✨LSAT 1✨

tip: if you identify a stimulus with conditional reasoning and are asked a flaw q, you can scan the answers for the one answer that contains...

"sufficient" "necessary" or both

mistaken negation answer choice:

"taking the absence of an occurrence as evidence that a necessary condition for that occurrence also did not take place"

numbers and percentages answer choice:

"the argument confuses an increase in market share with an increase in overall revenue"

overgeneralization answer choice examples:

"supports a general claim on the basis of a single example" "generalizes on the basis of what could be exceptional cases" "bases a broad claim on a few exceptional instances"

necessary condition indicators:

then only only if must required unless except until without precondition

flaw: irrelevant evidence for conclusion

when author fail to provide any info to support conclusion or use info that is irrelevant

flaw: uncertain use of a term/concept

when author uses a term in different ways throughout the argument

flaw: relativity

when info about a relative relationship-one involving a comparison-is used to draw an absolute conclusion, or when a relative conclusion is drawn from absolute information

the _________ family uses the stimulus to prove one of the answer choices must be true. no info outside of the stimulus is allowed in answer choice.

first (Must be/Prove)

point at issue q's are part of the ________

first family

main point questions are a subcategory of must be true q's and fall into the...

first family category

method-argument part q's typically contain two conclusions, the main and the subsidiary. main is typically placed in the ________ and the subsidiary is placed at the _________.

first or second sentence, last sentence. NOTE: subsidiary conclusions usually have strong conclusion indicator words like "thus" or "therefore" while the main conclusion is not prefaced by an indicator.

identify the question stem: "the reasoning in the mayor's argument is flawed because this argument"

flaw (describe, in abstract terms, the error of reasoning committed by the author)

flaw: appeal to popular opinion/appeal to numbers

states that a position is true because majority believe so

mission for justify conclusion q's (SA):

strengthen argument so powerfully, conclusion is made logical, must strengthen conclusion so it's 100%

identify the question stem: "which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?" "which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the statement above"

strengthen/support (select answer choice that provides support for the author's argument or strengthens it in some way)

the variance test (for evaluate the argument q's):

supply two polar opposites to your selected answer choice. if answer choice is correct, one should strengthen the argument and the other should weaken it.

mission for strengthen q:

support (help) argument in any way possible, any answer choice that strengthens argument whether by 1% or 100% is correct

parallel reasoning q's are in the __________ family

first

circular reasoning answer choices:

"argues circularly by assuming the conclusion is true in stating the premises" "presupposes what it sets out to prove" "it assumes what it is attempting to demonstrate"

whole does not equal part and vice versa answer choices:

"assuming that because something is true of each of the parts of a whole it is true of the whole itself" "presumes without warrant that what is true of a whole must also be true of each of its parts"

flaw: irrelevant evidence for conclusion answer choices:

"author cites irrelevant data" "draws a conclusion that is not warranted by the evidence provided" "uses inapplicable info to draw a conclusion about the character of the witness" "fails to give any reason for the judgment it reaches"

internal contradiction answer choice examples:

"bases a conclusion on claims that are inconsistent with each other" "the author makes irreconcilable presuppositions" "introduces info that actually contradicts the conclusion" "claims presented in support of the conclusion conflict with the other evidence provided"

uncertain use of a term/concept answer choices:

"depending on the ambiguous use of a key term" "it confuses two different meanings of the word "genius" "equivocates with respect to a central concept"

internal contradiction example:

"everyone should join our country club. after all, it's an exclusive group that links many of the influential members of the community" notice the everyone and the exclusive

false dilemma answer choices:

"fails to consider that some voters may be neither strong supporters nor strong opponents of the suggested amendment"

ask self with cause and effect questions:

"is there a single cause, multiple causes/possible that multiple causes exist?"

mistaken reversal answer choice:

"mistakes being sufficient to achieve a particular outcome for being required to achieve it"

mistaken cause and effect answer choices:

