Leadership Test #2

Situational Favorability

Amount of control the leader has over the followers. The more control a leader has over followers, the more favorable the situation is, at least from a leader's perspective. Sub elements in situation favorability. • Leader-member relations. • Task structure. • Position power. Relative weights of the sub elements, taken together, can be used to create a continuum of situational favorability. • When using the contingency model, leaders are first asked to rate items that measure the strength of leader-member relations, the degree of task structure, and their level of position power. • Ratings are then weighted and combined to determine an overall level of situational favorability facing the leader.

Process, P

Change initiative becomes tangible and actionable because it consists of the development and execution of a change plan. • Change will occur only when the action steps outlined in the plan are actually carried out. • The best way to get followers committed to a change plan is to have them create it. Leaders who address shifts in styles and inappropriate behaviors swiftly and consistently are more likely to succeed with their change initiatives.

Newer Theories of Charismatic or Transformational Leadership

Conger and Kanungo's stage model: Differentiates charismatic from noncharismatic leaders. • Charismatic leaders assess the current situation and pinpoint problems with the status quo, articulate a vision, and build trust in their vision by personal example, risk taking, and their total commitment to the vision. Theory by House and his colleagues: Describes how charismatic leaders achieve higher performance by changing followers' self-concepts. Avolio and Bass's theory: Views transactional and transformational leadership as independent leadership dimensions.

Competency Models

Describe the behaviors and skills needed for organizational success. All organizational competency models fall into one of the following categories: • Intrapersonal skills. • Interpersonal skills. • Leadership skills. • Business skills. The Hogan and Warrenfelz domain model of leadership: • Allows people to see connections between seemingly different organizational competency models. • Makes predictions about the ease or difficulty of changing leadership behaviors and skills. • Points out what behaviors leaders must exhibit to build teams and get results through others.

Dissatisfaction, D

Followers who are relatively content are not apt to change. • Malcontents are more likely to do something to change the situation. • Follower's emotions are the fuel for organizational change and change often requires a considerable amount of fuel. The key for leadership practitioners is to increase dissatisfaction to the point where followers are inclined to take action, but not so much that they decide to leave the organization

Fiedler's Contingency Model

Maintains that leaders are consistent in their behavior. Suggests that leader effectiveness is determined by selecting the right kind of leader for a certain situation or changing the situation to fit the particular leader's style. • Some leaders are better than others in some situations but less effective in other situations.

Measuring Emotional Intelligence

Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso's Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). • Measure of the ability model of emotional intelligence. • Asks subjects to recognize the emotions depicted in pictures, what moods might be helpful in certain social situations, and so forth. Bar-On has self, self and other, youth, and organizational measures of emotional intelligence. Goleman's Emotional Competence Inventory, or ECi. • Consists of 10 questionnaires to be completed by the individual and nine others.

Avolio and Associates: Components of Ethical Leadership

Moral person. • Principled decision maker who cares about people and the broader society. Moral manager. • Makes ethics an explicit part of the leadership agenda by communicating messages of ethics and values, by visibly and intentionally modeling ethical behavior.

The Five-Factor or OCEAN Model of Personality Examples

Openness to experience I like traveling to foreign countries. I enjoy going to school. Conscientiousness I enjoy putting together detailed plans. I rarely get into trouble. Extraversion I like having responsibility for others. I have a large group of friends. Agreeableness I am a sympathetic person. I get along well with others. Neuroticism I remain calm in pressure situations. I take personal criticism well.

Intelligence

A person's all-around effectiveness in activities directed by thought. • Intelligence is relatively difficult to change because of heredity but can be modified with education and experience. • Intelligent leaders: • Are faster learners. • Make better assumptions, deductions, and inferences. • Are better at creating a compelling vision and strategizing to make their vision a reality. • Can develop better solutions to problems. • Can see more of the primary and secondary implications of their decisions.

An Alternative to Traits: Personality Types

An alternative framework to describe the differences in people's day-to-day behavioral patterns is through types, or in terms of a personality typology. • Types are thought of as relatively discrete categories.

Leadership Competency Model

Analyzing problems and making decisions Thinking strategically Financial and technical savvy Planning and organizing Managing execution Inspiring aligned purpose Driving change Building the talent base Fostering teamwork Creating open communications Building relationships Customer focus Credibility Personal drive Adaptability Learning approach

The Five-Factor or OCEAN Model of Personality

Based on research, most of the trait like terms that people use to describe others' behavioral patterns can be categorized into five broad personality dimensions. Openness to experience: Concerned with curiosity, innovative thinking, assimilating new information, and being open to new experiences. Conscientiousness: Concerned with those behaviors related to people's approach to work. • May be concerned more with management than with leadership as people with higher scores are planful, organized, goal oriented, and prefer structure. Extraversion: Involves behaviors more likely to be exhibited in group settings and are generally concerned with getting ahead in life. • Generally, people who are more decisive, self-confident, and outgoing seem to be more effective leaders, and thus extraversion is an important measure of leadership potential. Agreeableness: Concerned with how one gets along with, as opposed to gets ahead of, others. • Individuals high in agreeableness come across to others as charming, diplomatic, warm, empathetic, approachable, and optimistic. • They can struggle with getting results through others. Neuroticism: Concerned with how people react to stress, change, failure, or personal criticism. • Differences in neuroticism can be difficult to observe in predictable, routine situations but become evident during times of uncertainty or crises.

