LSD

Changes in speed of processing

Dramatically improves in childhood, continues in early adolescence Decline in middle adulthood -> linked to breakdown in myelin of brain Health & exercise can help

emotional competence

awareness of your emotional states, and others

adolescence and brain

b/c neuron connections are pruned, by end of adolescence people have fewer, more efficient connections Corpus callosum: large bundle of axon fibers that connects L & R hemispheres (thickens in adolescence) Prefrontal cortex: highest level of frontal lobes involved in reasoning, decision making, self-control (advances continue) Amygdala: part of brain's limbic system that is seat of emotions such as anger (matures earlier than pfc) More myelination, better connections Dopamine increases - more risk seeking, reward seeking What comes first - bio changes in brain or experiences? Resist peer pressure -> thickening of pfc, more brain connections Mexican adolescents -> greater family obligation showed decreased activation in brain regions involving reward sensitivity, linked to less risk taking behavior, increased in pfc involving cognitive control Developmental social neuroscience: connections bw dev, brain, and socioemotional processes Nelson: brain doesn't have brakes to slow emotions

infancy & language

babbling, crying, cooing gestures @ 8-12 months get worse at recognizing sounds not in own language 10-15 months first words 18-24 months: 2 word utterances Telegraphic speech: use of short, precise words without grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives

Moral development

changes in thoughts/feelings/behaviors regarding standards of right and wrong

Social-cognitive theory of gender:

children's gender dev occurs through observation & imitation of gender behavior and through rewards/punishments they experience for behaviors aligned/maligned to their gender

Parkinson disease

chronic, progressive disease characterized by muscle tremors, slowing of movements, and partial face paralysis Triggered by degeneration of dopamine-producing neuron in brain Treatment: L-dopa (enhances effect of dopamine) Deep brain stimulation

Attachment

close emotional bond between two people social orientation: captivated by world - reac tto people, then crawl/walk, then joint attention & gaze following social referencing: "reading" emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in specific situations

adolescence & thinking

cognitive control, flexibility needed older ad are better than younger ad at decision making better critical thinking - increased speed of info processing, more knowledge, better uses of applying knowledge

Project Head Start:

compensatory education designed to provide children from low-income families the opportunity to acquire skills and experiences important for school success 3-5 years old Early head start: birth - 3 years old Positive effects, but 40% are of questionable quality Positive language & cog dev, but few lasting outcomes (except for vocab and oral comprehension)

Accommodation

Piagetian concept of adjusting schemes to fit new info and experiences Operate even in very young infants

Organization

Piagetian concept of grouping isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher-order, more smoothly functioning cognitive system

Assimilation

Piagetian concept where children use existing schemes to incorporate new information

Heredity-Environment Correlations

Potential for individual's genes to influence the types of environments to which they are exposed 3 ways they are correlated (Scarr) 1 Passive genotype-environment correlation: correlations that exist when bio parent, who are genetically related to child, provide rearing environment for child Parent has genetic predisposition for intelligence and reading well -> provide children with books -> likely that children become skilled readers. 2Evocative genotype-environment correlations: exist when child's characteristics elicit certain types of environments Active smiling children -> more social stimulation 3 Active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations: correlations that exist when children seek out environments they find compatible and stimulating Niche-picking -> finding settings suited to one's genetically influenced abilities Ex: outgoing children seek out social contexts where they can interact with people Infancy - passive environment more common

self-esteem & self-concept

Self-esteem: global evaluative dimension of self. Self-esteem is also referred to as self-worth or self-image. Self-concept: domain-specific evaluations of the self. low self-esteem has bad conseuqneces, etc increase in 20s, level in 30s, increase in 50/60, drop when older, m> f

Strategies to avoid negative affect in old age

1. Avoid negative situations more 2. Change negative situation to become more positive 3. Focus on more positive memories 4. Recall more positive events 5. Avoid negative emotional experiences

Dual or multiple tasks

1. Baltes: older people have more trouble talking and walking 2. With practice, young improve more than old 3. Less cost in young in walking speed 4. When performing competing task, only old adult compromise walking accuracy when performing competing task (not young or middle-aged) 5. Middle aged and old aged adults need to sequence activities -> avoid dual task condition

infants and sleep

16-17 hour sleep/day some benefits of shared sleeping infants spend 1/2 in REM sleep (compared to adults 1/5) sudden infant death syndrome: infant stops breathing, without cause

Locke

17th century. Enlightenment era. Human mind is blank slate, "tabula rosa." Knowledge comes from experience -> Nurture! First to emphasize that it's not all predetermined

Charlotte Buher

1893-1974. A pioneer of LSD> creates tests to assess milestones, developed theory of gerontopsychology: aging in elderly. Also studied infants & adolescents.

Charles Darwin

19th century. Interaction b/w organisms and environment. Environment offers opportunities & demands, individuals vary in their ability to meet those demands. Survival of fittest. Environment determines what is advantageous.

Preoperational stage

2-7 years: children begin to represent world with words, images, drawings Operations: reversible mental actions that allow children to do mentally what before they had done only physically symbolic function substage: gains ability to mentally represent an object that isn't there. *egocentrism: inability to distinguish b/w one's own and someone else's perspective (three mountain task) *animism: belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities intuitive thought substage (4-7): begin to use primitive reasoning, want to know answers to questions limit: centration: focus attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others limit: conservation: awareness that altering appearance of object/substance does not change basic properties conservation task

Embryonic period

2-8 weeks after conception. Rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support system for cells form, and organs appear Endoderm: inner layer of cells in embryo (-> digestive & respiratory systems) Ectoderm: outer layer of embryo (-> nervous system, sensory receptors, skin parts) Mesoderm: middle layer (-> circulatory, bones, muscles, excretory, reproductive) Organogenesis: process of organ formation that takes place during first two months of prenatal development Amnion umbilical cord and placenta also develop Very small molecules pass back and forth bw mother and embryo/fetus Any drug/chemical substance can cross the placenta -> ethanol from maternal alcohol use

Robert Havighurst

20th century. Theory of age-specific developmental tasks based on bio of maturing/aging, society, and personal values. 0-6 walk/talk; 6-18 social groups; 18-30 occupation; 30-40 managing home; 40-60 help children; 60+ less strength. People either solve or don't solve these.

Bernice Neugarten

20th century. Vitality & potential of older adults: young-old and old-old (60/70s vs 80/90s). how doe early life and social context influence aging?

Aristotle

300 B.C. Development is preformed, innate. Boys have infancy, boyhood, and young manhood and then stop in development. nature-oriented, universal, set by birth

Piaget & morality

4-7: heteronomous morality (Piaget): first stage of moral development, occurring from 4-7. Justice and rules are conceived as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people. 7-10: transition 10+: autonomous morality: second stage of moral dev in Piaget theory, 10+. Children aware that rules/laws created b people, in judging an action they should consider the actor's intentions as well as the consequences. Heteronomous: rules are unchangeable Believe in immanent justice: rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately As become older, more peer relations allow them to better understand social relationships Thompson: children not as egocentric, children show non-egocentric awareness of others' goals, feelings, desires

Concrete operational stage

7-11 years. Children can perform concrete operations, and logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning as long as the reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples. Seriation: concrete operation that involves ordering stimuli along quantitative dimension (like length) Transitivity: logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions. Piaget argued that an understanding of transitivity is characteristic of concrete op thought

Generativity versus stagnation

7th stage in Erikson's life span theory: encompasses adults' desire to leave a legacy of themselves to the next generation

Dual-process model:

decision making is influenced by two cognitive systems - one analytical and one experiential - that compete with each other The experiential system benefits adolescent decision making

Empty nest syndrome:

decline in marital satisfaction occurs when children leave home; however, usually upswing in marital satisfaction Adult children often come to live home again Loss of privacy with adult children living in homes Parents and children have more contact than in previous generations -> but maybe parental support is too intense

Married adults

declining marriage rates communication problem in high income; drugs/infidelity problem in low SES Gottman: marriage - love maps, fondness, turning towards each other, creating shared meaning

what do developmental researchers do?

describe, explain, predict, and optimize development

Dual-process theory

e. Brandtstaedter f. Try to maintain self-concept g. Assimilation by striving tenaciously for broad goals of development h. Accommodation by flexibly adjusting goals if they are not attainable

age & individual

individual gymnast accomplishments

Temperament

individual's behavioral style & characteristic way of responding

self-understanding

individual's cognitive representation of the self, the substance of self-conceptions mirror technique - by 2 years old, most can recognize early childhood: confuse self/mind/body - distinguish self through physical descriptions, how they play early childhood: overestimation of their abilities, but theory of mind advances, start to see people can lie middle/late childhood: understand self in psychological characteristics, more realistic self-evaluation middle/late childhood: perspective taking: ability to assume another person's perspective and understand his/her thoughts/feelings. adolescence: more self-conscious, contradictory, abstract adolescence: possible selves: what adolescents hope to become as well as what they dread they will become adulthood: self-awareness, fewer possible selves, life review in old aeg

visual perception

infancy newborn world is not confusion can't see far away when first born, se colors at 8 weeks Size constancy: recognition that object remains same even though retinal image of object changes as viewer moves towards/away from it Shape constancy: recognition that object remains same even though orientation to viewer changes both around 3 months adulthood Accommodation of the eye: eye's ability to focus/maintain image on retina declines between 40/59 Diseases of the eye Cataracts: thickening of lens of eye that causes vision to become cloudy, opaque, distorted Age 70 - 30% of people experience partial loss of vision Glaucoma: damage to optic nerve bc of pressure created by buildup of fluid in eye Age 70: 1%, age 90: 10% Macular degeneration: vision problem in elderly that involves deterioration of macula of retina Unable to see clearly what is right in front of them 1 in 4 66-74, 1 in 6 75+ Difficult to treat

bio & experience factors of temperament

inhibited temperament: high heart rate, more cortisol heredity moderate influence parents react different if temperament in girls opposed to boy easy temperament when younger -> more well adjusted adult

Euthanasia

painlessly ending lives; mercy killing Passive euthanasia: withholding of available treatments like life-sustaining devices (turning off machine) Active euthanasia: death induced deliberately; lethal injection Terri Schiavo: 15 years in vegetative state, finally ordered to remove tube Assisted suicide: certain states allow it

parenting & moral development

parents play large role (contrary to Kohlberg & Piaget) relational quality, help with proactive strategies, conversational dialogue Eisenberg: parents should be supportive, opportunities to learn, etc

Development

pattern of movement/change that begins at conception and continues through human life span

Cephalocaudal pattern:

sequence in which fastest growth occurs @ top of body (head) with physical growth in size, weight, and feature differentiation gradually working from top to bottom Can see before control torso, etc Not always follow this pattern - can actually control early leg movements

Infancy and brain

shaken baby is bad early experience: deprived environ -> depressed brain activity (Romanian orphanage) Changing neurons: by age 2, brain is 75% of adult weight myelination begins - blooming & pruning

childhood & memory

short term capacity increases in childhood working memory helps with child devo - reading, math, foreign language comp autobiographical memory begins to be detailed at age 3-5 eyewitness testimony: more suceptible strategies: imagery (create mental images) elaboration: engagement in more extensive processing of info, benefits memory fuzzy trace theory: memory is best understood by considering 2 types of memory representations: verbatim memory trace and gist. Older children's better memory is attributed to fuzzy traces created by extracting the gist of info knowledge

adolescnece & sleep

should get 8+, only 31% do early school times negatively affect it (adults: should get 8)