"mistakes the occurrence of one event after another for proof that the 2nd event is the result of the first" "mistakes a temporal relationship for a causal relationship" "confusing the coincidence of two events with a causal relation between the two" "assumes a causal relationship when only a correlation has been indicated" look at pg 513 for more

"many" does NOT imply

"most"

"usually" translates to

"most"

appeal to popular opinion answer choice:

"popular sentiment is treated as definitive proof of a claim" "the argument tries to undermine the claim by appealing to public opinion"

straw man answer choices:

"refutes a distorted version of an opposing position" "misdescribing the opposing position, thus making it easier to challenge" "portrays opponents' views as more extreme than they really are

irrelevant evidence for conclusion example:

"some critics claim that scientific progress has increased the polarization of society and alienated large segments of the population. but these critics are wrong because even a cursory glance at the past shows that society is always somewhat polarized and some groups are inevitably alienated" citing facts that such a situation has always existed does not help disprove that scientific progress has increased the severity of the situation.

"many" implies

"some"

appeal to authority answer choices:

"the judgment of experts is applied to a matter in which their expertise is not relevant" "the argument improperly appeals to the authority of the supervisor" "bases a conclusion solely on the authority of the claimant without seeking further proof"

circular reasoning example:

"this essay is the best because it's better than all the others" "i must be telling the truth because i'm not lying"

time shift errors answer choices:

"treats a claim about the current state of affairs as if it were a claim about what has been the case for an extended period" "draws an unwarranted inference from what has been true in the past to what will be true in the future"

overgeneralization example:

"two of my friends were shortchanged at that store. therefore, everyone gets shortchanged at that store"

survey errors answer choices:

"uses evidence drawn from a sample that may not be representative" "assumes that every polled individual provided a truthful response"

for weaken q's, ask:

"would this answer choice make the author reconsider his or her position or force the author to respond?" if yes, correct answer

when there is an EXCEPT in the question stem, (ex: each of the following weakens the argument EXCEPT)...

-4 answers weaken, one does not -find one that either has no effect on argument or strengthens it but CANNOT weaken (treat it as if it were saying least)

words used to indicate numerical ideas:

-amount -quantity -sum -total -count -tally

premise indicators:

-because -since -for -for example -for the reason that -in that -given that -as indicated by -due to -owing to -this can be seen from -we know this by

counter-premise indicators: (not integral to author's argument structure because counter-premise is irrelevant or outweighed by other considerations)

-but -yet -however -on the other hand -admittedly -in contrast -although -even though -still -whereas -in spite of -despite -after all (depending on situation, can also be a conclusion indicator)

Family #4: Disprove

-cannot be true

cause and effect indicators:

-caused by -because of -responsible for -reason for -leads to -induced by -promoted by -determined by -produced by -product of -is an effect of

additional premise indicators:

-furthermore -moreover -besides -in addition -what's more -after all

only 3 types of questions in LR can be posed to you when a stimulus is without a conclusion:

-must be true -cannot be true -resolve the paradox

Family #1: Must be or Prove

-must be true/most strongly supported -main point -point at issue/point of agreement -method of reasoning -flaw in the reasoning -parallel reasoning/parallel flaw

Family #2: Help

-necessary assumption -justify conclusion/sufficient assumption -strengthen/support -resolve the paradox

flaw: survey errors

-survey uses a biased sample -survey questions are improperly constructed -respondents to the survey give inaccurate responses

conclusion indicators:

-thus -therefore -hence -consequently -as a result -so -accordingly -clearly -must be that -shows that -conclude that -follows that -for this reason

Family #3: Hurt

-weaken

incorrect answers in method q's:

1. "new" elements 2. half right, half wrong answers (some of answer is correct, but not entirely correct) 3. exaggerated answers (stretch situation in stimulus) 4. opposite answer 5. reverse answer (reverses order of stimulus, can be very attractive)

common weakening scenarios:

1. Incomplete info - author fails to consider all of the possibilities or relies upon evidence that is incomplete. This flaw can be attacked by bringing up new possibilities or info. 2. Improper comparison. The author attempts to compare two or more items that are essentially different. 3. overly broad conclusion - author draws a conclusion that is broader than the premises