The Emotional Approach to Organizational Change: Charismatic Leadership

Charismatic leaders are passionate, driven individuals who can paint a compelling vision of a different future. • This vision helps them generate high levels of excitement among followers and build strong emotional attachments with them. • Combination of the vision, excitement, and personal attachments compel followers to put in greater effort to meet organizational or societal challenges. Charismatic movements can result in positive or negative organizational or societal changes.

French and Raven's Bases of Social Power: Coercive Power

Coercive power: Potential to influence others through the administration of negative sanctions or the removal of positive events. Reliance on this power has inherent limitations and drawbacks. Informal coercion can change the attitudes and behaviors of others. • One of the most common forms of coercion is a superior's temperamental outbursts. Followers that use coercive power to influence a leader's behavior tend to have a relatively high amount of referent power among coworkers.

Values

Constructs representing generalized behaviors or states of affairs that are considered by the individual to be important. Play a central role in one's overall psychological makeup and can affect behavior in different situations. People in an organization vary in the relative importance they place on values • Instrumental values: Modes of behavior, such as being helpful or being responsible. • Terminal values: Desired end states, such as family security or social recognition. Pervasive influences of broad forces at a particular time tend to create common value systems. • May contribute to misunderstandings and tension in the interactions between older leaders and younger followers. All generations are molded by distinctive experiences at their critical developmental periods. • The Veterans, 1922 to 1943. • The Baby Boomers, 1942 to 1960. • The Gen Xers, 1961 to 1981. • Millennials, 1982 to 2005. Gen Xers have a clearly different view of authority than previous generations. • They define leading as removing obstacles and giving followers what they need to work well and comfortably. • Expect managers to earn their promotions and not be rewarded with leadership responsibilities because of seniority. Research has found little evidence of a generation gap in basic values. • Studies show that Boomers, Xers, and Millennials in the managerial workforce are more similar than different in their views of organizational leadership.

Path-Goal Theory: Criticisms and Uses

Criticisms. • Assumes that the only way to increase performance is to increase followers' motivation levels. • Ignores the roles leaders play in selecting talented followers, building their skill levels through training, and redesigning their work. Uses. • Provides a conceptual framework to guide researchers in identifying potentially relevant situational moderator variables. • Illustrates that, as models become more complicated, they may be more useful to researchers and less appealing to practitioners.

Resistance, R

Expectation-performance gap: Difference between initial expectations and reality. • Can lead to resistance if not managed properly, causing followers to revert back to old behaviors and systems to get things done. Leaders can help followers deal with their frustration toward changes by: • Setting realistic expectations. • Demonstrating a high degree of patience. • Ensuring that followers gain proficiency with the new systems and skills as quickly as possible.

French and Raven's Bases of Social Power: Expert Power

Expert power: Power of knowledge. • Some people can influence others with their relative expertise in particular areas. Followers may have more expert power than leaders at times. • If different followers have considerably greater amounts of expert power, the leader may be unable to influence them using expert power alone.

Situational Leadership Model

Focuses on the following leadership behavior categories: • Task behaviors: Extent to which the leader spells out the responsibilities of an individual or group. • Include telling people what to do, how or when to do it, and who is to do it. • Relationship behaviors: Extent to which the leader engages in two-way communication. • Include listening, encouraging, facilitating, clarifying, explaining why the task is important, and giving support. Relative effectiveness of the behavior dimensions often depends on the situation.

The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Focuses on what a leader does when solving complex mental problems. Basic types of intelligence. • Analytic intelligence: General problem-solving ability. • Practical intelligence: Knowing how to adapt to, shape, or select new situations to get their needs met better. • Creative intelligence: Ability to produce novel and useful work. • Tests of creativity. • Tests that assess divergent thinking have many possible answers, and tests that assess convergent thinking have one single best answer.

Situational Leadership

Follower readiness: Follower's ability and willingness to accomplish a particular task. • Readiness is not an assessment of an individual's personality, traits, values, or age. • Not a personal characteristic, but rather how ready an individual is to perform a particular task. • Any given follower could be low on readiness to perform one task but high on readiness to perform a different task. When follower readiness levels and the four combinations of leader behaviors are combined, four segments emerge along a continuum. • Assessment of follower readiness along this continuum can be fairly subjective. Leader may like to see followers increase their level of readiness for particular tasks by implementing a series of developmental interventions to help boost follower readiness levels. • Interventions are designed to help followers in their development.

Leader-Member Exchange, or L M X, Theory

Leader-member exchanges: In-group and out-group interactions between leaders and followers. Argues that leaders do not treat all followers like a uniform group of equals. • Form specific and unique linkages with each subordinate, creating a series of dyadic relationships. • Interpersonal interaction is limited to fulfilling contractual obligations with the out-group, or low-quality exchange relationships. • Form mutually beneficial, high-quality exchange relationships that go beyond what the job requires with the in-group. • Contribute empowerment, sponsorship of subordinates in social networks, and mentoring.

