Leadership: Styles and Behaviors
idealized influenced
when the leader behaves in ways that earn the admiration, trust, and respect of followers causing followers to want to identify with and emulate the leader
Traits linked to emergence and effectiveness
-high conscientiousness- linked to emergence, not effectiveness -low agreeableness- linked to emergence, not effectiveness -low neuroticism- not linked to emergence or effectiveness -high openness to experience- linked to emergence and effectiveness -high extraversion- linked to emergence and effectiveness -high general cognitive ability- linked to emergence and effectiveness -high energy level- linked to emergence and effectiveness -high stress tolerance- linked to emergence and effectiveness -high self confidence- linked to emergence and effectiveness
LMX Theory
-high quality exchange- the frequent exchange of info, influence, attitude, support and attention for leaders in-group and characterized by higher levels of mutual trust, respect and obligation -low quality exchange- more limited exchange of info form leaders outgroup and characterized by lower levels of trust, respect and obligation -employees who are competent, likable and similar to the leader in personality will be more likely to end up in the leaders in-group - those factors have greater influence than age, gender, or racial similarity -employees are less likely to leave an organization w high LMX relationship w a leader but are more likely to leave following leadership succession -higher quality exchange- higher job performance and more citizenship behaviors and less counterproductive behaviors -LMX relationships are more effective in individualistic cultures
Laissez-Faire, Transactional, and Transformational Leadership
-transformational- more motivating -transactional- leader rewards or disciplines the follower depending on the adequacy of the followers performance -passive management by exception- leader waits around for mistakes and errors then takes corrective action as necessary -active management by exception- leader arranges to monitor mistakes and errors actively and again takes corrective action when required
time-driven model of leadership
A model that suggests that seven factors, including the importance of the decision, the expertise of the leader, and the competence of the followers, combine to make some decision-making styles more effective than others in a given situation. suggests focus should shift away from leaders and onto situations -decision significance -importance of commitment -leader expertise -likelihood of commitment -shared objectives -employee expertise -teamwork skills
consideration
A pattern of behavior where the leader creates job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for employee ideas, and consideration of employee feelings -leaders create a climate of two way communication and exhibit a deep concern for the welfare of employees
initiating structure
A pattern of behavior where the leader defines and structures the roles of employees in pursuit of goal attainment -leaders high in initiating structure play a more active role in directing group activities and prioritizing planning, scheduling and trying out new ideas
Transformational Leadership
A pattern of behavior where the leader inspires followers to commit to a shared vision that provides meaning to their work while also serving as a role model who helps followers develop their own potential and view problems from new perspectives. -heightens followers awareness of the importance of certain outcomes while increasing their confidence that those outcomes can be achieved
Leader-Member Exchange Theory
A theory describing how leader-member relationships develop over time on a dyadic basis a free flowing exchange where the leader offers more opportunities and resources and the employee contributes more activities and effort -argues that new leader-member relationships are typically marked by a role taking phase, during which a manager describes role expectations to an employee and and the employee attempts to fulfill those expectations with their job behaviors leader tries to get a feel for the talent and motivation levels of the employee -initial role taking phase may eventually be supplemented by role making- the employees own expectations get mixed in w those of the leader
life cycle theory of leadership
A theory stating that the optimal combination of initiating structure and consideration depends on the readiness of the employees in the work unit -readiness- the degree to which employees have the ability and willingness to accomplish their specific tasks R1- a group of employees who are working together for the first time and are eager to begin but the lack experience and confidence needed to perform their roles -optimal combo of leader behaviors is telling - high initiating structure and low consideration - leader provides specific instruction and closely supervised performance R2- members have begun working together and are finding their work harder than anticipated -optimal combo of leader behaviors is selling- high initiating structure and high consideration - leader supplements their directing with support and encouragement to protect the confidence levels of the employees
day-to-day behaviors performed by leaders
Initiating structure -initiation- originating, facilitating, and sometimes resisting new ideas and practices -organization- defining and structuring work, clarifying leader vs member roles. coordinating employee tasks -production- setting goals and providing incentives for the effort and productivity of the employees Consideration- -membership- mixing w employees, stressing informal interactions, and exchanging personal services -integration- encouraging a pleasant atmosphere, reducing conflict, promoting individual adjustment to the group -communication- providing information to employees, seeking info from them, showing an awareness of matters that affect them -recognition- expressing approval and disproval of the behaviors of employees -representation- acting on behalf of the group, defending the group, and advancing interests of the group
life cycle theory cont
R3- employees have learned to work together well though they still need support and collaboration from the leader to help them adjust to their more self managed state of affairs -optimal combo- participation- low initiating structure high consideration- R4- delegating- low initiating structure low consideration - leader turns key responsibility for key behaviors over to the employees
trait theory
Some researchers have argued in favor of trait theory(e.g., Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991). -suggested it is valuable in understanding what traits are related to someone emerging or being effective as leaders • Critiques of the leader trait paradigm(Jenkins,1947) prompted scholars to look beyond leader traits and considerhow leaders' behaviors predicted effectiveness. • Many researchers consider trait theory to be obsolete (Conger & Kanungo, 1998).
