friendly and helpful before making a request -tends to strengthen positive regard and make a target person more willing to consider a request -more likely to be used in influence attempts with subordinates or peers than with bosses -may be viewed as manipulative
Rosch's individuals' mental categories of things
-broadest: superordinate -middle: basic -most specific: subordinate
Self-concept theory leader traits and behaviors
-charismatic leaders are likely to have a strong need for power, high self-confidence, and a strong conviction in their own beliefs and ideals -leaders behavior influencing followers - articulating an appealing vision, using strong expressive forms of communication when articulating a vision, taking personal risks and making self-sacrifices to attain vision, communication high expectation, expressing optimism and confidence in followers -charismatic followers use language that includes symbols, slogans, imagery, and metaphors that are relevant to the experience and values of followers
Leaders as Impression Management
-charismatic or transformational leaders are skilled actors who create the impression that they are trustworthy, effective, morally worthy, innovative, and skilled -Framing - leaders help followers interpret the meaning of events -Scripting - scripts are directions or guidelines for behavior, role negotiation -Staging - effective leaders pay close attention to how performances are staged, image they want to project -Performing - carrying out behaviors outlined in the script, role modeling, promoting, facework repair, ingratiation
Globe project limitations
-conceptual and methodological weaknesses -conceptual frameworks affect interpretation - different sets of values, disagreements still exist -reliance on broadly defined behaviors -culturally based interpretations
Ecological Power
-control over the physical environment, technology, and organization of the work provides an opportunity for indirect influence over other people -sometimes called situational engineering - modify the design of subordinates jobs to increase subordinate motivation, control over the physical work environment
Globe Project
-cross--cultural study of leadership in 60 different countries representing all major regions of the world -hope to develop empirically based theory describing relationship between national culture, organizational processes, and leadership -found several leader attributes that were widely rated as ineffective and they were usually the opposite of the positive ones -differences among countries for ideals values were much small than for actual values -rated effective among most cultures - visionary, decisive, dynamic, dependable, encouraging, positive, excellence oriented, honest and trustworthy, skilled administrator, team integrator -varied among cultures - ambitious, cautious, compassionate, domineering, formal, humble, independent, risk taker, self-sacrificing
Uncertainty avoidance
-cultures with a high avoidance of uncertainty there is more fear of the unknown and people desire more security, stability, and order -high uncertainity countires - France, Spain, Germany, Switzerland, Russia, and india -when there is high uncertainty avoidance qualities for managers include being reliable, orderly, and cautious
Referent Power
-derived from the desire of others to please an agent toward whom they have strong feelings of affection, admiration, and loyalty -strong form involves the influence process called personal identification -this type of power will tend to increase the agent's influence over the target person -imitation is likely to occur without conscious intention by the agent
Transformational vs charismatic
-difference in the two types of theories is the emphasis on attributed charisma and personal identification -transformational leaders probably do more things that will empower followers and make them less dependent on the leader -difference involves how often each type of leadership occurs and the facilitating conditons for it -another difference is the way people react to their followers
Culture clusters
-dimensions are moderately inter correlated and examining differences for a single value dimension without controlling for the others makes it difficult to determine their independent effects on leadership beliefs and behaviors -researchers have grouped countries into clusters based on regional proximity and similarity in language, ethnic background, and religion
Types of Opennes
-effective leaders must cultivate open mindedness in order to continually challenge their own favored views and to learn how to embrace multiple points of view in the service of building shared understanding and commitment -open minds ultimately require open hearts, becoming vulnerable to seeing how we are part of the problem, blaming mode -opening of the will involves discovering that our deepest commitments arose almost despite ourselves
Strategic Contingencies Theory
-explains how some organizational subunits gain or lose power to influence important decisions such as determination of the organization competitive strategy and the allocation of resources to subunits and activities -power of subunit depends on expertise in coping with important problems, centrality of the subunit within the workflow, and the extent to which the subunit's expertise is unique rather than subsitutable -increased expert power can result in increase legitimate power
Performance Orientation
-extent to which high performance and individual achievement are valued is called this -in high performance orientation culture there is more emphasis on leader behaviors that are relevant for improving performance and efficiency
Gender Egalitarianism
-extent to which men and women receive equal treatment, and both masculine and feminine attributes are considered important and desirable -in cultures with high gender egalitarianism there is less differentiation of sex roles and most jobs are not segregated by gender -participate leadership, supportive leadership, and relations oriented aspects of transformational leadership are viewed less favorably in cultures with low gender egalitarianism, leaders are more likely to use direct, confrontational, forms of interpersonal influence rather than indirect, subtle forms of influence