Concluding Thoughts about French and Raven's Power Taxonomy

Leaders can usually exert more power during a crisis than during periods of relative calm. • During a crisis, followers may be more eager to receive direction and control from leaders. Research indicates that leaders who rely on referent and expert powers have subordinates who: • Are more motivated and satisfied • Are absent less • Perform better Following generalizations can be made about power and influence: • Effective leaders take advantage of all their sources of power. • Leaders in well-functioning organizations are open to being influenced by their subordinates. • Leaders vary in the extent to which they share power with subordinates. • Effective leaders generally work to increase their various power bases or become more willing to use their coercive power.

Leadership and "Doing the Right Things"

Leaders face dilemmas that require choices between competing sets of values and priorities. • The best leaders recognize dilemmas and face them with a commitment to doing what is right, not just what is expedient. • Leaders set a moral example that becomes the model for an entire group or organization. • Leaders should internalize a strong set of ethics, which are principles of right conduct or a system of moral values. • Gardner and Burns stressed the centrality and importance of the moral dimension of leadership. Qualities of leadership that engender trust. • Vision. • Empathy. • Consistency. • Integrity. McGregor's styles of managerial behavior based on people's implicit attitudes about human nature. • Theory X asserts that most people need extrinsic motivation because they are not naturally motivated to work. • Theory Y asserts that most people are intrinsically motivated by their work.

A Concluding Thought about Influence Tactics

Leaders should pay attention to the actual influence tactics they use and why they believe particular methods are effective. • Influence efforts intended to build others up more frequently lead to positive outcomes than influence efforts intended to put others down.

Prescriptions of the Model

Leaders will try to satisfy a primary motivation when faced with unfavorable or moderately favorable situations and will behave according to their secondary motivational state only when faced with highly favorable situations. Hierarchies and tendencies would be difficult to change through training. • Leadership training should stress on situational engineering rather than behavioral flexibility. Organizations could be more effective by matching a leader's characteristics with situational demands instead of trying to change a leader's behavior to fit the situation.

Implications of the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Leadership effectiveness or emergence is positively correlated with analytic intelligence. • Sometimes, personality is much more predictive of leadership emergence and effectiveness than analytic intelligence. • In certain cases, analytic intelligence may have a curvilinear relationship with leadership effectiveness. • Leaders' primary role is to build an environment where others can be creative. To improve the group and organizational factors affecting creativity, leaders should be mindful that: • Various sorts of incentives or rewards can have various effects on creativity. • Creativity can be hindered if people believe their ideas will be evaluated. • In order to develop new products and services, the level of turnover should be minimized in their teams and clear goals are given.

French and Raven's Bases of Social Power: Legitimate Power

Legitimate power: Depends on a person's organizational role or his or her formal or official authority. Allows exertion of influence through requests or demands deemed appropriate by virtue of one's role and position. Holding a position and being a leader are not synonymous. • Effective leaders often intuitively realize they need more than legitimate power to be successful. • Followers can use their legitimate power to influence leaders. • They can resist a leader's influence attempt by doing only work specifically prescribed in job descriptions, bureaucratic rules, or union policies.

Followers' Responses to Change

Malicious compliance: This occurs when followers either ignore or actively sabotage change requests. Compliance: This takes place when followers do no more than abide by the policies and procedures surrounding change requests. Cooperation: Followers willingly engage in those activities needed to make the change request become reality. Commitment: Followers embrace change requests as their own and often go the extra mile to make sure work gets done. • Charismatic and transformational leaders are adept at getting followers committed to their vision of the future.

Studying Leadership Behavior

Many people in positions of authority either cannot build and motivate teams or do not realize the negative impact of their behavior on the people who work for them. Leadership behaviors are a function of intelligence, personality traits, emotional intelligence, values, attitudes, interests, knowledge, and experience. • Leaders learn and discern the most appropriate and effective behaviors over a period of time. • Individual differences, followers, and situational variables play a pivotal role in a leader's actions.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator or MBTI

Most popular measure of preferences. The four basic preference dimensions in which people can differ are: • Extraversion versus introversion (outgoing versus quiet). • Sensing versus intuition (detail versus big picture oriented). • Thinking versus feeling (rational versus emotional-based decision-making. • Judging versus perceiving (planful versus flexible approach to work). The results for each of the four bipolar dimensions are used to create 16 psychological types. • Preference advocates believe that individuals within any particular type are more similar to each other than they are to individuals in any of the other 15 types.

Traits

Most research about the relationship between personality and leadership success and effectiveness is based on the trait approach. • Traits are recurring regularities or trends in a person's behavior. • Trait approach to personality maintains that people behave the way they do because of the strengths of the traits they possess. • Strong situations are governed by specified rules, demands, or organizational policies, which can minimize the effects that traits have on behavior. The strength of the relationship between personality traits and leadership effectiveness is inversely related to the relative strength of the situation. • Personality traits are more closely related to leadership effectiveness in weak or ambiguous situations.