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

show 1+ of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity High levels of physical activity Hyperactivity & impulsivity go together Over diagnosed ADHD a lot, more likely boys than girls Can develop from parents, or damage during pre-post natal development Thickness of cerebral cortex occurs 3 years later, delay in brain frontal lobe development Areas linked to executive function Adjustment and optimal development are difficult 70% continue to experience symptoms as adolescents, 66% as adults Ritalin/Adderall are effective

Critiques of Piaget theory

some come earlier (object permanence), some later (adults aren't formal operational thinkers) not in distinct stages you can get to higher level if trained culture & education have strong influence

Lateralization

specialization of function in one hemisphere or the other of the cerebral cortex

patterns of dev change

stability & change (like a rive) continuity & discontinuity

stability/change in personality

stability in OCEAN across life no extreme changes Mills College: happiest if commit to tasks (family or career) greatest change in early adulthood

Social cognitive theory of morality

theory that distinguishes between moral competence - ability to produce moral behaviors - and moral performance - performing those behaviors in specific situations Bandura: moral development best understood by considering combo of social and cognitive factors

Theory of mind

thoughts about how one's own mental processes work and mental processes of others Developmental changes Perceptions: children realize people will see what's in front of their eyes by age 2 Emotions: can distinguish b/w emotions Desires: toddlers recognize that if people want something they will try to get it Mind can represent objects and events accurately or inaccurately: people have false beliefs (realize this by age 5) Sally and Anne - put toy in different basket. 3 year olds fail these task, 4+ older pass task 5-7: deeper appreciation for thinking

Ethnic gloss

using ethnic label in a superficial way that portrays an ethnic group as being more homogeneous than it really is

Life-span perspective

view of development as lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, contextual; involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss; constructed through biological, sociocultural, and individual factors Lifelong: development over entire life Multidimensional: biological, cognitive, socioemotional dimensions Multidirectional: get better and worse over time Plastic: plasticity = capacity for change. Less capacity when become old Multidisciplinary: sociology, anthropology, neuroscientists, etc Contextual: development occurs in a context (school, family) - normative age-graded, history-raded, nonnormative life events

Gender-intensification hypothesis

view that psych and beh differences b/w b & g become greater during early adolescence bc of increased socialization pressures to conform to traditional gender roles intensification of masculinity & femininity

Core knowledge approach

(Spelke): states that infants are born with domain-specific innate knowledge systems. Among these systems are those involving space, number sense, object permanence, and language critique of Piaget: his doesn't mention domain-specific (pertains to sensorimotor)

perceptual narrowing

- 6 mos: look at new human AND monkey face - by 9 mos: don't look at monkey face - 4-6 mos: can discriminate phonetic differences in languages - by 10 mos: can't - you can prevent perceptual narrowing with 6 month olds, not adults

Life-history strategies

- adapting to bad environment can be adaptive - psychopathology: assumes harsh environments disturb dev, but this says children are adaptive to high risk environment so make best of bad situation

socioemotional selectivity theory

- as age, more selective about partners - decrease desire for knowledge goals, more desire for emotional goals as age - limited time is constraint on primary goal striving - non-social partners get pruned

continuity theory

1. Continuity in one's preferred level of social involvement, rather than absolute level, matters most for well-being a. If adult has always had large network, should continue to have large network

chromosomal problems

1. Down Syndrome: extra chromosome 2. Klinefelter syndrome: XXY (m) 3. Fragile X: abnormality in X chromosome (m) a. Autism, intellectually disability, facial deformities 4. Turner Syndrome - missing x chromosome in females 5. XYY: extra Y chromosome cause above average height in males

Principles of life-long development and aging

1. Historical time & place: life course embedded in historical times 2. Timing in lives: when event occurs in life 3. Linked lives: lives are lived interdependently 4. Human agency: construct their life through choices Glen Elder

Match vs. mismatch

1. Nature selection favors risky strategies, but can have negative consequences for some 2. Mismatch b/w previously adaptive behavior and changing environment (move into a different family atmosphere) 3. Mismatch because early environments are not congruent with later one (grad student's child) 4. Mismatch because adaptation was appropriate in hunter-gatherer, but not modern (youth aggression, promiscuity)

genetic problems

1. Phenylketonuria: metabolic disorder that can lead to mental retardation. Special diet can result in average intelligence.

teratogens

1. Physical: outside environment (hypothermia, etc) 2. Chemical: ingested by mother (drugs, alcohol) 3. Infectious: viruses 4. Greatest sensitivity in week 6-7? Overall, 3 - 8 weeks (first 2 months of pregnancy) ii. Apgar scale: indicate if baby has medical problems

Sequential and coordinative complexities in tasks

1. Sequential arithmetic -> young and old adults have same # of correct responses 2. Coordinative arithmetic -> old are worse than young (take longer, remember less) 3. Identify transformations in objects -> young adults > children > old adults 4. Biggest difference in older adults comes in global transformations (worse at that) 5. Coordinative much harder than sequentially in older adults

Bullying

1/3 bullied Boys & younger middle schoolers more likely to be affected More loneliness, more difficulty making friends Bully: low grades, smoke/drink alcohol Anxious/socially withdrawn/ aggressive children more likely victims Classmates usually Victim: suicide and depression Cyber aggression is new concern

Ethnicity in schools

1/3 of black and 1/3 of Latino students attend schools in 47 largest city school districts in US - many are segregated, underfunded, don't provide good opportunities Asian American students 2x as likely to take math and science

children and sleep

11-13 hours of sleep sleep problems (depression) if don't sleep well

Formal operational stage

11-15; move beyond concrete experiences and think in more abstract ways Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: cognitive ability to develop hypotheses about ways to solve problems and can systematically deduce which is the best path to follow in solving the problem Adolescent egocentrism: heightened self consciousness of adolescents, reflected in their beliefs that others are as interested in them as they are in themselves, and in their sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility. Imaginary audience: aspect of ad. Eg. That involves feeling that one is center of attention, on stage Personal fable: involves their sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility

Multiple developmental trajectories

Adults follow one pattern, children another

consequences of attachment differences

Ainsworth: secure attachment is good for child later in life For some children, early attachment does predict certain things Sroufe: secure = positive self esteem, confidence, emotional health, social competence Disorganized attachment -> externalizing problems more than others If doubly insecure (to both m & f), have more problems Attachment continuity throughout childhood - reflects stable environment Developmental cascade model: connections across domains over time that influence developmental pathways and outcomes If you were securely attached, it's likely you'll have a stable home, so you'll have good parenting throughout life, etc Can involve social contexts, produce negative or positive outcomes Meta-analysis: Moderate stability of attachment from infancy to adulthood No stability for time periods +15 years Stability greater when less than 2 year time span or more than 5 years Kagan: infants are adaptive, too much emphasis placed on attachment Critique: ignores diversity of socializing agents & contexts in an infant's world German vs Japanese mothers - German infants more independent, so less stressed out when mothers leave Agricultural cultures: form attachments to siblings

Social role theory

Alice Eagly's theory that psych gender differences are caused by contrasting social roles of women and men Women adapted to less powerful roles, so became less dominant

Children in divorced families

Are children better adjusted in intact, never-divorced families than in divorced families? Show poorer adjustment in divorced families More emotional problems, drop out, more sexually active, take drugs, etc, depression marital conflict can still be a problem in non-divorced families Emotional security theory: children appraise marital conflict in terms of their sense of security and safety in the family Should parents stay together for the sake of the children? Divorce can be good if really bad marriage But divorce can also bring about bad parenting and more conflict How much do family processes matter in divorced families? Harmonious: adjustment of adolescents is improved Agree on child rearing strategies helpful What factors influence a child's vulnerability to suffering negative consequences as a result of living in a divorced family? Adjustment, personality, and custody situation can affect it What role does SES play Mothers lose a decent amount of income

attention

Attention: focusing of mental resources Selective attention: focusing on specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant Divided attention: concentrating on more than one activity at the same time Sustained attention: ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for prolonged period of time Executive attention: cog processing involving planning actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting/compensating for errors, monitoring progress on tasks, dealing with novel/difficult circumstances

Baumrind's Parenting Styles

Authoritarian parenting: restrictive, punitive style where parents exhort child to follow directions and respect work and effort. Firm limits, little verbal communication Authoritative parenting: encourages children to be independent, still places limits and controls - verbal give and take, warm and nurturant Neglectful parenting: parent very uninvolved in child's life Indulgent parenting: parents very involved, place few demands

Parent-adolescent relationships

Autonomy and attachment Parents see adolescent as slipping from their grasp Adolescents push for autonomy, generally gain skills to have that autonomy Early autonomy in whites, later autonomy in Asian/Latino/married parents Boys given more independence Mothers maintain closer emotional ties Secure attachment Parent-adolescent conflict Conflicts with parents escalate in adolescence Puberty, focus on independence, etc Usually gets better as move through adolescence Adolescents who disagree with parents explore identity development New model: most conflict is moderate, can serve a positive function Immigration: adolescents acculturate quickly, diverge more from families

Cognitive mechanics and cognitive pragmatics

Baltes Cognitive mechanics: "hardware" of mind - neurophysiological architecture of brain as developed through evolution. Involves speed and accuracy of processes involving sensory input, visual and motor memory, discrimination, comparison, and categorization Decline with age Cognitive pragmatics: "software" of mind. Reading/writing, language comp, educational qualifications, professional skills, self-knowledge, life skills Can improve with age

Self-efficacy

Bandura: achievement relies on self-efficacy Self-efficacy: belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes Schunk: influences their choice of activities - higher -> more learning tasks Influenced by parents

history & individual

Barack Obama @ DNC in 2004. Politics allowed him to enter stage at that moment

age & society

Berlin Wall. differently affected (middle age the worse)

Environment -> gene activation

Biological characteristics evolve in response to environmental influences. Children who experience abuse -> more responsive to faces with hostile expression. Girls raised in threatening environment are sexually active earlier, teen mothers. Biologically preprogrammed to certain environment

Biological, Cognitive and Socioemotional Processes

Biological processes: produce changes in individual's physical nature Cognitive processes: involve changes in individual's thought, intelligence, and language Socioemotional processes: changes in individual's relationships with other people, emotions, and personality Connecting all processes: Baby smiling: involves bio, cognitive, and socioemotional processes Developmental cognitive neuroscience: explores links bw development, cognitive processes, and brain Developmental social neuroscience: bw socioemotional processes, development, and brain Often bidirectional

evolution/brain & language

Broca's area: left frontal lobe, involved in producing words Wernicke's area: left hemisphere, language comprehension Aphasia: loss/impairment in language processing

Forms of mourning

Burial v cremation - cremation more popular in south Funeral directors - trying to make $ or actually helping? Sometimes ceremonial meal, black armband, etc Amish: funeral in barn, high level of support to family Judaism: graduated time periods of mourning Shivah

genes x environment -> behavior

Certain genes only affect behavior under certain enviro conditions (make them more responsive/vulnerable) Shy person better off at small college Child with creative, impulsive personality will not do well in highly controlled classroom Caspi: high MAOA is protective if children were abused in adolescence. Aggressive behavior only in those with both environmental disadvantage and genetic vulnerability