Individualism
-extent to which the needs and autonomy of individuals are more important than the collective needs of groups, organizations, or society -implications of collectivistic values depend in part on whether they are more important for in group or the larger society, most research has emphasized in group collectivism -people are more motivated to satisfy their self-interests and personal goals in an individualistic culture, so it is more difficult for leaders to inspire strong commitment to team or organizational objectives
Attribution theory of charismatic leadership
-follower attribution of charismatic qualities to a leader is jointly determined by leader behavior, expertise, and aspects of the situation -behavior - fitting and appealing vision, emotional appeals to values, self-sacrifice, confidence and optimism
Negative charisma
-have a personalized power orientation -emphasize personal identification rather than internalization -intentionally seek to instill devotion to themselves more than to ideals -may used ideological appeals -seek to dominant and subjugate followers by keeping them weak and dependent on the leader -decision of the leader reflect a greater concern for self-glorification and maintaining power than for the welfare of followers
What types of power are need for a leader to be effective?
-have more expert and referent -rely more on personal than on position power -benefit from moderate position power -legitimate power useful for routine requests
Pressure
-include threats, warnings, and assertive behavior such as repeated demands or frequent checking to see if the person has complied with a request -more likely to be used with subordinates and less likely to be used with bosses -making threats or warnings credible is much greater in a downward direction than in a lateral or upward direction
Importance of cross-cultural research
-increasing globalization of organizations makes it more important to learn about effective leadership in different cultures -successful influence requires a good understanding of these cultures -leaders must be able to understand how people from different cultures view them and interpret their actions -researchers must consider a broader than usual range of variables and processes which can provide new insights and improve leadership theories - need to understand how self/actions could be viewed by virtue of own cultural identification
Legitimating Tactics
-involve attempts to establish one's legitimate authority or right to make a particular type of request -more often relevant for influence attempts with peers or outsiders -for downward influence attempts with subordinates legitimating may be used when implementing major changes or dealing with an unusual crisis -for upward influence attempts, it can be used for requests involving personal matters
Coalition Tactics
-involve getting help from other people to influence the target person -more likely to be used to influence peers or bosses than subordinates, and it is especially appropriate to gain their support for a proposed change or new initiative
Inspirational appeals
-involves an emotional or value-based appeal -attempt to develop enthusiasm and commitment by arousing strong emotions and linking a request or proposal to a person's needs, values, hopes, and ideals -can be used in any direction but it is most appropriate for gaining commitment to work on new project that is made with subordinates or peers
Apprising
-involves an explanation of how a request or proposal is likely to benefit the target person as an individual -use of facts and logic but the benefits are for the target person not the organization or mission -benefits may include career advancement, job satisfaction, or compensation -more likely to be used with subordinates or peers than with bosses
Collaboration
-involves an offer to provide necessary resources and/or assistance if the target person agrees to carry out a request or approve a proposal -reducing the difficulty or costs of carrying out a request and is appropriate when compliance would be difficult for the target person -used least often in an upward direction
Personal appeals
-involves asking someone to do a favor based on friendship or loyalty to you or it may also involve an appeal to the person's kindness and generosity -most useful for getting assistance or information or for requesting a personal favor unrelated to work -more socially acceptable with a peer or outsider than with a subordinate or boss
Information Power
-involves both the access to vital information and control over its distribution to others -control of this is a source of upward influence as well as downward and lateral influence -control of information makes it easier for a leader to cover up failures and mistakes
Consultation
-involves inviting the target person to participate in planning how to carry out a request, revise a strategy, or implement a proposed change -more likely to be effective if the agent and target have shared objectives -more likely to be used with subordinates and peers than with bosses -can be used in an attempt to gain support or approval from superiors for a proposed change or new project
Power Distance
-involves the acceptance of an unequal distribution of power and status in organizations and institutions -participative leadership is viewed as more favorable leadership attribute in low power distance countries such as Western Europe, New Zealand, and the US
Power
-involves the capacity of one party (the agent) to influence another party (target) -usually used to describe the absolute capacity of an individual agent to influence the behavior or attitudes of one or more designated target person at a given point in time
Exchange
-involves the explicit or implicit offer to reward a person for doing what you request -appropriate for a request that offers no important benefits for the target person and would cause inconvenience -offer something valued enough by the target person to motivation compliance with a request -used in influence attempts with subordinates and peers than with bosses -control over rewards is greatest in a downward direction and least in an upward direction