The Early Studies

Ohio State University developed the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire, or LBDQ, and identified the following independent dimensions of behaviors: • Consideration: How friendly and supportive a leader is toward subordinates. • Initiating structure: How much a leader emphasizes meeting work goals and accomplishing tasks. Other leadership questionnaires created by Ohio State University: • Supervisory Behavior Description Questionnaire (SBDQ). • Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (L O Q). • LBDQ-12. University of Michigan identified four categories of leadership behaviors that contribute to effective group performance. • Leader support, interaction facilitation, goal emphasis, and work facilitation. • Goal emphasis and work facilitation are job-centered dimensions similar to the LBDQ initiating structure behaviors. • Leader support and interaction facilitation are employee-centered dimensions similar to the LBDQ consideration dimensions. • Job-centered and employee-centered behaviors are at opposite ends of a single continuum of leadership behavior. • Developed the Survey of Organizations questionnaire to assess the degree to which leaders exhibit these four dimensions of leadership behaviors. Findings of University of Michigan and Ohio State University suggest that no universal set of leader behaviors is always associated with leadership success.

Leading by Example: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly

One of the most quoted principles of good leadership is "leadership by example." • Research shows that role models can be characterized using the following categories of attitudes and behaviors: • Interpersonal behaviors: They show care, concern, and compassion for others. • Basic fairness: They show fairness to others. • Ethical actions and self-expectations: They hold themselves to high ethical standards and behave consistently in both their public and private lives. • Articulating ethical standards: They articulate a consistent ethical vision and are uncompromising toward it. Upward ethical leadership: Leadership behavior enacted by individuals who take action to maintain ethical standards in the face of questionable moral behaviors by higher-ups. • General quality of an organization's ethical climate affects whether or not employees raise ethical concerns. • In ethical climates, ethical standards or norms are consistently and clearly communicated, embraced, and enforced by organizational leaders. • In unethical climates, unethical behavior exists with little corrective action, and misbehavior may even be condoned.

Roles of Ethics and Values in Organizational Leadership

Organizations have dominant values just as individuals do. • Values represent the principles by which employees are to get work done and treat other employees, customers, and vendors. • Leaders in an organization fail because of a misalignment between personal and organizational values. Top leadership's collective values play a significant role in determining the dominant values throughout the organization. • Many of the most difficult decisions made by leaders are choices between opposing values. • Leaders must set a personal example of values-based leadership and ensure that clear values guide everyone's behavior in an organization.

Leader Motives

People vary in their motivation to influence or control others. • This is known as the need for power and is expressed in the following ways: • Personalized power is exercised for personal needs by selfish, impulsive, uninhibited individuals who lack self-control. • Socialized power is used for the benefit of others or the organization and involves self-sacrifice. Thematic Apperception Test, a projective personality test, can assess the need for power. Need for power is found to be positively related to various leadership effectiveness criteria. • Leaders who are relatively uninhibited in their need for power will use power impulsively to manipulate or control others, or to achieve at another's expense. • Leaders with a high need for power but low activity inhibition may be successful in the short term, but the remainder of the organization may pay high costs for this success. • Some followers have a high need for power, which can lead to tension between the leader and the follower.

Implications of the Five-Factor or OCEAN Model

Personality traits help explain leaders' and followers' tendencies to act in consistent ways over time. • Behavioral manifestations of personality traits are often exhibited automatically and unconsciously. • Behaviors can be modified through experience, feedback, and reflection. The OCEAN model is useful in the following ways: • Helps leadership researchers categorize findings of the personality and leadership performance research. • Helps in profiling leaders. • Seems to be universally applicable across cultures.

Community Leadership

Process of building a team of volunteers to accomplish an important community outcome. • Represents an alternative conceptualization of leadership behavior. Community leaders do not have any position power and have fewer resources and rewards. Leadership competencies required to successfully drive community change efforts: • Framing: Helping a group or community recognize and define its opportunities and issues in ways that result in effective action. • Building social capital: Developing and maintaining relationships that enable people to work together in a community. • Mobilization: Engaging a critical mass to take action and achieve a specific outcome or a set of outcomes.

The Leadership Grid

Profiles leader behavior on two dimensions: concern for people and concern for production. • "Concern" reflects how a leader's underlying assumptions about people at work and the importance of the bottom-line affect leadership style. • Leaders get scores ranging from 1 to 9 on both concern for people and concern for production, depending on their responses to a leadership questionnaire. The most effective leaders are said to have high concern for both people and production.

Intelligence and Stress: Cognitive Resources Theory, or CRT

Provides a conceptual scheme for explaining how leader behavior changes under stress levels to impact group performance. • Key concepts of CRT: Intelligence, experience, stress, and group performance. Predictions. • Greater experience but lower intelligence may account for higher-performing groups in high-stress conditions. • Leaders with high levels of experience may misapply old solutions when situations require creative solutions. Problematic issues concerning CRT. • There is apparent dichotomy between intelligence and experience. • Ability of leaders to tolerate stress differs. Leadership implications of CRT. • Best leaders are often smart and experienced. • Leaders may be unaware of the degree to which they are causing stress in their followers. • Level of stress inherent in the position needs to be understood before selecting leaders.