Logical Reasoning Primary Objectives:

1. determine if stimulus contains an argument or is just a set of facts 2. if stimulus contains an argument, find the conclusion. if stimulus contains a fact set, examine each fact 3. if stimulus contains argument, determine whether the argument is strong or weak 4. read closely and know precisely what the author said 5. carefully read and identify the question stem 6. after reading question stem, prephase an answer 7. read every answer choice 8. separate answer choices into contenders and losers 9. if all answer choices seem to be losers, re-read stimulus and re-evaluate

incorrect answers for point at issue q's:

1. ethical vs factual situations 2. dual agreement or dual disagreement 3. the view of one speaker is unknown

Family #4: Disprove rules:

1. accept the stimulus info - even if it contains errors in reasoning - and use it to prove that one of the answer choices cannot occur 2. if answer choice contains info that does not appear in stimulus or as a result of combo of items in stimulus, then that answer choice could be true and is incorrect. 3. the correct answer choice will directly disagree with the stimulus or a consequence of the stimulus

rules for cannot be true q's:

1. accept the stimulus info and use it to prove that one of the answer choices cannot occur 2. if answer choice contains info that does not appear directly in the stimulus, then answer choice incorrect. 3. correct answer will directly disagree with the stimulus or the consequence of the stimulus

in must be true and most strongly supported q's, there are 4 classifications of info that can be used to prove an answer choice correct:

1. actual statements of stimulus 2. commonsense assumptions 3. consequences of statements presented in stimulus (two or more statements in stimulus combine to logically produce right answer) 4. info under the umbrella of the statements in the stimulus (elements that are not explicitly stated in stimulus but can still appear in right answer)

2 incorrect answer types to main point q's:

1. answers that are true but do not encapsulate author's point 2. answers that repeat premises of argument

solving justify q's (the mechanistic approach):

1. any "new" element in the conclusion will appear in the correct answer 2. elements that are common to the conclusion and at least one premise, or to two premises, normally do not appear in correct answer 3. elements that appear in the premises but not the conclusion usually appear in the correct answer

incorrect answers in MBT and MSS questions:

1. could be true/possibly true answers 2. exaggerated answers 3. new info answers 4. shell game - idea/concept is raised in stimulus and then a very similar answer appears in answer choice but idea changed just enough to be attractive 5. opposite answer 6. reverse answer (reverses words like some, many, etc)

stimulus notes for method of reasoning q's:

1. decide if argument is valid or invalid (correct answer choice will reflect this) 2. look for premise and conclusion indicators to gain insight on structure of argument

how to strengthen argument:

1. identify conclusion (this is what you're trying to strengthen!) 2. personalize argument 3. look for weaknesses in argument (if there's a weak spot in argument, look for answer that eliminates that weakness) 4. if argument contains analogies or use surveys, look for answer choice that strengthens the analogy or survey 5. correct answer can strengthen a little or a lot

weaken question rules (how to attack answer choices):

1. identify, isolate and assess premises and conclusion of argument 2. focus on conclusion - almost all correct weaken answer choices impact conclusion 3. the info in the stimulus is suspect 4. weaken q's yield strong prephases 5. answer choices accepted as given, can introduce new info

general principles for numbers and percentages q's:

1. if you see a number or percentage in a stimulus, make sure that the number/percentage is the focus of the problem and not a distractor element 2. identify whether a number or percentage (or both) is being discussed and determine whether those figures represent the overall total or just a portion of a given total 3. always look for what is missing 4. watch for movement of any number, percentage or total and make note of whether it is rising or falling 5. if conclusion is present, it is faulty and based on a confusion between the number and percentage idea

Family #3: Hurt rules:

1. info in the stimulus is suspect. there are often reasoning errors present, and you will further weaken the argument in some way 2. answer choices are accepted as given, even if they include "new" info 3. determine which answer choice best attacks the argument in the stimulus

for evaluate the argument q's:

1. info is suspect so search for the reasoning error present 2. answer choices are accepted as given, even if they include new info

elements that must be paralleled in these q's:

1. method of reasoning 2. validity of argument 3. the conclusion (language in answer choice must match the certainty level or intent of the conclusion in the stimulus) 4. the premises (look for after conclusion)

Family #1: Must be or Prove rules:

1. must accept the stimulus information and use it to prove that one of the answer choices must be true 2. any info in an answer choice that does not appear either in stimulus, as a combo of items in stimulus, or under umbrella of a concept in stimulus will be incorrect

the 13 Logical Reasoning Question Types: (MEMORIZE THIS WHOLE LIST)

1. must be true/most supported 2. main point 3. point at issue/point of agreement 4. assumption (necessary assumption) 5. justify the conclusion (sufficient assumption) 6. strengthen/support 7. resolve the paradox 8. weaken 9. method of reasoning 10. flaw in the reasoning 11. parallel reasoning/parallel flaw 12. evaluate the argument 13. cannot be true

the assumption negation technique:

1. negate answer choices under consideration 2. the negated answer choice that weakens the argument will be the correct answer

weaken wrong answer choices:

1. opposite answers (if answer strengthens argument) 2. shell game answers (idea/concept raised in stim then something similar appears in answer choice) 3. out of scope (miss the point)

3 incorrect answer traps for strengthen q's:

1. opposite answers (weakens or doesn't affect argument) 2. shell game answers (answer looks attractive except for one small incorrect detail) 3. out of scope (irrelevant)

correct answers in MBT and MSS questions:

1. paraphrased answers - restate a portion of the stimulus in different terms, can appear to be too obvious 2. answers that are the sum of two or more stimulus statements - any answer choice that would result from combining two or more statements in the stimulus will be correct

rules for strengthen, assumption (NA), and justify (SA) q's:

1. stimulus will always contain an argument 2. focus on the conclusion (correct answer choices impact conclusion) 3. the info in the stimulus is suspect 4. these q's yield strong prephrases (predict answer) 5. accept answer choices as given, even if they include new info

Family #2: Help rules:

1. the info in the stimulus is suspect,. there are often errors present and , depending on the question, you will help shore up the argument in some way 2. answer choices are accepted as given, even if they include "new" info 3. determine which answer choice best meets the question posed in the stem

LSAT stimuli fall into 2 distinct categories:

1. those containing an argument 2. those that are just a set of facts (can tell difference by seeing if stimulus caused a reaction after you read it - facts don't really do this)

elements of argument that do not need to be paralleled in these questions:

1. topic of stimulus 2. order of presentation of premises and conclusion in stimulus

3 quirks for NA q answer choices:

1. watch for answer choices starting with "at least one" or "some" (high chance they're correct) 2. avoid answers that claim an idea was the most important consideration for author (watch out for important indicators!) 3. watch for "not" or negatives in answer choices, could be right or wrong

method of reasoning q rules:

1. you can use only the info in the stimulus to prove the correct answer choice 2. any answer choice that describes an element or a situation that does not occur in the stimulus is incorrect

"the statements above, if true" "if the statements above are true.." "if the information above is correct.." belongs to which family?

1st or 4th family

"which one of the following, if true" belongs to which family?

2nd or 3rd family

how to attack a causal conclusion (cause and effect question):

A. find alternate cause for stated effect. B. show that even when the cause occurs, the effect does not occur (answer choice usually appears in counterexample) C. show that although effect occurs, the cause did not. D. show that stated relationship is reversed. E. show that a statistical problem exists w/ the data used to make causal statement.

"helpful in establishing the conclusion" is a...