Authority
-involves the rights, prerogatives, obligations, and duties associated with particular positions in an organization or social system -involves the right of the agent to exercise control over things, such as money, resources, equipment, and materials, and this control is another type of power
Rational persuasion
-involves the use of explanations, logical arguments, and factual evidence to explain why a request or proposal will benefit the organization or help to achieve an important task objective -very useful when the target person shares the agent's objectives but does not initially recognize the agent's request or proposal is the best way to attain their shared objectives -more effective if the agent is perceived to have high expertise and credibility
Psycho dynamic Processes
-irrational influence based on regression, transference, and or projection -suffering and susceptible followers -attribution of charisma likelihood by certain people with awareness of or sensitivity to aspects of need
Willingness to Communicate
-leadership effectiveness depends on our willingness to interact with others and on developing effective communication skills
Humane Orientation
-means a strong concern for the welfare of other people and willingness to sacrifice one's own self-interest to help others --these values encourage supportive leadership behaviors such as being considerate of a subordinate's needs and feelings, showing sympathy -also associated with participative leadership, servant leadership, and team-building behaviors
Self-concept theory influence processes
-more important, social identification - followers regard membership as an important social identity, strengthened shared values, beliefs, norms -less important, personal identification, occurs for some -internalization - followers embrace mission as worthy of commitment in consistency with either new or amplified existing values -self and collective efficacy - the potentially persuasive power or well-placed enthusiasm and encouragement -emotional contagion - positive mood begets/influences positive mood and positive ratings
Transactional leadership
-motivates followers by appealing to their self-interest and exchanging benefits -may involve values but they are values relevant to the exchange process such as honesty, fairness, responsibility, and reciprocity
What are contextual factors that condition leadership in America according to Bagshaw?
-particular type of democratic political system -a largely market-driven economic system -a transparent legal system which accords every citizen equal rights under the law -a liberal social system emphasizing the primacy of individual freedom over individual responsibility to serve the needs of society
Reward power
-perception by the target person that an agent controls important resources and rewards desired by the target person -stems in part from formal authority to allocate resources and rewards -authority to give pay increases, bonuses, or other economic incentives to deserving subordinates -source of it in lateral relations is dependence of a peer on the agent for resources, information, assistance, or support needed to carry out the peer's work -influence attempts will be unsuccessful if the agents lacks credibility as a source of rewards
So what are the main "features" that we use to define leaders
-personality traits are highly associated with leadership perceptions -social-cognitive research has shown that perceivers spontaneously and automatically encoded behavior in terms of the underlying trait constructs that are implied by behavior
Conclusions from Bagshaw
-persuasive communication through the spoken and written words is the central influence tool in the American model of leadership -leader traits are often more important as determinants of effective leadership in a culture than a more participatory group dynamic based on rational-legal exchanges among the relative equals composing the group
Social Exchange Theory
-power is based on exchange of benefits or favors -idiosyncrasy credits accrue to leaders with demonstrated good judgement - allowed more latitude to deviate from group norms -success from innovation leads to greater credit, but failure leads to greater blame -innovation is not only accepted but expected of leaders when necessary to deal with serous problems and obstacles -a leader who fails to show initiative and deal with problems will lose esteem and influence just the same as one who proposes actions that are unsuccessful
Legitimate power
-power stemming from formal authority -amount related to one's scope of authority -Compliance is more likely for members who identify with the organization and are loyal to it, internalized value
Attribution theory influence processes
-primary influence process is personal identification -influence may also involve internalization of new values and beliefs by followers
Institutionalization of Power
-process for using political tactics to increase influence or protect existing power sources -too much can hinder response to change -top management should be adaptable or replaced
Positive charisma
-socialized power orientation -seek to instill devotion to ideology more than devotion to themselves -emphasize internalization rather than personal identification -authority is delegated to a considerable extent, information is shared openly, participation in decisions is encouraged -leadership is more beneficial to followers - not inevitable if the strategies encouraged by the leader are appropriate
Expert power
-task-relevant knowledge and skill -source of personal power -only a source of power if others are dependent on the agent for advice -target must recognize this expertise
Self-concept theory
-theory to explain charismatic leadership in terms of a set of testable propositions involving observable processes rather than folklore and mystique
Self-concept theory situational aspects
-vision congruence with existing follower values and identities -ideological connections to tasks -crisis no necessary but acknowledges serious trouble/anxiety/panic as primers for emergence of charismatic leader
What are goals and values of transactional leadership?