French and Raven's Bases of Social Power: Referent Power

Referent power: Potential influence one has because of the strength of the relationship between the leader and the followers. • Takes time to develop but can be lost quickly. • Desire to maintain referent power may limit a leader's actions in certain situations. The stronger the relationship, the more influence leaders and followers exert over each other. • Followers with relatively more referent power than their peers are often spokespersons for their units and have more latitude to deviate from work unit norms.

The Least Preferred Co-worker, or L P C, Scale

Requires a leader to think of a single individual with whom he or she has had the greatest difficultly working and then describe that person in terms of bipolar adjectives, such as friendly-unfriendly, boring-interesting, and sincere-insincere. • Ratings are then converted into a numerical score. • Score represents something about the leader, not the specific individual the leader evaluated.

French and Raven's Bases of Social Power: Reward Power

Reward power: Involves the potential to influence others through control over desired resources. • Potential to influence others through reward power is a joint function of the leader, the followers, and the situation. Problems associated with rewards. • Assumption that the rewards given by a company to a worker could be the similar to what the worker expected. • Rewards may produce compliance but not other desirable outcomes like commitment. • Overemphasizing performance rewards as payoff for performance can lead to workers feeling resentful and manipulated. • Extrinsic rewards such as praise, or compensation may not have the same behavioral effects as intrinsic rewards such as personal growth and development. • All leaders can use some of the most important rewards—sincere praise and thanks to others for their loyalty and work. Leaders can enhance their ability to influence others based on reward power by: • Determining what rewards are available and most valued by subordinates. • Establishing policies for the fair and consistent administration of rewards for good performance. Followers can exercise reward power over leaders by: • Controlling scarce resources. • Modifying their level of effort based on the leader's performance.

Situational Characteristics

Situational factors play an important role in determining whether a leader is perceived as charismatic. • Crises • Social networks • Restructuring or organizational downsizing • Time

Emotional Intelligence

Term is attributed to Peter Salovey and John Mayer. Models. • Ability model: Focuses on how emotions affect the way leaders think, decide, plan, and act. • Defines emotional intelligence as the ability to: • Accurately perceive one's own and others' emotions. • Generate emotions to facilitate thought and action. • Accurately understand the causes of emotions and the meanings they convey. • Regulate one's emotions. • Mixed model: Provides a broader and more comprehensive definition of emotional intelligence than the ability model because it includes more leadership qualities. • More popular among human resource professionals than the ability model but is no more predictive of job performance than OCEAN assessments.

Situational Leadership Model in the Perspective of the L F S Framework

The only situational consideration is knowledge of the task, and the only follower factor is readiness. Situational Leadership usually appeals to students and practitioners because of its common-sense approach and the ease of understanding. • Useful way to get leaders to think about how leadership effectiveness may depend somewhat on being flexible with different subordinates, not on acting the same way toward them all.

James MacGregor Burns's Types of Leaderships

Transactional leadership • Occurs when leaders and followers are in some type of exchange relationship to get needs met. Transformational leadership • Changes the status quo by appealing to followers' values and their sense of higher purpose. • Leaders are adept at reframing issues. • All transformational leaders are charismatic, but not all charismatic leaders are transformational. • Both charismatic and transformational leaders strive for organizational or societal change. • Transformational leaders are always controversial.

Path-Goal Theory

Underlying mechanism deals with expectancy, a cognitive approach to understanding motivation, where people calculate: • Effort-to-performance probabilities. • Performance-to-outcome probabilities. • Assigned valences or values of outcomes. Assumptions: Effective leader will: • Provide or ensure the availability of valued rewards for followers, goals, and then help them find the best way of getting there (the path). • Help the followers identify and remove roadblocks and avoid dead ends. • Provide emotional support as needed. Leader's actions should strengthen followers' beliefs that: • If they exert a certain level of effort, they will be more likely to accomplish a task. • If they accomplish the task, they will be more likely to achieve some valued outcome. Leaders may use varying styles with different subordinates and differing styles with the same subordinates in different situations. • Different leader behaviors can increase followers' acceptance of the leader, enhance their level of satisfaction, and raise their expectations that effort will result in effective performance, which in turn will lead to valued rewards. Follower variables. • Satisfaction of followers. • Followers will actively support a leader if they view the leader's actions as a way to increase their own levels of satisfaction. • Followers' perception of their own abilities relative to the task to be accomplished. Situational factors that impact the effects of leader behavior on follower attitudes and behaviors include the task, the formal authority system, and the primary work group. • Factors can serve as an independent motivational factor, as a constraint on the behavior of followers, or as a reward, and can affect the impact of various leader behaviors.