Strengthen question stem

the agree/disagree test:

The correct answer must produce responses where one speaker would say "I agree, the statement is correct" and the other speaker would say, "I disagree, the statement is incorrect." If those two responses are not produce, then the answer is incorrect.

a premise is..

a fact, proposition or statement from which a conclusion is made (gives a reason why something should be believed)

a conclusion is..

a statement or judgment that follows from one or more reasons (the point the author tries to prove by using another statement)

"many" can include ___

all, does NOT mean "not all or some"

correct answer for resolve the paradox question will:

allow both sides to be factually correct and will either explain how the situation came into being or add a piece of info that shows how the two ideas/occurrences can coexist (select answer choice that contains a possible cause of the situation)

flaw: internal contradiction

also known as self-contradiction, occurs when author makes conflicting statements

watch out for when relationship uses language like "increases/likelihood of the effect" because..

answer choices will reflect that the causality is not simply an "A makes B" relationship

flaw: circular reasoning

assumes as true what is supposed to be proved, premise and conclusion are identical in meaning

flaw: time shift errors

assumes that conditions will remain constant over time and that what was the case in the past will be the case in the present or future

flaw: false dilemma

assumes that only two courses of action are available when there may be others

defender role:

assumptions that protect argument by eliminating ideas that could weaken it

some =

at least some, possibly all EX: some x's are y's (X double arrow w/ S on top and Y)

flaw: source argument / ad hominem

attacks person instead of the argument that person advances

flaw: straw man

author attempts to attack opponent's position by ignoring the actual statements made by the opposing speaker and instead distorts and refashions the argument, making it weaker in the process usually accompanied with "what you're saying is" or "if i understand you correctly"

do NOT use alternate cause answer choice for probably/possible causal conclusions because...

author is not saying that is the only cause so it would not hurt the argument.

identify the question stem: "if the statements above are true, which one of the following CANNOT be true?"

cannot be true (identify answer choice that cannot be true or is most weakened based on the info in the stimulus)

flaw: composition and division (whole does not equal part and vice versa)

composition: author attributes a characteristic of part of the group to the group as a whole or to each member of the group. division: author attributes a characteristic of the whole (or each member of the whole) to a part of the group

classic cause and effect mistake is when a causal assertion is made in the __________.

conclusion

common wrong answer for method questions:

describes parts of the argument other than the part referenced in the question stem

flaw: appeal to emotion

emotionally-charged language is used to try to persuade the reader

identify the question stem: "the answer to which one of the following questions would contribute most to an evaluation of the argument?"

evaluate the argument (decide which answer choice allows you to determine the logical validity of the argument)

method of reasoning q's are in the ________ family

first

the ______ family uses the stimulus to prove that one of the answer choices cannot occur. no info outside stimulus is allowed in answer choices.

fourth (disprove)

flaw: mis-assessing the force of evidence

frequent error, can be categorized as: 1. lack of evidence for a position is taken to prove that position is false. 2. lack of evidence against a position is taken to prove that position is true 3. some evidence against a position is taken to prove that the position is false 4. some evidence for a position is taken to prove that position is true (look at page 508 for details)

if stimulus contains percentage or proportion info only, avoid answers that contain ___________.

hard numbers

mission for assumption q's (NA):

identify statement that argument assumes or supposes (assumption is an unstated premise, what must be true in order for the conclusion to be true)

sufficient condition indicators:

if when whenever every all any each in order to people who

Fact Test for method of reasoning q's:

if an answer choice describes an event that did not occur in the stimulus, then that answer is incorrect. ALL parts of the answer MUST be identifiable in the stimulus.

correct answer to main point will be..

isolate conclusion then find paraphrase of it

identify the question stem: "which one of the following, if assumed, allows the conclusion to be properly drawn?"

justify the conclusion (sufficient assumption) (ask you to supply a piece of information that, when added to the premises, proves the conclusion)

method of reasoning q's ask you to identify the ____________ of the argument

logical organization

flaw: mistaken cause and effect

look at chapter 8, but author is assuming there is only one cause to effect

identify the question stem: "the main point of the argument is that"

main point (find the primary conclusion made by author)

most =

majority, possibly all EX: Most x's are y's (X --> M on top Y)

if stimulus contains both percentage and numerical info, any answer choice that contains numbers, percentages or both _____.

may be true.

identify the question stem: "which one of the following describes the technique of reasoning used above?"