-whatever the separate interests persons might hold they are presently or potentially united in the pursuit of higher goals -chief monitors are modal values, that is values of means - honesty, responsibility, fairness, the honoring of commitments without which transactional leadership could not work
How would a female leader in the military be described according to Rosch's 3 levels?
1. Leader (superordinate) 2. Military leader (basic) 3. Female military (subordinate)
Moderately effective tactics
Apprising, Ingratiation, Exchange, personal appeal
People evaluate women leaders more harshly for leadership behavior that is not tempered by displays of _ behavior.
Communal
Women who appear _ and _ are less well liked than man for refusing to comply with requests, expressing overt disagreement, and showing visual dominance.
Dominant, directive
Cross-cultural studies have primarily focused on what cultures share in common with regard to leadership.
False
There is strong evidence that women voluntarily quit their jobs more often than men.
False
Eagly and Carli generally agree with the evolutionary argument for men's "natural dominance"
False - argue that patriarchy is more likely to have emerged as a result of the emergence of complex and economic structures that brought about greater differentiation in sex roles and greater power for men.
Attribution Theory situational aspects
Follower fear about anxiety about future, some sense of crisis - leader can create by discrediting old way
What is the form of narrative that Denning favors?
Indirect narrative, sparks a new personalize narrative in the listeners' mind rather than transporting them to a different world
Low effectiveness
Legitimating tactic, pressure
Influence is an effect of power and the essence of leadership.
True
Male evaluators tend to rate female leaders less positively than female evaluators.
True
Overall there is strong support for the categorization perspective - the idea that we label people as leaders to the degree that they overlap with our implicitly held leadership prototype.
True
Rational persuasion, Ingratiation,personal appeal sequencing
Used more for initial request
Ineffective combined tactics
a hard form of pressure is incompatible with personal appeals or ingratiation because it undermines the feelings of friendship and loyalty that are the basis for these soft tactics, also tends to undermine the trust necessary for tactics such as consultation and collaboration
People tend to perceive that leaders exhibit _ qualities, which are often associated with things like mastery, assertiveness, and masculinity.
agentic
Experience - Denning
an experience associated with strong emotion will receive more attention while it is occurring, will be remembered more easily and longer than unemotional experience, and is more likely to have an effect on subsequent decision making
Where does personal leadership become political leadership?
as it relates to purposes issuing from and addressed to end values such as security, order, liberty, equality, freedom, and justice
What happens to our leadership perceptions as we get older?
as people age their leadership perceptions and judgements shift from being based on specific exemplars and observable characteristics to being based on abstract prototypes. children generate on underlying leader prototypes which come to serve as the standard against which they form leadership judgements.