Moral Reasoning and Character-Based Leadership

Values play a key role in the moral reasoning process. • Value differences among individuals often result in different judgments regarding ethical and unethical behavior. • Not everyone fully develops their moral judgment. Unconscious biases may affect one's moral judgments, which is why many organizations are developing programs to develop moral decision-making competence among leaders. • Effectiveness of such programs depends on understanding the moral decision-making process. Dual-process theory of moral judgment. • Moral judgments dealing primarily with rights and duties are made by automatic emotional responses while those made on a more utilitarian basis are made more cognitively. Common but challenging ethical dilemmas involve choosing between two rights.

Influence Tactics and Power

• A strong relationship exists between the relative power of agents and targets and the types of influence tactics used. • Leaders with high referent power generally do not use legitimizing or pressure tactics. • Leaders with only coercive or legitimate power tend to use coalition, legitimizing, or pressure tactics. Hard tactics are used when: • An influencer has the upper hand. • Resistance is anticipated. • The other person's behavior violates important norms. Soft tactics are used when: • One is at a disadvantage. • Resistance is expected. • There is personal benefit if the attempt is successful. Rational tactics are used when: • Parties are relatively equal in power. • Resistance is not anticipated. • Benefits are organizational as well as personal. Using influence tactics is a social skill. Other ways to successfully influence superiors • Thoroughly preparing beforehand. • Involving others for support or coalition tactics. • Persisting through a combination of approaches. People select influence tactics as a function of their power relationship with another person. • Relationship holds true universally across different social domains.

Concluding Thoughts about the Characteristics of Charismatic and Transformational Leadership

• Charismatic leadership is most fully understood when one considers how leader and situational factors affect the attribution process. • It is unlikely that all the characteristics of charismatic leadership need to be present before charisma is attributed to a leader. • Charismatic leadership can happen anywhere. • Charismatic leadership is a two-way street between leaders and followers. • Evidence shows that charismatic or transformational leaders are more effective than their noncharismatic counterparts.

Types of 360-degree feedback processes.

• Competency-based 360-degree questionnaires: Help organizations: • Identify the behaviors leaders need to exhibit to be effective, and build questionnaires that reflect these behaviors. • Administer the questionnaires to target individuals, superiors, peers, and direct reports. • Generate feedback reports that reflect the consolidated rating results. • Leadership versatility approach: Superiors, peers, and direct reports provide ratings on the extent to which target individuals demonstrate too much, just the right amount, or too little strategic, operations, enabling, or forcing leadership behavior for a particular position. • Verbal 360-degree technique: Superiors, peers, and direct reports are asked to share a target individual's strengths and areas of improvement as a leader in phone or face-to-face interviews. Construction of questionnaires is highly important. • Poorly conceived competency models and ill-designed questionnaire items can lead to spurious feedback results. Leaders who received 360-degree feedback had higher performing work units than leaders who did not receive this type of feedback. • 360-degree systems are designed to convey to the leaders about their own strengths and development needs rather than make comparisons between people. Developing a broad set of leadership skills that will help groups accomplish goals is the key to high observer ratings. Research has found that it is possible to change others' perceptions of a leader's skills over time. • Leaders must set development goals and commit to a development plan to improve skills. Some cultural, racial, and gender issues are associated with 360-degree feedback, and practitioners should be aware of these issues before implementing any 360-degree feedback process. 360-degree feedback may be affected by the contagion effect or rater bias.

The Four Leader Behaviors of Path-Goal Theory

• Directive leadership: Includes telling the followers what they are expected to do, how to do it, when it is to be done, and how their work fits in with the work of others. • Supportive leadership: Supportive leadership behaviors include having courteous and friendly interactions, expressing genuine concern for the followers' well-being and individual needs, and remaining open and approachable to followers. • Participative leadership: Leaders tend to share work problems with followers; solicit their suggestions, concerns, and recommendations; and weigh these inputs in the decision-making process. • Achievement-oriented leadership: Leaders exhibiting these behaviors would be seen as both demanding and supporting in interactions with their followers.

Kidder offers the following principles for resolving ethical dilemmas:

• Ends-based thinking: Doing what's best for the greatest number of people. • Known as utilitarianism in philosophy. • Rule-based thinking: Following the highest principle or duty. • Consistent with Kantian philosophy. • Care-based thinking: Doing what one wants others to do to him or her. • Similar to the Golden Rule of conduct common in many world religions.

The Leadership Pipeline Model

• Explains where leaders should spend their time, what they should be focusing on and what they should be letting go, and the types of behaviors they need to exhibit as they move from first-line supervisor to functional manager to CEO. • Provides a roadmap for individuals wanting to occupy the top leadership positions in any organization. • Provides potential explanations for why some people fail to advance. Implications. • People who fail to demonstrate the competencies, work values, and time applications commensurate with their positions will struggle with building teams and getting results through others. • Intelligence and certain personality traits have been found to improve the odds of getting promoted and successfully transitioning to new leadership levels. • It is critically important that organizations offer on-boarding programs to help external hires transition into new roles. Implications. • People who skip organizational levels often turn out to be ineffective leaders. • Acquisitions often result in people being assigned to positions lower in the leadership pipeline. • Many leaders operate at a level that is one or two lower than appropriate for their positions, which has deleterious effects across their teams and the organizations led by them.