Child maltreatment

Child abuse: both abuse and neglect Child maltreatment: not only abuse and neglect, also to diverse conditions Types of child maltreatment Physical abuse: infliction of physical injury Child neglect: failure to provide for a child's basic needs, including physical, education, or emotional needs Sexual abuse: fondling child's genitals, exploitation, rape, sodomy, etc Emotional abuse: acts/omissions by parents or caregivers that have caused, or could cause, serious behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems

Early childhood education

Child-centered kindergarten: ed that involves whole child by considering their physical, cog, and socioemotional dev and their needs/interests/learning styles More emphasis on process, not what is learned Montessori approach: children given freedom, spontaneity in choosing activities Some believe neglects socioemotional development Google founders Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP): education that focuses on typical developmental patterns of children and uniqueness of each child (individual appropriateness). Contrasts with developmentally inappropriate practice, which has academic, direct institution emphasis focused largely on abstract paper-and-pencil activities, seatwork, and rote/drill practice activities. Feel less stress, more motivated, more creative

Environment & language (recasting, expanding, labeling)

Child-directed speech: language spoken in higher pitch than normal, with simple words and sentences Recasting: rephrasing a statement a child has said, perhaps turning into a question or restating a child's immature utterance in form of fully grammatical sentence Expanding: restating in a linguistically sophisticated form what a child said Labeling: identifying names of objects

Attitudes toward death at different points in lifespan

Childhood: don't perceive time the same way, so temporary losses are huge Children believe dead can be brought back to life Age 9+: recognize it is significant Kastenbaum: young children have concerns about death, try to understand it Death of parent especially hard Honesty best strategy when discussing death Adolescence Describe death in terms of darkness, light, transition, etc Believe vulnerable to experiencing premature death Adulthood Increase in consciousness about death Younger adults who are dying feel more cheated

Life-events approach of personality

Contemporary life-events approach: how a life event influences individual's development depends not only on the event but also on mediating factors, the individual's adaptation to the life event, the life-stage context, and the sociohistorical context Ex: divorce causes different stressors at different contexts Drawback: too much emphasis on change, not enough on daily experiences

Language acquisition device (LAD)

Chomsky biological endowment that enables child to detect certain features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics

Collaborative Gene

Chromosomes: threadlike structures made up of DNA in nucleus of human cel DNA: double helix shape, contains genetic info Genes: unit of hereditary info composed of DNA. Help cells reproduce themselves & assemble proteins that direct body processes Each gene has specific place in chromosome - Human Genome project Genome-wide association method: identify genetic variations linked with particular disorder. DNA is purified, then looked to see if those with disease have certain genetic variation. Childhood obesity, cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer's, depression Linkage analysis: discover location of genes in relation to a marker gene. Genes usually in close proximity in off spring, so usually near marker gene Next-generation sequencing: increase in genetic data generated at a reduced cost and shorter period of time. Human genome varies between individuals. Thousand Genomes Project: detailed study of human genetic variation Humans have only 20500 genes (thought to be 100000+ before) Genetic expression is affected by environment - hormones, external events

middle adulthood sexuality

Climacteric: midlife transition during which fertility declines Menopause: middle age when women's menstrual periods have ceased for one year Decline in estrogen production

Females & aging

Climateric: midlife transition where fertility declines Menopause: complete cessation of women's menstrual cycle, usually 40s-50s No change in menopause despite decreased age of menarche Perimenopause: transitional period from normal periods to none, takes up to 10 years Depression, headaches, moodiness, etc Estrogen production declines rapidly during menopause

infancy/childhood and thinking

Concepts: cognitive grouping of similar objects, events, people or ideas 7-9 mos: conceptual categories, year 2: more advances; rich, gradual (unlike Piaget) Executive function: umbrella-like concept that encompasses number of higher-level cognitive processes linked to development of brain's prefrontal cortex. Involves managing one's thoughts and engage in goal-directed behavior, exercise self control Critical thinking: thinking reflectively and productively, evaluating evidence : mindfulness training could be helpful children place emphasis on causal mechanisms, happenstance events (scientific)

antisocial behavior

Conduct disorder: age-inappropriate actions and attitudes that violate family expectations, society's norms, and personal/property rights of others Juvenile delinquency: actions taken by an adolescent in breaking the law or engaging in illegal behavior Theft/property damage decrease from 18 to 26 (peak is 15-18) Peak for violence: 18-21 (m<f) Early-onset antisocial behavior: before age 11. associated with more developmental outcomes than late onset (after age 11) Pittsburgh Youth Study: 3 developmental pathways to delinquency Authority conflict Covert: lying, property damage Overt: minor aggression, fighting, violence Given harsher sentence -> more likely to be recommitted Causes of delinquency Negative identity Erikson: delinquency is attempt to establish identity Lower-class culture might promote it. Parents worse at discouraging antisocial behavior Train parents in how to help children Family therapy can help reduce delinquency Siblings have strong influence

Schooling approaches

Constructivist approach: learner-centered - emphasize individual's active, cognitive construction of knowledge and understanding with guidance from teacher - Children should explore world, discover Direct instruction approach: teacher-centered; teacher direction and control, high expectation for student progress, max time spent on academic tasks

Creativity in Schools

Creativity: ability to think in novel and unusual ways and come up with unique solutions to problems Divergent thinking: thinking that produces many answers to same solution: characteristic of creativity Convergent thinking: thinking that produces one correct answer: characteristic of kind of thinking required on IQ tests

Culture

Culture: behavior/patterns/beliefs/products of group of people passed on from gen to gen Cross-cultural studies: compare aspects of 2+ cultures to provide info about if dev is universal or culture-specific Ethnocentrism: tendency to consider one's own groups superior to other groups Individualism: priority to personal goals; serve self Collectivism: serve group, interdependence of members

Empathy

Damon's theory Empathy: reacting to another's feelings with an emotional response that is similar to the others' feelings Component of perspective taking. Global empathy: young infant's empathetic response -> cry when see another infant hurt

Issues in determining death

Defining death more complex than 25 years ago Brain death: neurological definition of death - all electrical activity of brain is stopped, that's when you die Death of both higher and lower brain stem functions Some say should be only higher cortical functioning, then you're dead

Kubler-Ross' Stages of Dying

Denial and isolation: denies they are going to die Anger: get angry Bargaining: hopes that death can be postponed Depression: perceives certainty of death Acceptance: sense of peace about fate Stage interpretation not quite correct

Cognitive neuroscience and aging

Developmental cognitive neuroscience Aging of PFC can produce decline in working memory Neural circuits in regions of pfc decline, which is linked to poorer performance by older adults on reasoning tasks Older more likely to use both hemispheres of brain Hippocampus functioning declines Neural decline patterns larger for retrieval than encoding Older adults show more activity in frontal and parietal lobes on simple tasks Younger adults have better connectivity between brain regions Walk more, show increased volume in frontal/temporal lobes Neurocognitive scaffolding

periods of development

Developmental period: time frame in person's life characterized by certain features 8 sequences: prenatal, infancy, early childhood, middle/late childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, late adulthood Prenatal: conception -> birth, a lot of growth Infancy: birth to 18/24 mos, extreme dependence on adults Early childhood: 3-5/6: "preschool" - more self sufficient Middle/late adulthood: 6 - 11 years, elementary: fundamental skills mastered Adolescence: 10/12 - 18/21: rapid physical changes, sexual characteristics, pursuit of independence Emerging adulthood: 18-25 years: transitional period b/w adolescence and adulthood, experimentation & exploration Identify exploration, esp in love and work Instability - rapid changes Self-focused Feeling in-between: don't consider themselves adults or adolescents Age of possibilities: optimistic about future, opportunity to direct lives in positive way Also true in Europe & Australia Early adulthood, early 20s - 30s: personal/economic independence, career development Middle adulthood: 40 - 60: expanding involvement & responsibility, assist next generation Late adulthood: 60s/70s +: life review, decreasing strength, longest span of any other period Paul Bates: "oldest old" is 85, shows significant loss in cognitive skills, stress

Divorced adults

Divorce rate declined in recent decades, but US still highest in world Certain characteristics more cause for early divorce Divorce usually occurs 5-10 years into marriage Stress of separation and divorce - psych problems, health problems Women more likely to seek divorce, perceive divorce as getting "second chance" Coping with divorce Can produce positive outcomes by thinking of it as a time to grow, focus on the future, make decisions carefully, etc Divorced middle age and older adults Many stay married because of children Divorce can weaken ties, etc

childhood and brain

Early childhood: brain/head grow more rapidly than any other part (myelination and dendrites) Not growing as rapidly as in infancy Brain pathways/circuitry involving prefrontal cortex increase

Culture & IQ

Eastern cultures: intelligence is ways to engage in social roles Kenya: score high on test about herbs score low on test of academics Culture-fair tests: intelligence tests designed to avoid cultural bias

Chess and Thomas' classification of temperament

Easy child: positive mood, establishes routines, adapts easily to new experiences Difficult child: reacts negatively, cries frequently, irregular routines, slow to accept change Slow-to-warm-up child: low activity level, somewhat negative, low mood intensity 40% easy, 15% slow, 10% difficult: 35% did not fit any category

Tetens

Emphasized individual differences in people -> development influenced by modifiability and self-initiated action. 18th century.

Ecological Theory

Emphasizes environmental factors Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory: focuses on 5 environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem Micro: setting where individual lives -> most direct interactions with social agents Mesosystem: relations bw microsystems or connections bw contexts - relationship of family experiences to school experiences, etc Exosystem: link b/w immediate context & social setting - child's experience at home influenced by mother's experience at work Macrosystem: culture in which individuals live Chronosystem: patterning of enviro events/transitions over life course

Nature/nurture and perceptual developmen

Empiricists: emphasize learning, experience Nativists: emphasize nature Nativist: ability to perceive world is innate Gibsons is somewhat nativist, not entirely Piaget constructivist view: reflects empiricist approach Must reach cognitive stage Maurer: infants with cataracts Longer delay in moving cataracts, more visual development is impaired

adults & memory

Episodic memory: retention of info about the where/when of life's happenings Autobiographical memories stored as episodic memories Reminiscence bump: adults remember more from 20s/30s than other decade Semantic memory: person's knowledge about world, including fields of expertise, general academic knowledge, everyday knowledge Younger adults > over in episodic Gap b/w semantic and episodic widens in 60s (worse episodic) Tip of the tongue phenomenon - can't retrieve familiar info but have feeling they should achieve it implicit memory is less likely to be adversely affected by aging Source memory: ability to remember where something was learned Failures increase in adult years Prospective memory: remember to do something in the future Decline in age, but cause of decline is complex

Dynamic systems theory

Esther Thelen, seeks to explain how infants assemble motor skills for perceiving and acting Must perceive something in environment that motivates them to act, then use perceptions to fine tune movement If motivated to do something, might create new behavior Infant must actively coordinate several components of skill -> get into ballpark of task Ex: giving baby new toy, how do they handle it Lecture: Perception and action are developing in tandem. Challenge and promote each other. Goal-directed action propels forward the development of perception and motor skills

Ethnicity and culture and education

Ethnicity SES predicts achievement better than ethnicity Middle income black students also have high achievement, failure due to lack of effort Cross-cultural comparisons US does poorly in math and science Harold Stevenson: American parents had lower expectations than Asian parents, believe failure due to ability, while Asian parents think failure due to lack of effort Pomerantz: more involved parents are in learning, better outcomes Chinese mothers self worth more contingent on student achievement than US

Ethological Theory

Ethology: behavior strongly influenced by bio, is tied to evolution, and characterized by critical or sensitive periods. Time frames where presence/absence of experiences has long lasting influence on individuals Konrad Lorenz: studied greylag geese imprinted on Lorenz Bowlby: attachment to caregiver over first year of life has consequences Critical period: Lorenz Sensitive period: Bowlby

Rothbart and Bates' classification of temperament

Extraversion/surgency (Kagan's uninhibited children fit into here) Negative affectivity (Kagain's inhibited children) Effortful control (self regulation) - have strategies to soothe themselves

Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation: doing something to obtain something else Intrinsic motivation: doing something for its own sake - self-determination, etc Parental motivational practices linked to children's motivation

moral feeling & psychoanalytics

Freud Ego ideal: component of superego that rewards child by conveying sense of pride and personal value when child acts according to ideal standards approved by parents Conscience: component of superego that punishes child for behaviors disapproved of by parents by making child feel guilty and worthless Children internalize parents' standards of right and wrong because fear losing love for unacceptable sexual attraction to opposite parent Children do express guilt

What is attachment?