Feingold's meta-analysis of sex differences in personality revealed greater male _.
assertiveness
What does open will mean?
becoming vulnerable to seeing how we are all a part of the problem
Effectiveness of soft tactics
can be enhanced by combining it with rational persuasion
What can position power do?
can be used to enhance a leader's personal power
According to Lord and his colleagues...the decision to label an individual as leader depends on the extent to which the features of a target overlap with the features that distinguish the leader _ or _. Are they well defined?
category, prototype -leader category that individuals hold in memory is fuzzy and ill-defined -although each of the features of the category may be typical for category members, no single features defines the category
low/ moderate effectiveness
coalition tactic
Different influence outcome
commitment, compliance, and resistance
Outcomes of influence
commitment, resistance, and compliance
Transformational leadership
concerned with leader behavior that inspires and transforms followers
Soft tactics
consultation, inspirational appeals, and apprising
Transactional behaviors
contingent reward, active management by exception, passive management by exception
What do leaders use communication for?
create reality, communicate about the past, present, and future, and to reach goals
Hogg's social identity theory
developed to explain relationships between groups, suggests that leadership perceptions will depend on a target's fit with a group's prototype
Telling a story with lots of detail that transports the listener into another world is called
direct narrative
Perceiving a female leader as very similar to her male counterparts may produce a _ because such women can be regarded as undesirably _.
disadvantage, masculine.
In thinking about women as leaders, people may combine 2 _ sets of expectations - those about leaders and those about women - whereas in thinking about men as leaders, people may combine largely _ expectations.
divergent/different, redundant
What to idiosyncrasy credits do?
earn leaders the right to deviate from norms with innovations
Where are modal values most commonly practiced?
environments such as school and family that are not overly political
influence
essence of leadership, in one direction tends to enhance influence in other directions
Glass Escalator
even in female dominated organizations and professions men ascend to leadership faster than women do - a phenomenon known as what
Although universal attributes of leadership _, there is substantial _ in our definitions of leadership, seemingly arising for our personal experiences.
exist variability experiences
According to Denning, people change their minds in 3 basic ways -
experience, observation, and symbolic learning
Power sources
expert power, referent power, legitimate power, reward power, and coercive power
Power types of effective leaders
have more expert and referent power than less effective leaders and rely on their personal power more than on their position power
Research on leadership styles shows that the sex differences substantiated by empirical research are unlikely to _ women's performance as leaders but instead should _ their performance.
hinder, promote
Transformational behaviors
idealized influence, individualized consideration, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation
Each of us hold within his or her long-term memory a large and well-elaborated belief system regarding the features that we each believe distinguish leaders often referred to as what?
implicit leadership theories
Each of us holds within his or her long-term memory a large and well-elaborated belief system regarding those features we believe distinguish leaders - referred to as _
implicit leadership theory
Position power
includes potential influence derived from legitimate authority, control over resources and rewards, control over punishments, control over information, and control over the physical work environment
Passive management by exception
includes used of contingent punishments and other corrective action in response to obvious deviations from acceptable performance standards
Effect of personal and position power combined
increases the likelihood of success
Women outscored men on the _ _ subscale that identifies supportive, encouraging treatment of subordinates, while male leaders were more likely to exhibit active and passive management by _ behaviors, as well as _ _ leadership.
individualized consideration exception laissez faire
Different types of influence processes proposed by Kelman
instrumental compliance, internalization, and personal identification
Women tend to score higher on _
integrity
Women more than manifest relatively _ oriented and _ style of leadership, and men more than women manifested relatively _ oriented and _ leadership styles. The only difference obtained between female and male managers was that women adopted a somewhat more _ and a less _ style than man did.
interpersonal democratic task autocratic democratic autocratic
One human capital explanation for the gender wage gap has received some support, namely that women has less _ _ and consistency of employment than men do.
job experience
Active management by exception
looking for mistakes and enforcing rules to avoid mistakes
Goals and values of transforming leadership
more concerned with end values, such as liberty, justice, equality, raises their followers up through levels of mortality, through insufficient intention to means can corrupt the ends
Carli's qualitative review revealed that men engage in greater _ assertion, a forceful and controlling form of self-expression, whereas women engage in greater _ assertion, expression their views in a way that acknowledges the rights of others as well as their own rights.