Sources of Leader Power

• Furniture arrangement • Shape of the table used for meetings and seating arrangements • Prominently displayed symbols • Appearances of title and authority • Choice of clothing • Presence or absence of crisis

Research has identified biases that affect our moral decision-making.

• Implicit prejudice: Subconscious prejudices that affect one's decisions without him or her being aware of them. • In-group favoritism: Doing acts of kindness and favors for those who are like us. • Overclaiming credit: Overrating the quality of one's own work and contributions. • Conflicts of interest: Misjudging one's own ability to discount the extent to which a conflict actually biases one's perception of the situation in one's own favor. • Progress in understanding ethical behavior and increasing its likelihood or prevalence can be based on a purely rational or reasoning-based approach. • According to a study, although people's predictions were generally consistent with their personal values, their actual behavior often was not. • Behavioral scripts from one's religious tradition could trigger and lead to ethical behavior without explicit moral reasoning. • Some researchers believe that "moral reasoning is rarely the direct cause of ethical judgment."

Individuals vary in their motivation to manage.

• Miner describes motivation to manage in terms of the following composites: • Maintaining good relationships with authority figures. • Wanting to compete for recognition and advancement. • Being active and assertive. • Wanting to exercise influence over subordinates. • Being visibly different from followers. • Being willing to do routine administrative tasks. Miner's Sentence Completion Scale or MSCS measures a person's motivation to manage. The overall composite MSCS score consistently predicts leadership success in hierarchical or bureaucratic organizations. Findings concerning need for power and motivation to manage have several implications for leadership practitioners. • Not all individuals like being leaders. • High need for power or motivation to manage does not guarantee leadership success. • High need for socialized power and a high level of activity inhibition may be required for long-term leadership success. • Followers and leaders differ in the need for power, activity inhibition, and motivation to manage.

Aspects Associated With Moral Disengagement

• Moral justification: Reinterpreting otherwise immoral behavior in terms of a higher purpose. • Euphemistic labeling: Using cosmetic words to defuse or disguise the offensiveness of otherwise morally repugnant or distasteful behavior. • Advantageous comparison: Letting one avoid self-contempt for one's behavior by comparing it to even more heinous behavior by others. • Diffusion of responsibility: Reprehensible behavior becoming easier to engage in and live with if others are behaving the same way. • Disregard or distortion of consequences: Minimizing the actual harm caused by one's behavior. • Dehumanization: Avoiding the consequences of one's behavior by dehumanizing those who are affected. • Attribution of blame: Justifying one's immoral behavior by claiming it was caused by someone else's actions. Components of moral potency. • Moral ownership. • Moral courage. • Moral efficacy.

Personality

• Public reputation, or the impression a person makes on others. • Identity, or how people see or define themselves. Personality traits are useful for explaining why people act consistently in different situations. • Knowing the differences in personality traits can help predict more accurately how people will tend to act in different situations. • Traits play an important role in determining how people behave in unfamiliar, ambiguous, or weak situations.

Types of Influence Tactics Used by an Agent on A Target Based on the Influence Behavior Questionnaire

• Rational persuasion: When logical arguments or factual evidence is used to influence others . • Inspirational appeals: When a request or proposal is designed to arouse enthusiasm or emotions in targets. • Consultation: When targets are asked to participate in planning an activity. • Ingratiation: When an agent attempts to get a target in a good mood before making a request. • Personal appeals: When a target is asked to do a favor out of friendship. • Exchange: When a target is influenced through the exchange of favors. • Coalition tactics: When agents seek the help of others to influence the target. • Pressure tactics: When threats or persistent reminders are used to influence targets. • Legitimizing tactics: When agents make requests based on their position or authority.

Implications of Emotional Intelligence

• Shows that people can be extremely ineffective when their thoughts, feelings, and actions are misaligned. • Popularized the idea that noncognitive abilities can play important roles in leadership success. • Helped bring emotion back to the workplace. • Moderates employees' reactions to job insecurity and their coping ability toward stress when threatened with job loss.

Max Weber's Types of Authority Systems

• Traditional authority system: Traditions or unwritten laws of the society dictate who has authority and how this authority can be used. • Legal-rational authority system: People possess authority because of the laws that govern the position occupied. • Charismatic authority system: People derive authority because of their exemplary characteristics.

Bass's Theory of Transformational and Transactional Leadership

• Transformational leaders possess good vision, rhetorical, and impression management skills and use them to develop strong emotional bonds with followers. • Transformational leaders are more successful because of followers heightened emotional levels and willingness to work toward accomplishing the leader's vision. • Transactional leaders motivate followers by setting goals and promising rewards for desired performance. • Transformational and transactional leadership comprise two independent leadership dimensions. • Bass developed the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, or M L Q, which is a 360-degree feedback instrument that assesses five transformational and three transactional factors and a nonleadership factor.

Research Results of Transformational and Transactional Leadership

• Transformational leadership was observed in all countries, institutions, and organizational levels, but it is more prevalent in public institutions and at lower organizational levels. • Transformational leadership is a significantly better predictor of organizational effectiveness than transactional or laissez-faire leadership. • Laissez-faire leadership is negatively correlated with effectiveness. • Leaders can systematically develop their transformational and transactional leadership skills. • Charisma ultimately exists in the eyes of the beholder.