Freud: attached to person that provides oral satisfaction Harry Harlow: that's not true (monkeys with cloth mother) Erik Erikson: physical comfort & sensitive care key to establishing basic trust in infants Bowlby: importance of attachment, caregiver responsiveness 4 phases of attachment: Birth - 2m: direct attachment to human figures 2-7m: focused on one caregiver 7-24: specific attachments develop 24+: aware of others feelings, goals, plans Infants have internal working model of attachment: simple mental model of caregiver, relationship, etc

Psychoanalytic theory of gender

Freud: preschool children develop sexual attraction to opposite sex parent, then @ 5-6 renounce attraction b/c of anxious feelings, identifying with same-sex parent

gender definitions

Gender: characteristics of peoples as females or males Gender identity: sense of one's own gender, including knowledge, understanding, and acceptance of being male/female Gender role: set of expectations that prescribe how males/females should act, etc Gender-typing: acquisition of typically masculine/feminine role

genotype & phenotype

Genotype: all a person's genetic material Susceptibility genes: make more vulnerable to diseases/aging; longevity genes: those make less vulnerable to diseases/aging Phenotype: observable/measurable characteristics of individual (height, intelligence)

Adolescent peer relations

Girls have strong peer attachment More heterogeneous groups Peer pressure 8-9th grade peak in peer pressure conformity Will succumb if unsure of social identity Cliques & crowds Cliques: small groups, 2-12 range (5-6 average). Same age, same sex, same activities Crowds: larger group, usually based on reputation, don't' spend much time together (jock, populars, metal heads, etc)

Goodness of fit and parenting

Goodness of fit: match b/w child's temperament and environmental demands the child must cope with Some temperaments are harder than others - if children are prone to distress, parent might force child to behave

Dimensions of grieving

Grief: emotional numbness, disbelief, separation anxiety, etc More like roller coaster ride than anything 6 months: usually accept is as their reality Complicated grief or prolonged grief disorder: enduring despair and unresolved over extended period of time More likely if lost spouse, unexpectedly, etc Depression Disenfranchised grief: socially ambiguous, can't be openly mourned or supported Ex-spouse, abortion, AIDS

adulthood & attachment

Hazan & Shaver: young adults in secure attachment relationships likely to describe early parent relationships as securely attached Secure attachment style: describes adults who have positive views of relationships, find it easy to get close to others, and are not overly concerned/stressed out about romantic relationships Avoidant attachment style: describes adults who are hesitant about getting involved in romantic relationships and, once in one, tend to distance themselves from partner Anxious attachment style: describes adults who demand closeness, less trusting, more emotional/jealous/possessive Mikulincer and Shaver: secure = self-acceptance, self-esteem, self-efficacy Romantic love: passionate love/eros: strong components of sexuality and infatuation, predominates in early part of a love relationship Affectionate love: companionate love; individuals desire to have another person near and have a deep, caring, affection for the person Triangular theory of love: Sternberg's theory that love includes 3 components or dimensions - passion, intimacy, and commitment

Erikson & identity

Identity versus identity confusion: 5th stage: faced with finding out who adolescents are, what they are all about, where they are going in life Psychosocial moratorium: Erikson's term for gap between childhood security and adult autonomy that adolescents experience as part of their identity exploration Adolescents experiment during this time

the self

Self: all characteristics of a person Identity: who a person is, representing a synthesis and integration of self understanding Personality: enduring personal characteristics of individuals

Kohlberg & morality

Heinz dilemma Level 1: Preconventional reasoning: individuals' moral reasoning controlled primarily by external rewards/punishments Stage 1: heteronomous morality (Kohlberg): moral thinking tied to punishment Stage 2: individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange: 2nd stage in level 1. individuals pursue own interests but also let others do the same Level 2: conventional reasoning: intermediate level in K theory. Individuals abide by standards of others such as parents or laws of society Stage 3; mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity: 3rd stage in K. individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others as basis for moral judgments Stage 4: social systems morality: 4th stage of K. Moral judgments based on understanding social order, law, justice, duty Level 3: postconventional reasoning: highest level in K. individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores options, and then decides on personal moral code Stage 5: social contract or utility and individual rights: 5 stage in K. individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undergird or transcend the law Stage 6: universal ethical principles: 6 stage. Develop moral standard based on universal human rights. critiques: not enough emphasis on behavior vs thought culturally biased to whites parents play important role, actually Gilligan: gender bias Justice perspective: moral perspective that focuses on rights of individual; individuals independently make moral decisions, Kohlberg's perspective. Care perspective: moral perspective of Carol Gilligan: views people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships with others, and concern for others

Suicide

Highest rate: Lithuania for males, Sri Lanka for females Adolescence 3rd leading cause of death for 10-19 year olds More think about it than commit to it Highest rate: Native American females, black males Overall: Native American most, white least Earlier experiences involved in suicide attempts Depressive symptoms, hopelessness, self esteem issues, high self blame Adulthood and aging Increasing among adults Increase in late adulthood Older white men more likely to commit Males > females for all ages

puberty hormonal changes

Hormones: powerful chemical substances secreted by endocrine glans, carried through body by bloodstream Endocrine system: hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and gonads Hypothalamus: structure in brain involved with eating and sexual behavior Pituitary gland: endocrine gland that controls growth & regulates activity of other glands Gonads: sex glands (testes & ovaries) Pituitary gland sends signal via gonadotropins (hormones that stimulate testes/ovaries) to appropriate gland to manufacture hormones Testosterone: boys, genitals, height, voice changes Estradiol: girls, breast, uterine, skeletal development Influx of hormones can contribute to psych development, but not alone

Hospice

Hospice: making end of life free from pain, anxiety, depression (contrast to hospital) Palliative care: emphasized in hospice are, reducing pain and suffering and helping die with dignity More hospitals now have palliative care team

Ethnicity

Immigration Asians are fastest growing ethnic group of adolescents, and Latino Immigrants have many stressors Ethnicity and families Latino groups: large extended families Single parent homes more common for black and Latino families Ethnic minority children have it very hard Bicultural orientation: select characteristics from US, keep some of their own Ethnicity and aging Elderly ethnic minority individuals - racism and ageism More likely ill, less treatment More family networks help them

genes x individual selection and action -> environment -> behavior

Individual is active agent in shaping & stabilizing own personality Become more and more like ourselves the more we have choice As we age, get better at choosing things we like, which is influenced by what we chose

social contexts of identity

Individuality: characteristic consisting of 2 dimensions: self assertion (ability to have & communicate a point of view); and separateness (use of communication patterns to express how one is different from others) Connectedness: consists of 2 dimensions: mutuality, sensitivity to and respect for others views; and permeability, openness to others' views Ethnic identity: enduring aspect of self that includes sense of membership in an ethnic group, along with attitudes/feelings related to that membership

Education & special education

Individualized education plan (IEP): written statement that spells out a program tailored to child with disability. Should be related to their learning capacity, specially constructed to meet their individual needs, designed to provide educational benefits. Least restricted environment (LRE): setting that is as similar as possible to one in which children without a disability are educated Inclusion: education of child with special educational needs full-time in regular classroom

Child care

Large centers, private homes, nonprofit centers, many variety 15% of children < 5 attend >1 child care arrangement. High quality care: children be actively engaged, positive interactions, safe interactions National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) - study on child care Patterns of use: a lot of children have instability of child arrangements Quality of care: very low quality Spend more than 30 hours/week child care, development suffers Parents still play important role Really bad when home and child care are bad

peak performance

Lehman and Simonton i. Age trajectories and peaks in different domains 1. Inventions: peak in mid-30s; artists: best work in 30s 2. Religion: peak of founder age @ around 35-40; peak of pope/president: 80-90 ii. Career onset x creative potential 1. Simonton: peak of productivity in 40s, output begins in 20th: slow descent after optimum 2. Ratio of all works to high quality works stable across age 3. If career starts too late, interference by aging-related decline 4. Peak of creative output for science & art: 40s; peak of scholarship: 60s

Cellular clock theory

Leonard Hayflick's theory that # of times human cells can divide is about 75 - 80. as we age, our cells become less able to divide. Each time cell divides, telomere becomes shorter Healthy centenarians had longer telomeres than unhealthy ones Enzyme telomerase can extend life of cells

stage-crisis view personality

Levinson's seasons of a man's life Early adulthood: must master possibilities for adult living and develop stable life structure 20s as novice phase for adult development 30s: career/family development 40: reached stable location 40-45: change to middle adulthood, must confront different crises Midlife crises Levinson views as crisis: Valliant says not all have crises Few men actually have midlife crises Individual variations Stage theories place too much emphasis on crises Middle-aged adults interpret, shape, alter, and give meaning to their lives

Life expectancy and life span

Life span: upper boundary of life (max # of years someone can live). 120 years Life expectancy: # years average person born in certain year will live - 78.3 in 2011 in US US better than some countries Monaco -> Macau -> Japan -> Singapore... US is 50th Lowest in African countries African American < by 5 years than non-Latino whites Women: 80.8; men: 75.7 Men more likely than women to die from leading causes of death in US Women more resistance to infections, degenerative diseases

adulthood and brain

Loses 5-10% brain weight between 20 and 90, volume also decreases PFC shrinks with aging Reduction in synaptic functioning, production of some nt (dopamine, GABA, acetylcholine) Only loses portion of ability to function in late adulthood Neurogenesis (generation of new neurons) occurs in mice -> exercise & rich environment can generate new brain cells in mice Can also occur in humans, but only documented in hippocampus and olfactory bulb Dendritic growth can occur Lateralization changes -> pfc is lateralized less in older adults