negative, positive
Inspirational appeal and consultation sequencing
no difference
Resistance
outcome when the target person is opposed to the proposal or request rather than merely indifferent about it, regarded as an unsuccessful outcome, affect interpersonal relationships and the way other people perceive the agent
compliance
outcome when the target person is willing to carry out a request but is apathetic rather than enthusiastic about it and will make only a minimal effort
Commitment
outcome when the target person makes a great effort to carry out the request or implement the decision effectively, more successful for a difficult task
What type of leadership is found more in American cultures?
participative leadership
Negative consequences of charisma
personalized power orientation emphasis on personal identification over internalization dominant by dependence Centralized authority used for coercive manipulation
Personal power
potential influence derived from task expertise, and potential influence based on friendship and loyalty
Hoggs social identity theory suggest that leadership perceptions will depend on a target's fit with a group _ of what a leader is or should be. And the more the perceiver identifies with a group, the greater the target's _. to the group _ will guide leadership perceptions.
prototype fit prototype
Scope of authority
range of requests that can properly be made and the range of actions that can properly be taken
Highly effective influence tactics
rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, and collaboration
What does Burns define leadership as?
reciprocal process of mobilizing by persons with certain motives and values, various economic, political, and other resources in a context of competition and conflict in order to realize goals independently or mutually held by followers and leaders
Why are modal values important?
rights defined as the basis of a consistent that expresses the broadcast, most comprehensive, and universal principles; hence they merge with the end values of justice, equality, and human rights
When something goes wrong, if a leader expresses _ the problem will be perceived to be internally caused (by the leader), whereas if the leader expresses _ the problem will be externally caused.
sadness, anger
2 Systems Thinking Skills that are vital
seeing patterns of inter-dependency and seeing into the future
What are the "eight distinctive category dimensions" of Implicit Leadership Theories found by Offermann et al.?
sensitivity,dedication, tyranny, charisma, attractiveness, masculinity, intelligence, strength
Senge's fundamentals of leadership
set of deep capacities with which few in leadership positions today could claim to be adept systems intelligence; building partnerships across boundaries; and openness on 3 levels - head, heart, and will
Positive consequences of charisma
socialized power orientation emphasis on internalization and devotions to ideals over self example by sacrifice, sharing commitment/values delegate authority
Term used when women avoid leadership roles to keep to their implicit gender role?
stereotype threat
The performance cue effect means that the more _ a group is perceived to have performed, the more likely we will attribute _ behaviors to the leader of the group.
successfully leadership
Internalization
target person becomes committed to support and implement proposals espoused by the agent because they appear to be intrinsically desirable and correct in relation to the target's values, beliefs, and self-image, commitment occurs
Instrumental compliance
target person carries out a requested action for the purpose of obtaining a tangible reward or avoiding a punishment controlled by the agent
Personal identification
target person imitates the agent's behavior or adopts the same attitudes to please the agent and to be like the agent
According to Lord and his colleagues
the decision to label an individual as a leader depends on the extent to which the features of a target overlap with the features that distinguish the leader category or prototype
Indirect narrative
the story is told not so much to engage the audience so fully in the storyteller's story that each listener returns a changed person as to spark a new story in the mind of the listener, emphasis on stimulating a new story in the minds of listeners
Why is our knowledge of "social categories" like "leader" important or useful for us?
they are an essential means by which we navigate our world, allowing us to direct out limited attention to relevant aspects of the environment and fill in information that is not readily apparent.
Position and political power needed when
to overcome the opposition and buy time to show that the proposed changes are necessary and effective
Expert and referent power needed when
to persuade people that change is necessary and desirable
According to Denning, indirect narrative is a principal route by which _ leaders stimulate desire for change.
transformational
Female leaders were more _ than were male leaders and also engaged in more of the _ reward behaviors that are one component of transactional leadership.
transformational contingent
What is narrative intelligence?
understanding the world in narrative terms and grasping the persuasive role of narrative in all aspects of human existence, concerns knowing the different components and dimensions of narratives
Rational persuasion, consultation, and collaboration combined effectivness
unlikely to be effective when the target person does not share the agent's task objectives
Coalition tactic and pressure
used most for delayed follow-up
Exchange, Legitimating tactic sequencing
used most for quick follow up