Kidder identified the following common ethical dilemmas:

• Truth versus loyalty: Honestly answering a question that may compromise real or implied promise of confidentiality to others. • Individual versus community: Protecting the confidentiality of someone's medical condition when the condition itself may pose a threat to the larger community. • Short-term versus long-term: Balancing spending time with family against making career investments for future benefits. • Justice versus mercy: Deciding whether to excuse a person's misbehaviour because of extenuating circumstances or a conviction that he or she has learned a lesson.

Model, M

Has four components • Environmental scanning • Vision • Setting of new goals to support the vision • Needed system changes • Systems thinking approach: Views the organization as a set of interlocking systems where changes in one system can have intended and unintended consequences for other parts of the organization. • Siloed thinking: Involves optimizing one part of the organization at the expense of suboptimizing the organization's overall effectiveness.

Concluding Thoughts about the Rational Approach to Organizational Change

Two leadership and management skills that may be vitally important to driving change. • Adaptive leadership: Involves behaviors associated with being able to successfully flex and adjust to changing situations. • Learning agility: Capability and willingness to learn from experience and apply these lessons to new situations.

Limitations of MBTI

-The four preference dimensions omit critical aspects of personality, such as neuroticism. -Types are not stable over time. -Forer effect: People are provided with descriptive statements that are personally flattering but so vague that they could apply to virtually anyone. -MBTI dimensions and types are unrelated to career success or leadership effectiveness.

Creating and Sustaining an Ethical Climate

"Fronts" of leadership action that are required to create an ethical climate. • Formal ethics policies and procedures. • Core ideology. • Integrity. • Structural reinforcement. • Process focus. Principle-centered leadership asserts a fundamental interdependence between the personal, interpersonal, managerial, and organizational levels of leadership. • Interdependence between the levels posited in principle-centered leadership is quite similar to the conceptualizations of authentic leadership, which also views it as a multilevel phenomenon.

Assessing Leadership Behaviors: Multirater Feedback Instruments

360-degree, or multirater, feedback tools show that direct reports, peers, and superiors can provide different perceptions of a leader's behavior. • These perspectives can paint a more accurate picture of the leader's strengths and development needs than self-appraisals alone. • Have become an integral part of the training, coaching, succession planning, and performance management components of a comprehensive leadership talent management system.

Character-Based Approaches to Leadership

Authentic leadership. • Authentic leaders exhibit consistency among their values, their beliefs, and their actions. • Are self-aware. • Self-consciously align their actions with their inner values. • Study of authentic leadership has gained momentum because of the following beliefs: • Enhancing self-awareness can help people in organizations find more meaning at work. • Promoting transparency and openness in relationships builds trust and commitment. • Fostering more inclusive structures and practices can help build more positive ethical climates. Servant leadership views serving others as being the leader's role. • Characteristics of servant leaders. • Listening • Empathy • Healing • Awareness • Persuasion • Conceptualization • Foresight • Stewardship • Commitment to others' growth • Building community

The Rational Approach to Organizational Change

Beer's model. • Road map for leadership practitioners who want to implement an organizational change initiative. • Diagnostic tool for understanding why change initiatives fail. • Amount of change, C, equals the product of dissatisfaction, D, model, M, and process, P, greater than resistance, R. • Product of D, M, and P is a multiplicative function-increasing dissatisfaction but having no plan will result in little change. • Asserts that organizational change is a systematic process and that large-scale changes can take months or years to implement.

Important Distinctions

Power: Capacity to produce effects on others or the potential to influence others. • Function of the leader, the followers, and the situation. • Does not need to be exercised by leaders in order to have its effect. • Attributed to others on the basis and frequency of influence tactics they use and on their outcomes. Influence: Change in a target agent's attitudes, values, beliefs, or behaviors as the result of influence tactics. Influence tactics: One person's actual behaviors designed to change another person's attitudes, beliefs, values, or behaviors. • Apart from leaders, followers can also wield power and influence over leaders as well as over each other. • Influence can be measured by the behaviors or attitudes manifested by followers as a result of a leader's influence tactics. • Leaders with relatively high amounts of power can cause fairly substantial changes in subordinates' attitudes and behaviors. • Amount of power followers have in work situations can also vary dramatically. • Some followers may exert relatively more influence over a group than the leader does in certain situations. • Individuals with a relatively large amount of power may successfully employ a wider variety of influence tactics. • Followers often can use a wider variety of influence tactics than the leader. • This is because the formal leader is not always the person who possesses the most power in a leadership situation

Ways in Which Leaders Can Stifle the Creativity of Their Followers

Take away all discretion and autonomy Create fragmented work schedules Provide insufficient resources Focus on short-term goals Create tight timelines and rigid processes Discourage collaboration and coordination Keep people happy Hire clones Take away all discretion and autonomy Create fragmented work schedules Provide insufficient resources Focus on short-term goals Create tight timelines and rigid processes Discourage collaboration and coordination Keep people happy