Low Birth weight and preterm infants

Low birth weight infants: less than 5.5 lbs at birth (very low < 3, extremely low < 2) Preterm infants: born 3+weeks before pregnancy reached full term Small for date infants: birth weights below normal when length of pregnancy is considered (also called small for gestational age infants). Can be preterm or full term. 2011: 11.7% born preterm, 34% increase since 1980s; age 35+, more substance abuse and stress India/Sudan: low birth weight is 31% US: low birth weight 8.1% Progestin: reduced preterm birth Consequences of low birth weight 1 Extremely preterm: 28 weeks, very preterm is 28-33 weeks 2 Increased rates of brain damage 3 Learning disability, ADHD, breathing problems 4 Autism Nurturing Low birth weight and preterm infants Kangaroo care: way of holding preterm infant so there is skin to skin contact Close contact with parent can help stabilize heartbeat, temperature, and breathing Massage therapy as well

identity statuses

Marcia: 4 statuses of identity (ways to resolve identity crisis): identity diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement. Crisis: period of identity dev during which individual is exploring alternatives Identity diffusion: Marcia's term, individuals have not yet experienced crisis or made any commitments Identity foreclosure: Marcia's term, individuals have made a commitment but not experienced a crisis. Parents hand down authoritarial commitments to adolescents, who haven't yet explored for themselves. Identity moratorium: Marcia's term, individuals who are in midst of crisis but whose commitments are either absent or vaguely defined Ex: college student doesn't know what life path to take, went to counseling center Identity achievement: Marcia's term, individuals have undergone crisis and made commitment Way to study: narrative approach. Asking individuals to tell stories, narrative identity adolescence: in diffiusion/foreclosure/moratorium college: lab for identity development moratorium peaks at 19

Mastery motivation

Mastery orientation: task-oriented - concerned with learning, process more than outcome Helpless orientation: trapped by experience of difficulty and attributes difficulty to lack of ability Mastery feels challenged and excited, helpless feels threatened Performance orientation: focus on winning, rather than outcome - happiness results from winning

Gender & aging

Men become more "feminine," but not vice versa as get older Older: more likely to endorse androgynous traits Older women: ageism and sexism Older African American women face a lot of stress

Remarried adults

Men remarry sooner than women Adjustment Remarried more unstable than married families Lower levels of mental health More egalitarian Many remarry for financial reasons, so hard to keep stable Remarriage and aging Older adults perceive negative social pressure about decision to remarry

adults & emotion

Men: flight or fight: aggressive, withdraw from social contact, or drink alcohol when men experience stress Tend and befriend: when women experience stress, more likely to seek social alliances with others, esp female friends older adults - more positive, less negative emotion

middle/late childhood & langauge

Metalinguistic awareness: knowledge about language Improves during elementary school Whole language approach: teaching approach built on idea that reading instruction should parallel children's natural language learning. Reading materials should be whole and meaningful. Integrated with other skills and subjects Phonics approach: teaching approach built on idea that reading instruction should teach basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds Instruction in phonics needs to be emphasized

adolescence & language (metaphor, satire, dialect)

Metaphor: implied comparison b/w two unlike things Satire: use of irony, derision, or wit to expose folly or wickedness Better writers Dialect: variety of language that is distinguished by its vocab, grammar, or pronunciation

Mindset

Mindset: cog view individuals develop for themselves that views their potential either as fixed or as capable of growth Fixed or growth mindset Dweck: influences if they will be optimistic, shape their goals, how hard they will strive. Begins to be shaped as children Experiment: gave kids info on importance of developing growth mindset, they did better "Brainology" - teach students their intelligence can change Emphasizing plasticity Growth mindset can prevent negative stereotypes

Mitosis, Meiosis, and Fertilization

Mitosis: cellular reproduction, cell's nucleus duplicates itself - two new cells are formed, each containing same DNA as original cell Meiosis: forms eggs and sperm, cell division -> each has 23 unpaired chromosomes Fertilization: egg and sperm fuse to create zygote Zygote: single cell formed through fertilization 23rd pair: XY for males, XX for females

The Brain

Neurons: nerve cells that handle info processing at cellular level 100 billion when born Neural tube forms 18-24 days after conception out of ectoderm Anencephaly: head of neural tube fails to close -> highest regions of brain don't develop, die in womb Spina bifala: incomplete spinal cord -> paralysis Helps: mother take B vitamin folic acid Neurogenesis: creation of new neurons Neuronal migration - 6-24 weeks after conception

attention & infancy

Orienting/investigative process : Directing attention to potentially important locations in environment and recognizing objects & their features Habituation and dishabituation : Infant attention linked to novelty and habituation : Important for parents to know to repeat things to child Joint attention : Joint attention: focus by individuals on same object or event; requires ability to track another's behavior, one individual to direct another's attention, and reciprocal interaction 10-11 months: "gaze following" Increases infant's ability to learn from others, esp learning language from caregiver Associated with dev of self-regulation in childhood - biggest change in joint & executive attention

Environment & IQ

Parent communication associated with higher Iqs Schooling influences intelligence IQ scores rising very high Flynn effect: worldwide increase in intelligence test scores Because it's a short period of time, can't be due to heredity

Cognitive Theories

Piaget's theory: children actively construct understanding of world and go through 4 stages of cognitive devo Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2y): coordinate sensory experiences with physical, motoric actions Preoperational stage (2 - 7y): represent world with images/words, still can't perform operations Concrete operational stage (7-11y): perform operations with objects, reason logically with concrete examples Formal operational stage (11-15+): think in abstract terms Vygotsky's Theory: sociocultural, emphasizes how culture & social interaction guide cognitive devo Need interaction with more skilled adults/peers Information-processing theory: emphasizes that individuals manipulate info, monitor, and strategize about it. Processes of memory and thinking. Gradually increasing, not stages Siegler: thinking = information processing Evaluating Cog Dev Theories Skepticism about pureness of Piaget's stages

Kastenbaum: death system components

People: everyone involved in death at some point Places/contexts: hospitals, cemeteries, memorials, etc Times: Memorial Day, Day of Dead, anniversaries of disasters Objects: caskets, black objects Symbols: skull & crossbones death system has functions: issue warnings, helps with disposing US are death deniers: gloss over death, reject aged

Language's Rule Systems

Phonology: sound system of language - includes sounds used and how they may be combined Basis for constructing large and expandable set of words Phoneme: basic unit of sound in language Morphology: units of meaning involved in word formation Minimal unit of meaning Helper = help + er Syntax: ways words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences Bob slugged tom, Bob was slugged by Tom differences Different syntaxes in different languages Semantics: meanings of words and sentences Girl and woman share semantic features, but differ semantically in regard to age Pragmatics: appropriate use of language in different contexts Use polite language, use a question to convey a command

peer relations

Piaget & Sullivan: children learn thru interactions with peers parents affect child peer relations early attachment -> better child peer relations peer contexts can affect it, as wella s personality traits of child prefer same sex playmates social cognition: thoughts about social matters, important in late childhood

Cognitive Changes in Adulthood

Piaget's View -Adults and adolescents use same kind of reasoning Realistic and Pragmatic Thinking -Idealism decreases as face reality - Schaie: unlikely that adults go beyond formal operational stage of thinking, but do progress past adolescents in use of their intellect Reflective and Relativistic Thinking -Perry: adolescents view world in polarities, but stop thinking in this dualistic way Cognition and Emotion -Vief: consider emotional maturity -Emotions hinder thinking when younger -Middle adulthood: can think better with cognition and emotions balanced Is there a fifth, postformal stage? -*Postformal thought*: thinking that is reflective, relativistic, and contextual; provisional; realistic; and influenced by emotions Complex Postformal Thought Questionnaire -Are there cognitive stages in middle and late adulthood? -Fluid and crystallized intelligence changes -Cognitive mechanics declines, cognitive pragmatics increases

Equilibration

Piaget, explain how children shift from one stage of thought to the next

infancy & emotion

Primary emotions: present in humans & other animals, emerge early, culturally universal Joy, anger, sadness, fear, disgust Self-conscious emotions : require consciousness, sense of "me" - empathy, jealousy, embarrassment, pride, shame, guilt - usually appear after 18 months of age Basic cry: rhythmic pattern with a cry, silence, short high cry, then brief rest (hunger) Anger cry: more excess air forced through vocal cords - loud, harsh sound, like shouting Pain cry: sudden, initial loud cry followed by breath holding with moaning. Reflexive smile: doesn't occur in response to stimuli - happens month after birth during sleep Social smile: response to external stimulus, typically a face - 4-6 weeks old Stranger anxiety: fear and wariness of strangers. Tends to start 6 months (there is individual variation) Separation protest: cry when caregiver leaves Peaks at 15 months year 2: can define feeling states okay to respond to crying a lot in first year of life (comforting response is good)

Psychoanalytic theories

Psychoanalytic theories: describe devo as primarily unconscious, heavily colored by emotion. Beahvior is a surface characteristic, the symbolic workings of mind must be analyzed to understand behavior. Early experiences w/parents are emphasized "Freud's Theory: 5 stages of psychosexual development - oral, anal, phalic, latency, genital "

Gender & communication

Rapport talk: language of conversation; way to establish connections & negotiate relationships; preferred by women Report talk: language designed to give info; communication style preferred by men

Information-Processing Approach

Reject behavioral approach Attention, memory, thinking Stimulus -> attention -(encoding) - memory -> thinking -> response Siegler: mechanisms of change play important role Encoding: process by which info gets into memory Automaticity: ability to process info with little/no effort Strategy construction: creation of new procedures for processing information Children's info processing has self-modification: learn to apply what they have learned before to adapt responses to new situation Metacognition: cognition about cognition, or knowing about knowing Part of self-modification Children know about best ways to remember what they have read

Retirement

Retirement in US and other countries Moen: Some people don't retire, take up new job, do volunteer work, move in and out of workforce, disability status, define getting laid off as retirement Hard to have enough $ for retirement Work and retirement around the world 33% around world still in employment in sixties Japanese retirees missed work German retirees least likely to miss work Adjustment to retirement Men have higher morale when retire at first, then drops Women spend less time planning for retirement Adjust best: if healthy, have okay income, educated, good social network Flexibility is also key to adjusting Can't plan it just in terms of finances

Single Adults

Rise in single adults - unmarried > married in 26-34 category Single adults are stereotyped Hard to find niche in society -> social prejudices, reduced job perks, etc Advantages: autonomous, friends, go out, etc Men more interested in love, etc, women more interested in independence than befor

Reflexes

Rooting reflex: infant cheek stroked or side of mouth touched, and infant turns head toward side that was touched Sucking reflex: newborn sucks object placed in mouth. Enables infant to get nourishment Moro reflex: startle response - newborn arches back, throws head back, and flinngs out arms and legs. Then rapidly closes arms/legs to body These disappear when infant is 3-4 mos old Grasping reflex: occurs when something touches an infant's palms -> evolve into them using this to grasp things to manipulate them

infants & memory

Rovee-Collier: infants can remember perceptual-motor information (baby kicking trying to get mobile to move) Implicit memory: memory w/o conscious recollection - of skills and routine procedures that are performed automatically Explicit memory: conscious memories of facts and experiences Argues Roveee-Collier: displaying implicit memory Babies don't have explicit till 6 months + Conscious memories are fragile and short-lived Maturation of hippocampus and frontal lobes make explicit memory more possible

SES/poverty

SES: grouping of people with similar occupational, educational, and economic characteristics Lower SES parents: Want child to conform to society More authority over children Physical punishment More directive, less conversational Higher SES parents: Develop children's initiative Children more equal participants Less likely to use physical punishment More conversational Psychological ramifications of poverty Feel powerless Feel vulnerable to disaster Alternatives are restricted Long-standing poverty has bad effect Feminization of poverty: w > m live in poverty. Lower income, divorce, infrequent alimony reward, poorly enforced child support are likely causes