what behaviors can improve the organization
Structure & Consideration • This led to research on initiation of structure and consideration (Hemphill & Coons, 1957). • Fleishman & Harris(1962) identified those behaviors that could be classified as indicative of trust, respect, and warmth as representative of consideration, and those behaviors such as organizing group activities, defining member roles, and assigning tasks as structure. • Meta-analytic results suggest that both consideration, and structure are strongly predictive of leader outcomes with consideration strongly related to follower satisfaction, motivation, and leader emergence, and structure strongly related to group, and organizational performance (Judge et al. 2004). • Neither of these aforementioned behavioral patterns are uniquely representative of leadership, yet both are necessary components of leadership. • Also....this is what your book refers to as Day-to-Day Behaviors**
Effects of Transformational leadership on Performance and Commitment
TL has a moderate positive relationship with performance higher levels of task performance, citizenship behavior lower counterproductive behavior TL has strong positive relationship with commitment higher normative and affective commitment, no effect on continuance
why shift from traits toward behaviors
because behaviors can be trained, traits cant (they're about half genetic)
inspirational motivation
behaving in ways that foster an enthusiasm for and commitment to a shared vision of the future that vision is transmitted through a "meaning making" process in which the negative features are emphasized while highlighting the positive features of the potential future
intellectual stimulation
involves behaving in ways that challenge followers to be innovative and creative by questioning assumptions and reframing old situations in new ways
individualized consideration
involves behaving in ways that help followers achieve their potential through coaching, development, and mentoring -treating employees as unique individuals with specific needs, abilities and aspirations that need to be tied into the units mission
leader effectiveness
optimal choice of decision making style + optimal mix of day to day behaviors + optimal mix of transactional and transformational behaviors
leadership substitutes and neutralizers
substitutes -task feedback- receiving feedback on performance from the task itself -training and experience- gaining the knowledge to act independently of the leader -professionalism- having a professional speciality that offers guidance -staff support- receiving information and assistance from outside staff -group cohesion- working in a close knit and interdependent work group -intrinsic satisfaction- deriving personal satisfaction from ones work neutralizers -task stability- having tasks w a clear, unchanging sequence of steps -formalization- having written policies and procedures that govern ones job -inflexibility- working in an organization that prioritizes rule adherence -spatial distance- being separated from ones leader by physical space
substitutes for leadership model
suggests that certain characteristics of the situation can constrain the influence of the leader, making it more difficult for the leader to influence employee performance substitutes- reduce the importance of the leader while simultaneously providing a direct benefit to employee performance neutralizers- reduce the importance of the leader; they themselves have no beneficial impact on performance
leader emergence
the process of becoming a leader in the first place -traits are more predictive of leader emergence
Leadership Research
• Bass (1990) noted two applicable questions that are worth noting... • What traits distinguish leaders from other people? • What is the magnitude of those differences?
Traits Related to Leader Emergence & Effectiveness
• Conducting a meta-analytic review of the literature, Judge and colleagues (2002) found that extraversion was the strongest predictor of, and most consistently correlated personality trait with leader emergence, and leader effectiveness across study setting, and controlling for all of the other big five personality traits. • This is consistent with findings from Grijalva and colleagues (2015) in conducting a meta-analysis linking narcissism with leader emergence & effectiveness. The authors found that extraversion was the explanatory variable that linked narcissism with leader emergence. -leader effectiveness- the degree to which the leaders actions result in the achievement of the units , the continued commitment of the units employees and development of mutual trust and respect and obligation
Vertical Leadership Theory
• Early conceptualizations of leadership focused predominately on vertical leadership which emphasizes the role of the manager who is positioned hierarchically above and external to a team, has formal authority over the team, and is responsible for team processes, and outcomes (Pearce & Sims, 2002). • Formal leader roles are endowed with power-the ability to influence and control other people (Levine & Moreland, 1990) through the asymmetric control of resources (Burns, 1978). • As such, formal leaders inherently possess the capability of organizing group activities, defining member roles, and assigning tasks.
Path-Goal Theory
• House(1974)...• Introduced an expanded topology of leadership behaviors Directive, Supportive, Participative, Achievement-oriented • A contingency model of leadership which states that the extent to which a leader's behavior has influence on outcomes such as performance is a function of its impact on subordinates' perceptions of paths to goals and the attractiveness of these goals (House, 1974).
Why is Leadership Important?
• Leaders are said to be at the pinnacle of any society's largest organizations, with leaders having the potential to change the course of history (Judge et al. 2006). -there are contingencies and boundaries that pay a role in the effectiveness of a leaders behavior
complexity leadership theory
• Leaders need to interact virtually concurrently with a variety of stakeholders in numerous and fast changing contexts, covering an infinite list of contingencies (Sumner-Armstrong et al. 2008). which is why the effects of initiating structure and consideration should be dependent on the follower and context • This complexity leadership theory views leadership as a multifaceted interactive process from which adaptive outcomes emerge (Uhl-Bien et al. 2007), acknowledging the non-linearity of leadership.
leader role
• Occupying a leader role within an organization however, does not constitute leadership as structure can be achieved in the absence of consideration. • For example, autocratic leaders, maintain control overall decisions and little to no input from group members (Marken, 1999). • Also known as authoritarian leaders, the autocratic is unconcerned with building relationships with followers (Sulley et al. 2008). • Formal leaders have a disproportionate impact in the workplace (Humphrey, 2002). this is likely why researches have focused on these leadership positions if we can understand leaders in that position, we can understand desired outcomes • However, leadership, and leadership effectiveness entails much more than formal authority.
contingency models of leadership
• There are several contingency models of leadership • The normative decision model(Vroometal.,1973) • Path-goal theory (House, 1971) • Situational leadership theory (Hersey et al., 1969) • Leader Adaptablity(Davisetal.1996) • Leader Flexible(Leslie&Fleenor,1998) • Leader Versatility(Kaplan,1996;Kaplan&Kaiser,2003)