method of reasoning (describe, in abstract terms, the way in which the author made his or her argument)

flaw in the reasoning q's are exactly the same as ___________

method q's, but they ask you to identify flaw so argument is already invalid

if you encounter linked statements and an assumption question, be prepared to supply ____________ or _____________.

missing link, contrapositive of that link

flaw: errors of conditional reasoning

mistaken reversal or mistaken negation (confusing sufficient condition with necessary condition)

use the same approach for ________ as you would for Must be True questions but be aware that the correct answer needs to pass a lower bar than Must be True questions

most strongly supported

identify the question stem: "the statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? "which one of the following statements is most supported by the info above?" "the statements provide the most support for which one of the following?"

most strongly supported (select answer choice that is most likely to be true)

"infer" means...

must be true

identify the question stem: "if the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true?" "which one of the following can be properly inferred from the passage?" "which one of the following conclusions can be properly drawn on the basis of it?"

must be true (select the answer choice that is best proven by the stimulus)

identify the question stem: "which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument above?"

necessary assumption

flaw: sunk cost/concorde fallacy

often seen in world of finance/economics. occurs when an argument is made that continuing the project or making additional investment is justified on the basis of past monies or efforts already invested.

remember: when LSAT speaker concludes one thing caused another, they are also assuming that the stated cause is the ______________ cause of the effect and that it will __________ produce that effect.

only possible, always

identify the question stem: "which one of the following arguments is most similar in its pattern of reasoning to the argument above?"

parallel reasoning (identify answer choice that contains reasoning most similar in structure to the reasoning presented in the stimulus)

words used to introduce percentage ideas:

percent proportion fraction ratio incidence likelihood probability segment share

if stimulus contains only numerical info, avoid answers that contain _________.

percentage or proportion info

identify the question stem: "Jones and Smith disagree about whether" "Achelle's and Hakim's statement provide the most support for the claim that they agree about which one of the following?"

point at issue (require you to identify point of contention between 2 speakers) point of agreement (require you to identify point of agreement between 2 speakers)

two negatives typically result in a....

positive

justify the conclusion (SA) formula:

premise + correct answer choice = conclusion

parallel reasoning q's ask you to identify answer choice that contains ___________.

reasoning most similar in structure to the reasoning in the stimulus.

when a stimulus that contains conditional reasoning is combined with a MBT question stem, look for ________ or __________ in answer choices

repeat, contrapositive

identify the question stem: "which one of the following, if true, would most effectively resolve the apparent paradox above?"

resolve the paradox (select answer that best resolves contradiction)

Strengthen q's are part of the _________ family

second

the __________ family takes the answer choices as true and uses them to help the stimulus. info outside stimulus is allowed in the correct answer choice.

second (Help)

evaluate the argument q's, you must:

select the answer choice that decides whether the argument is good or bad.

if stimulus has words like "probably" or "possibly", look for __________ type of language in answer choices.

similar (meet with same degree of power, same goes with certainty conclusions like "must")

flaw: overgeneralization

takes a small number of instances and and treats those instances as if they support a broad, sweeping conclusion

what is the Fact Test?

the correct answer to a must be true question can always be proven by referring to the facts stated in the stimulus, all of the necessary info to answer question lies in stimulus

the _________ family takes the answer choices as true and uses them to hurt the stimulus. info outside the stimulus is allowed in the correct answer choice.

third (hurt)

supporter role:

traditional linking role, assumption connects the pieces of argument

flaw: false analogy

treats two very different cases as if they are similar (that can be an answer choice)

correct answer to a weaken question will not destroy conclusion but ___________ conclusion by showing the conclusion ____________ for some element or possibility.

undermine, fails to take account

flaw: appeal to authority

uses opinion of authority to attempt to persuade reader but authority may not have relevant knowledge of situation at hand

when argument contains words like "probably" "usually" "possibly", then the argument is....

valid

identify the question stem: "which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?"

weaken (attack or undermine the author's argument)

a lot of cause and effect reasoning is in __________ questions

weaken and flaw

flaw: numbers and percentages

when an author equates a percentage with a quantity