Seattle Longitudinal Study

Schaie 500 tested in 1956 - new waves added periodically Tested verbal comprehension, verbal memory, numeric ability, spatial orientation, inductive reasoning, perceptual speed Highest level of functioning occurs in middle adulthood Decline steepens in 60s Believe Longitudinal studies most important

sensation & perception

Sensation: reaction that occurs when info interacts with sensory receptors - eyes, ears, tongue, nostrils, skin Hearing - inner ear and cochlea, then to auditory nerve Vision: retina, optic nerve Perception: interpretation of what is sensed smelling: requires a few days before smell

Types of play

Sensorimotor play: behavior by infants to derive pleasure from exercising sensorimotor schemes Practice play: repetition of behavior when new skills being learned, when master/coordination of skills are required for games/sports Preschool: practice play is popular Pretense/symbolic play: child transforms aspects of physical environment into symbols Treats table as a car and says "fixing car" when grabs leg of table Preschool is "golden age" of this play Often reflects advances in cog dev Social play: interaction with peers Increases during preschool Constructive play: combo of sensorimotor/practice play and symbolic representation Draw outline of person/house in paint Games: activities engaged in for pleasure with rules Elementary school increase

Cultural factors and sex

Sexual values vary across cultures Mangaian culture: engage in masturbation, have intercourse, etc Sexual scripts: stereotyped patterns of expectancies for how people should behave sexually Traditional religious script: sex acceptable only within marriage Romantic script: sex is synonymous with love

Kagan's behavioral inhibition (temperament)

Shyness with strangers: part of inhibition to the unfamiliar. Inhibited children react with avoidance, distress

Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories

Skinner's Operant Conditioning Development = pattern of behavioral changes brought about by rewards/punishments Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory Social cognitive theory: behavior, environment, and cognition are key factors in devo Observational learning - learning occurs through observing

Social Theories of Aging

Socioemotional selectivity theory: older adults more selective about social networks Disengagement theory: to cope effectively, older adults should gradually withdraw from society (no longer supported) Activity theory: more active & involved older adults are, more likely they are to be satisfied

Peer Statuses

Sociometric status: how liked they are by peer group Popular children: frequently nominated as best friend, rarely disliked Average children: average number of both positive & negative nominations by peers Neglected children: infrequently nominated as best friend, but not disliked Rejected children: actively disliked Controversial children: frequently nominated as best friend and disliked Rejected often have more serious problems than those who are neglected Rejected + aggressive = very hard for children

non-normative & individual

Stephen Hawking

attachment definitions

Strange situation: Ainsworth: separations, introductions, reunions with caregiver Securely attached: use caregiver as secure base from which to explore environment. Protest when caregiver leaves, happy when they come back Insecure avoidant: show insecurity by avoiding mother. Engage little with cg, not distressed when she leaves, do not reestablish contact with her when she returns Insecure resistant children: might cling to caregiver, then resist her by fighting against the closeness. Very upset when caregiver leaves. Insecure disorganized children: disorganized, disoriented

Metacognition

Thinking/knowing when to use strategies for learning/solving problems Metamemory: knowledge about memory ex: Knowing that recognition tests are easier than recall tests Key factor in college success, adolescent's ability to generate hypothesis about problems

Adolescents & schooling

Top-dog phenomenon: circumstance of moving from top position in elementary school to youngest/smallest/least powerful position in middle/junior high schools should offer more variety high schools foster passivity - inadequate levels should have wider range of curriculum males > females for dorpout

personality

Trait theories: emphasize that personality consists of broad disposition, called traits, which tend to produce characteristic responses Big Five factors of personality: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism Can predict health, physical complaints Openness -> superior cognitive functioning Increase openness through Sudoku Conscientiousness linked to GPA, others not Agreeableness -> better relationships Most psychologists think of trait-situation interaction: traits & context influence personality

Timing & variations in puberty

US: menarche age has declined since mid 19th century (likely due to good health) Early in girls -> shorter Early in boys -> taller Environmental factors affect puberty timing

Values

Values: beliefs/attitudes about the way things should be One way to measure: ask them what their goals are Freshmen more motivated by finances than people 10/20 years ago More emphasis now on volunteerism too Only 20% of 12-22 year olds had clear vision of where they want to go in life

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Verbal Mathematical Spatial Bodily-Kinesthetic (manipulate objects) Musical Interpersonal Intrapersonal (understand yourself) Naturalist Each can be destroyed by brain damage, involves unique cognitive skills

Sociocultural & historical influences on family

War, famine, mass immigration can effect family development Ex: great depression Increase of immigration of Latino & Asian immigrants - immigrant families have stressors Older parents less linked to family nowadays Old times: small towns and farms have strong support systems (not as much today) More families move back and forth b/w Mexico & US or China & US Parents too busy to work with children on computer, television, etc Restlessness increased in marriages

Erikson's Psychosocial theory

We develop in stages Freud = motivation is sexual; Erikson: social Emphasized importance of early and later experiences Erikson's theory: 8 stages of human devo, each consists of unique devo task Infancy = trust vs mistrust Infancy (1 -3) = -2 autonomy vs shame and doubt Early childhood = initiative vs guilt Middle/late childhood = industry vs inferiority Adolescence = identity vs identity confusion Early adulthood = intimacy vs isolation Middle adulthood = generativity vs stagnation Late adulthood = integrity vs despair

Wisdom

Wisdom: expert knowledge about practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgment about important matters Baltes High levels of wisdom are rare Factors other than age are critical to develop to high level: life experiences, mentors, consider welfare of others Personality related factors - openness, creativity Recent study compared college and older adults Cognitive scale: measured absence of cognitive wisdom (ignorance is bliss, being unaware of ambiguity) Reflective scale: examine circumstances from different perspectives Affective scale: positive and caring emotions No difference found b/w two groups

self-regulation

Zimmerman: self regulation in achievement process has 3 phases: Forethought Performance Self-reflection

SOC Model

a. Baltes b. Selection of preferred activities & goals c. Optimization by investing ones resources in selected activity d. Compensation of shortcomings by investing more resources and using more compensatory strategies

Reactive vs. reflective self-regulation

a. Experiential canalization of self-regulation under stress i. Evolution favored alternative patterns of self-regulation, vary with reactivity and regulation b. Role of stress response physiology i. Individual differences in self regulation shaped by development of stress response physiology ii. Unsupportive, risky environment -> reactive (not reflective) phenotype of stress response iii. Ex: preschoolers and cortisol. Had more cortisol if more adults "exit" home iv. Ex: income risk (chronicity of income risk equates to worse executive functioning)

Differential susceptibility

a. Maybe some people are genetically determined to be strongly responsive to one environment, or nonresponsive to all b. "For Worse" i. Child maltreatment x low MAOA allele -> antisocial behavior c. Genetically predisposed to be susceptible to unfavorable early environments i. Stress and serotonin transporter gene alleles ii. Life stress (child maltreatment) x serotonin transporter gene (s/s allele) -> leads depression iii. l/l serotonin protects against those effects d. "For Worse AND Better" i. Orchid: greater sensitivity can make child more vulnerable to harsh environmental influences, which also makes them more sensitive to favorable influences ii. Dandelion: low sensitivity good in unfavorable or moderately favorable e. Disadvantages and advantages of susceptibility i. Serotonin transporter gene and noncompliance 1. L/L allele makes very sensitive to good/bad parenting, either very good or very bad noncompliance congruent with parenting 2. S/S allele: less susceptible to parent behavior ii. Serotonin transporter gene and depression 1. Worse depression if have s/s allele 2. (makes them flourish in favorable environments)

cumulative continuity of personality

a. Types of change i. More stable than changing ii. Mean level 1. Everyone changes in similar way 2. Maturity principle iii. Rank order 1. Stability 2. Can change their ranking relative to others, but not common b. Big 5 vs. life-span developmental perspective i. More people become more dominant, agreeable, conscientiousness, and emotionally stable over course of their lives ii. As we age, we get better at knowing what works best for us

Self-regulation

ability to control your behavior w/o having to rely on others for help Kopp: 12-18 months: depend on caregiver for reminders about acceptable behavior 2-3 years: comply with caregiver expectations in absence of caregiver monitoring Still clear limitations: can ignore safety, etc Preschoolers better at self-control Middle-late childhood and adolescence Increased capacity for s.r. during this time Efforts to manage y our own behavior Self-control also increases Related to advances in pfc Adulthood Linked to better health, adjustment Increases into middle adult years Selective optimization with compensation theory: successful aging is related to 3 factors: selection, optimization, and compensation Baltes & colleagues Arthur Rubinstein, pianist Further attainment of meaningful goals, not just goals Early adulthood: invest time in work, friends, family, independence 35-54, 55 - 65: family more important to them than friends 85-105: health most important

Intermodal perception

ability to integrate info about 2+ sensory modalities, such as vision and hearing Exploratory forms exist in newborns

Emotional intelligence:

ability to perceive/express emotions adaptively and accurately, understand emotion and emotional knowledge, use feelings to facilitate thought, manage emotions in yourself and others Salovey and Mayer Associated with peer relations

Infinite generativity

ability to produce endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of rules and words

Intelligence

ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from experiences 1904: Binet stressed complex cognitive processes Mental age (MA): individual's leve of mental development relative to that of others Intelligence quotient (IQ): individual's mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100; developed in 1912 by Stern 2004: Stanford-Binet Test - verbal and nonverbal tests Normal distribution: symmetrical, bell shaped curve Wechsler scale

adaptive in stone age vs today

adaptive in both: mother-child attachment, langauge, social cognition adaptive in stone age, not today: depressed affect to facilitate giving up, stress (don't run away or attack someone now) adaptive today, not stone age: language, premature childbirth

Substance Use

adolescent: marijuana most widely used, peer relations is risk factor emerging adulst: alcohol abuse older adults: binge drinking (invisible epidemic)

hunter-gatherer brain

advantage for survival mental modules = adaptive behavioral/mental patterns - human brain is swiss army knife: each blade = mental module for specific adaptive specialization

schools & gender bias

against boys: compliance for rules, more criticism, more learning disability against girls: boys get more attention, instruction, girls have lss self esteem

aging & social world

ageism men more likely to stereotype older adults than women social support good fro health, more meaningful contacts

Mitochondrial theory

aging caused by decay of mitochondria, tiny cellular bodies that supply energy for cell function, growth, and repair Damage caused by free radicals -> oxidative damage causes impairment of mitochondrial function

Hormonal stress theory

aging in body's hormonal system can lower resistance to stress and increase likelihood of disease Allostasis: process of adaptation and adjustment to stressful situations by body Elevated stress hormones associated with disease

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD):

also pervasive developmental disorders - range from autistic to Asperger. Problems in social interaction, verbal/nonverbal communication, repetitive behavior 1 in 88 children Autistic disorder: severe ASD, onset in first 3 years of life includes deficiencies in social relationships; communication; restricted/repetitive/stereotyped patterns of behavior Asperger Syndrome: mild ASD, relatively good verbal language skills, milder nonverbal language problems, restricted range of interests Abnormalities in brain structure Genetic factors play role 5x b > g

prosocial behavior

altruism sharing/fairness forgiveness gratitude (more as adolescent -> more positive outcomes) females more prosocial older adults: 1/3 give back to society

Teratogen

any agent that can potentially cause birth defect or negatively alter cognitive/behavioral outcomes Drugs, blood types, environmental pollutants, infectious diseases, nutrition deficiencies, maternal stress, maternal/paternal age Dose: greater dose of agent, greater the effect Genetic susceptibility: severity of abnormalities caused linked to genotype of woman and embryo/fetus (unknown why: male fetuses more likely to be affected) Time of exposure: embryonic more vulnerable than fetal

Dementia

any neurological disorder in which primary symptom is deterioration of mental functioning

Moral identity

aspect of personality that is present when individuals have moral notions and commitments that re central to their lives Narvaez: mature moral individual cares about being moral Poverty neighborhoods inhibit formation of moral identity moral character: strength of convinctions, overcoming distractions Moral exemplars: people who have a moral personality, identity, character, or set of virtues that reflect moral excellence and commitment

Apgar scale

assess health of newborns 1 and 5 minutes after birth: heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, body color, reflex irritability 7-10 = = good ADHD: higher score = higher chance of developing ADHD

Fetal period

begins 2 months after conception and lasts 7 months 3 months: fetus is 3 inches, weights 3 ounces Active 4th month: 6 inches, 4-7 oz 5th month: 12 inches, about 1 lb Structure of skin formed 6 months: fetus has chance of surviving outside womb Last 2 months: fatty tissues develop Trimesters are different than these periods

Sroufe & attachment

better if secure co-regulation of emotion is important in attachment adult attachment result of homoethic & destabilizing forces multiple mediational model (domino effect)

adulthood & thinking

better solve problem - increaesd expertise cohort effect possibilities: 1) education: generations usually become more educated 2) work: less manual labor now, so larger emphasis on info processing 3) health: better treatment of illnesses, exercise linked to cog functioning

Reciprocal socialization

bidirectional in that children socialize parents just as the opposite Mutual gaze/eye contact is important example with mother and infant "synchronization" Scaffolding: adjusting level of guidance to fit a child's performance

Neuroconstructivist view:

bio processes & environmental conditions influence brain's development; brain has plasticity and is context dependent; cognitive development is closely linked with brain development Importance of gene expression and experiences interaction

Sources of Dev

biology (nutrition, tall child) society (sterile surgeries, Pasteur) individual (commitment to goal)

Glen Elder & Great Depression

born in early 1920, outgrew childhood so did okay with Depression Age & Society

continuity & discontinuity

continuity: learning, operant learning, Bandura & bobo doll discontinuity: stage theories (Freud, Piaget, Erikson) - Piaget constructivistic development - Freud psychosexual - Erikson 8 stages

Bowlby

c. Hospitalism i. Spitz: separation from caregiver leads to hospitalism d. Person permanence i. Individual-specific attachment begins around 6-8 months e. Internal working model for adult life -> early attachment establishes this f. Mother and child show complementary behavior -> evolved behavior to help infant

selection & canalization

can optimize growth by investment in certain path canalization: options become narrowed as we become older

Passive genotype-environment correlation

correlations that exist when bio parent, who are genetically related to child, provide rearing environment for child Parent has genetic predisposition for intelligence and reading well -> provide children with books -> likely that children become skilled readers. *most common of the three

Active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations:

correlations that exist when children seek out environments they find compatible and stimulating □ Niche-picking -> finding settings suited to one's genetically influenced abilities Ex: outgoing children seek out social contexts where they can interact with people

expertise

counteract automaticity many hours of deliberate practice can decline in later age because less fluid, but do have more crystallized

critical v sensitive periods

critical: more sensitive than at any other part of life sensitive: less abrupt ex: Genie, age of eye closure in kittens

Domain theory of development

different domains of social knowledge and reasoning, including moral, social conventional, and personal domains. Domains raise from children's and adolescents' attempts to understand and deal with different forms of social experience. Social conventional reasoning: focuses on conventional rules established by social consensus and convention, as opposed to moral reasoning, which stresses ethnical issues

Learning disability

difficulty in learning that involves understanding or using spoken/written language; difficulty can appear in listening, thinking, reading, writing, and spelling. Can also involve difficulty in doing math. The problem is not primarily result of visual/hearing/motor disability; intellectual disability; emotional disorders; or environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. 3x b > g 80% have reading problem: Dyslexia Dysographia: difficulty in handwriting Dyscalculia: difficulty in math computation

dev is multidirectional, multidimensional

direction: lose & gain things multidimensional: minds can "outwit" bodies

non-normative & bio

disease that affects people @ certain ages

Chronic disorders

disorders characterized by slow onset & long duration Common in late adulthood Middle adulthood women: arthritis, hypertension, sinus problems Men: hypertension, arthritis, hearing impairments, heart disease Men have higher incidence of fatal chronic conditions (women more nonfatal ones) 60% of US males 65-74 die of cancer/cardiovascular 75-84, 85+: cardiovascular disease still is leading cause of death Arthritis: common chronic disorder in older adults Osteoporosis: extensive loss of bone tissue - cancer is leading cause of death in middle-aged adults

adulthood & attention

driving related to visual attention older adults worse exectuve attention, using selective attention

Regulation of Emotion

effectively managing arousal to adapt to circumstances & reach a goal Infancy/early childhood: regulation shifts from external sources to being self-initiated Ineffective regulation -> lower level of exec functions, lower moral development, stress, bad peer relations parents either emotion-coaching or emotion-dismissing approach (better coaching)

Neo-Piagetians

elaborated on Piaget's theory, emphasizing attention to their strategies; information processing speed; task involved; division of problem into more precise, smaller steps

middle/late childhood and emotions

improved emotional understanding, redirect feelings older better at coping disasters can cause serious developmental problems for children Dose-response effects: more severe disaster (dose), worse adaptation (response)

Evolutionary psychology

emphasizes importance of adaptation, reproduction, and survival of fittest in shaping behavior Evolutionary Developmental Psychology Extended childhood period evolved bc humans require more time to develop large brain Evolved characteristics not always adaptive -> food-scarce environment of ancestors increased human's propensity to gorge on food (maybe leading to obesity today)

Epigenetic view

emphasizes that development is result of ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment - heredity & environment work together - gene x e interaction

Myelination:

encasing axons with myelin sheath, helps increase speed & efficiency of info processing

genes -> environment

environment responds to child's genetically determined predispositions: genetically difficult temperament can lead to impatient, negative behavior from mothers

Evocative genotype-environment correlations:

exist when child's characteristics elicit certain types of environments □ Active smiling children -> more social stimulation

Emotion

feeling, or affect, that occurs when a person is engaged in an interaction that is important to him or her, especially to his or her well-being. can be subtle, influenced by bio & experience

gender similarities & differences

females longer lie expectancy hypothalamus (sex) larger in men visuospatial (parietal) larger in men f> m emotional expression girls = boys in math, g > b in reading more relational aggression in girls boys self regulate emotions less Hyde: gender differences are exaggerated

Sensorimotor stage:

first Piaget stage, last from birth - 2 years, where infants construct understanding of world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions simple reflexes habits and primary circular reactions (repetitive actions) secondary circular reaction (action repeated bc of consequences) coordination of secondary circular reactions tertiary circular reactions, novelty, curiosity (infants purposely explore new possibilities) internalize schemes object permanence A-not-B error Gibson & Splke: percptual abilities developed earlier than Piaget suggests

Language

form of communication based on system of symbols Need it to communicate

Gender schema theory:

gender-typing emerges as children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture general impressions/beliefs about m & f Traditional masculinity and femininity Traits with males: instrumental Traits with females: expressive Unequal in status & power Developmental Changes in Gender Stereotyping Gender stereotyping increases by age 4 Appearance stereotypes prevalent in girls

Epigenesis

gene x environment x development interactions i. Developmental plasticity is critical in behavioral evolution of humans and life cycle ii. But plasticity is not infinite, constrained iii. Grandmother effect: ex of how evolution shapes human life cycle

Social Policy

government's course of action designed to promote welfare of citizens Statistics on mortality rates, malnourished, living in poverty % of US children in poverty has increased; more exposed to violence, noise, stress Resilience - individual, family, and extrafamilial characteristics Well-being of older adults: health care system

Proximodistal pattern

growth starts at center, moves towards extremities Whole hand before fingers, torso before hands

Gifted

having above average intelligence (IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something socially well-adjusted likely bc of heredity and environment usually domain-specific giftedness

Strength and Vulnerability Integration (SAVI)

i. Aroused less easily, but once they are, difficult to calm down ii. Increasing emotion-regulation skills iii. Vulnerability once older adults are physiologically arousal iv. 3 most likely aggravating situations: 1. Loss of social belonging 2. Chronic uncontrollable stress 3. Neurological dysfunction

Training & cognition

i. Baseline capacity: no training ii. Baseline reserve capacity: optimized conditions (context, instruction, motivation) iii. Developmental reserve capacity: max performance attainable by intervention to optimize development - when getting instruction: young adults plasticity better than younger children better than old adults - "new learning" can be compensated by longer processing intervals for older adults -> relearning can't

hearing

hear sounds as late fetus can't hear quiet sounds in infancy, less sensitive to pitch, can't tell location adolescent hearing can be damaged by loud music high pitch sensitivy decline first in aging; 63% of those 73+ have decline in hearing

Patterns of influences on development (Baltes)

history-graded (9/11, WWII): peak in adolescence age-graded (age-appropriate styling, Havighurst's developmental tasks): lowers in adulthood (U curve) non-normative: idiosyncratic (increases in straight line)

Three big motives

i. Achievement motive 1. Enjoy doing something better. ii. Affiliation motive 1. Being close to others iii. Power motive 1. Have impact on others iv. Motives are cognitive emotional networks, associations between emotional states and remembered events/actions 1. Help someone detect motive-relevant opportunities v. Changes: 1. Women: decrease in affiliation across adulthood, achievement after mid-life. Not having affiliation motive is bad in old ae 2. Men: midlife: more hope for power than other ages. vi. Maternal behavior can increase fear of failure for first graders b. Explicit and implicit personality traits i. Congruence 1. If your implicit and explicit goals match up, you're better off

psychosocial acceleration theory

i. Early dev contexts regulate variation in life history strategies -> allows individual to adapt to varying ecological conditions. ii. Early dynamics affect attachment patterns, which affect pubery, which affects reproductive strategy iii. Example: reproductive strategies 1. Slow a. Mature later, more selective, fewer offspring, more effort invested in parenting individual offspring 2. Fast a. "get it while you can" mentality in adolescence. Violence for respect, breaking rules. In hunter gatherers, this gives you more access to mates b. Early pubertal timing, less stable bonding, risky, aggressive, less parental investment

Action theories of development/Action-phase model

i. Opportunities and constraints 1. Biology of maturation and aging, social structure ii. Canalization: different opportunities iii. Example: Biological clock 1. After deadline for childbirth, disengaging from goal is adaptive; before deadline, engaging with goal is adaptive another ex: health (if have chronic conditions -> more adaptive to disengage; if have acute, more adaptive to engage) iv. Developmental deadlines: after deadline, healthy to disengage v. Healthy for young adults to disengage -> decreases depressive symptoms vi. Berlin apprenticeship: highly structured and constrained, know what to do when vii. LA: overaspiring is the best when in very unstructured environment

Nurture & emotional development

i. Parental responsiveness (Example: crying) 1. Bell & Ainsworth: record mothers responses 2. Large variation in maternal responsiveness (4 - 97%), and high stability of maternal responsiveness 3. Frequency of crying: mother & child don't influence e/o in 1st 2 quarters, but do in second 2 quarters 4. Mother ignoring -> more crying next quarter 5. Infant crying -> more mother ignoring next quarter 6. Duration of crying -> same effects 7. Infants of responsive mothers have more varied crying types, mothers can "read" their faces ii. Cultural differences 1. Western: wait until full-blown negative affect until respond 2. Traditional: work together to manage distress

Caleb Finch

i. Preindustrial population lifespan: unhygienic, risk of infections, high mortality ii. Compared to chimpanzees: humans have lower mortality, later onset of mortality, increased morbidity from chronic degenerative disease 1. Chimp: older, less survival rate iii. If humans survive past most others, their mortality rate goes down because they are "healthy specimen"

Nature & emotional development

i. Reactivity to internal/external changes -> intensity, latency ii. Self-regulation 1. Modulate reactivity by effortful control 2. Orienting response - towards good, away from bad iii. Interacts with parenting quality iv. From automatized to effortful control 1. 18 months: effortful control. 2. 3-4 years: transition from automatic orienting response to executive control is complete 3. Caregiver scaffolds emotion regulation v. Infant temperament 1. Parenting only makes difference when a certain allele is present on activation aspect of temperament (no effect on effortful control)

corresponsive principle

i. Same personality traits that predict work characteristics also change associated with work experience. people shape their own environment/experiences and become more like themselves ii. Niche building 1. Create, seek out, end up in environments associated with own personality traits iii. Certain personality traits at 18 predict work positions at 26

Visual cliff

i. When do infants/young animals start being afraid of heights? 1. Goats: can walk 2. Rats: don't avoid 3. Kitten: when walk around 4. Human: when able to crawl (6-10 months) a. But fear can be overcome if mother encourages child

Myths about bereavement

i. Working through loss 1. Myth: focusing on working through it will help ii. Grief is inevitable, intense, and prolonged 1. Many don't' experience intense grief 2. Many don't work through loss 3. For some it's never resolved

puberty

if early in girls? shorter if early in boys? taller menarche age declined since 1850s - early maturing boys: perceive selves as better, better in career, but more positive identity @ 30 if late-maturing - early in girls: breast cancer, eating disorder, drop out

milestones in human evolution

ii. 4 major spurts of evolution: 1. Brain development: a. 2-1.5 million years ago i. Advances in stone and wooden tools b. 500 thousand - 200 thousand years ago i. Walked upright, foraged for food -> hunter gatherers 2. Cultural development a. 60-30,000 years ago i. Hunting techniques, bury dead, make clothing, cave painting. Transfer over generations -> culture b. 10,000 years ago i. Neolithic revolution ii. Plant crops, can stay in one place, produce & store more food, keep livestock, kinship groups, social hierarchies, division of labor

children & attention

improves in preschool tv, video games linked to problems don't know to pay attention to salient v relevant information media encourages multitasking

Triarchic theory of intelligence

intelligence comes in 3 forms Sternberg Analytical - ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, contrast Creative: create, design, invent, originate, imagine Practical: apply, implement

Gene x environment (g x e) interaction

interaction of specific measured variation in DNA and specific measured aspect of the environment

Siegler - info processing theory of cog dev

it's not a staircase model - use different strategies to solve problems, keep less sophisticated strategies - "overlapping waves" model

prefrontal cortex and development

iv. Prefrontal cortex: cognitive flexibility still being built during teenage years, so higher risk in the group v. Steinberg: 1. Extensive brain maturation in adolescence -> mid 2-s 2. Puberty: more dopamine and dopamine activity (pleasure) during early-mid adolescence than @ any other part of life. Explains why they are risk seeking. Brake systems not in place yet. vi. Frontal cortex: early growth spurt then pruning vii. Amygdala (emotions): early growth spurt viii. Prefrontal cortex: later & sustained growth until mid-20s, high dopamine activity ix. Asynchronous development of capacities, emotions, and regulation (Steinberg) x. Risk behavior, susceptibility to peer pressure, legal/policy consequences

adolescence & sexuality

learn fro media perceive peers having sex -> will have more sex by 17: 47% US females had sex (higher in Mali, lower in Tanzania) by 17: 64% US males had sex (higher in Jamaica, slightly lower in brazil) male black inner city kids more, Asian Americans least in 12th grade, more females > males having sex

childhood & language

learn rules of syntax Fast mapping: process that helps explain how young children learn connection b/w word and its referent so quickly Learn words they hear most often Learn words for things/events that interest them Learn words best in responsive and interactive contexts rather than in passive contexts Learn words best in contexts that are meaningful Learn words best when they access clear info about word meaning Learn words best when grammar and vocab are considered engage in discourse with each other

History & bio example

life expectancy increases over time, so less infant mortality

Intellectual disability

limited mental ability where have low IQ, usually below 70, and difficulty adapting to demands of everyday life Organic intellectual disability: genetic disorder caused by brain damage 1) Down syndrome 2) Fragile X syndrome Cultural-familial intellectual disability: no organic brain damage can be found Usually have "mild" between 55 and 70 Grow up in below average environment

common cause theory for cognitive decline

link between sensory & cognitive systems Salthouse: general slowing leads to decline in working memory Baltes: reduced reserve capacity due to loss of brain function, de-differentiation of cognitive processing (general neurological decline affects everything)

Cohabitation:

living together in sexual relationship without being married 10% in last 5 years Cohabitation and marital stability/happiness Lower rates of marital satisfaction if live together beforehand - but weakened results Could change people's opinions, etc Cohabiting older adults More older adults cohabit than before More stable relationship than younger adults who cohabit

Thinking

manipulating and transforming info in memory, in order to reason, reflect, think critically, evaluate ideas and solve problems, and make decisions

age & bio example

maturation is complex patterns -> telomeres shorter as you age

Free-radical theory

microbiological theory of aging - people age bc when their cells metabolize energy, they generate waste that includes unstable oxygen molecules, free radicals, that damage DNA and other structures Overeating -> increase in free radicals

Dual process model

model of coping with bereavement that emphasizes oscillation b/w loss-oriented stressors and restoration oriented stressors Loss: focus on deceased individual, positive or negative reappraisal of loss Restoration-oriented: changing identity, etc Effective coping involves oscillation between coping with loss and coping with restoration

Fine motor skills

motor skills that involve finely tuned movements, like any activity that requires finger dexterity infancy Refine how reach/grasp in first 2 years Develop 2 kinds of grasps Palmer grasp: grip with whole hand first Pincer grip: thumb and forefinger - end of first year Perceptual-motor coupling is important First use touch, then use vision Sticky mittens: palms stuck to toys Kids with these mittens developed earlier Tool use is a good way to research this - looks at how infant plans goal Childhood and Adolescence 3: pick up tiny object, build high block towers, not good at putting puzzle pieces in place 4: much more precise 5: better command More myelination of CNS is reflected - master more things Adult development May undergo some decline

Gross motor skills

motor skills that involve large muscle activities like walking posture: cannot sit independently until 6-7 months old learning to walk: neural pathways in place from early age, just stabilizing takes time year 2: toddlers are skilled, can play with toy cultural variations: developing countries, mothers stimulate motor skills more with massage, stretching childhood: 3: hop, jump run; 4/5; more adventurous, then sports adolescence/adulthood: peak before age 30, bw 19 and 26

Shaver & Mikulincer & attachment

n. What causes negative attachment patterns? i. Failing to achieve proximity to attachment figure -> avoidant attachment pattern 1. Consistent inattention, violence, self-reliance ii. Sense of helplessness caused by ineffective coregulation of distress -> anxious attachment 1. Unpredictable caregiving, intrusive, messages that child is hopeless o. Manifestations in adulthood i. Avoidant: seek distance from others, max self-reliance, fear intimacy, think of self as independent, emphasize differences between self and others, inhibit emotions ii. Anxious: seek closeness, never be alone, hope for love, vulnerability, appraise self as needy, minimize differences

non-normative society

no example!

Baltes propositions of life-span development

o Dev is life-long o Dev is multidirectional o Dev is multidimensional o Plasticity of dev o Dev is gains and losses o Selection

Socioemotional selectivity theory:

older adults more selective about activities & social relationships in order to maintain emotional well-being. Older adults value emotion goals over knowledge goals, exercise selectivity in social networks.

time constraints

older adults need more time to recall

Leisure

pleasant times, free to pursue any activities US children more leisure than other countries Most spend it in very unstructured time adults - need to learn how to relax, more likely to die if don't take vacations

Play

pleasurable activity engaged in for its own sake Freud & Erikson: child master anxieties, reduce conflicts Play therapy: therapy that helps children work off frustrations while therapists analyze their conflicts and coping methods Piaget: play enhances children's cog dev Vygotsky: play good for cog dev, especially symbolic & make believe aspects of play Berlyne: play is exciting, pleasurable because satisfies exploratory drive Language & communication skills are practiced

Heritability

portion of variance in population attributed to genes Highest possible is 1 - over .7 indicates strong influence May be more than 1000 genes linked to intelligence

early childhood & emotions

pride & guilt are common they understand certain situations -> certain emotions

Motivational theory of LSD

primary control = changing world (potential: upside down U, peaks in midlife; striving - constant) secondary control = changing self (moves upward as primary control decreases) - goal engagement/disengagement congruence principle: need to be congruent with control opportunities challenge principle: congruent goal engagement important when confronting challenge

Alzheimer disease

progressive, irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and physical function Women more likely to develop Causes Deficiency in acetylcholine (important role in memory) Formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles Oxidative stress: body's antioxidant defenses don't cope with free-radical attacks and oxidation of body Age is important risk factor Gene: apolipoprotein E linked to more plaques and tangles (but less than 50% with gene develop it) Lifestyle choices: Cardiovascular disease (obesity, smoking, cholesterol, etc) Should improve cardiac functioning

Ecological view

proposed by Gibsons, people directly perceive info in world around them. Brings people in contact with environment to interact with and adapt to it. Affordances: opportunities for interaction offered by objects that fit within capabilities to perform activities Chair for sitting, surface for walking Babies: see waterbed, crawl not walk across it perception = actively attaining information

Memory

retention of information over time processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval schema theor: people mold memories to fit info that already exists in their minds shemas: mental frameworks that organize concepts & info

constructivist approach

schemas are created - knowledge is process, not a state - Piaget - genetic epistemology = development of comprehension and knowledge. knowledge is actively constructed.

history & society

school - educational institution changes

adolescence & attachment

secure -> helps with social competence, well-being romantic attraction: 11-13 exploring relationshisp: 14-16 consolidating dyadic romantic bonds: 17-19

evolution of human life-span

selective fitness - grandparents, period of immaturity, divisionof labor Baltes: benefits from evolution decrease with aeg; culture increases grandmother effect

Intimacy in friendship

self-disclosure & sharing of private thoughts adolescence: ppular is strong motivator; friends are important for development; co=rumination is issue for girls emerging adulthood: close relationships more integrated adults women have more friends, more intimate late adulthood: choose close over new friends, friendships important for predicting happiness

Myrtle McGraw

studied Jimmy & Johnny - one encourage to practice motor skills, other not - similar timing of milestones, but one is better

Longevity

survive into old age? positive selection, because you clearly do what is adaptive

test limits of training-based reserved capacity

tailored learning: adjustment of difficulty level to level of subject cognitive engineering: serial recall of word lists pretest/posttest: both increase, but young more than old

Germinal Period

takes place in first two weeks after conception - includes creation of zygote, continued cell division, and attachment of zygote to wall of uterus Mitosis Blastocyst: one week after Develops into embryo, and trophoblast is outer layer that provides nutrition Implantation: attachment of zygote to uterine wall, takes place 10-14 days after conception

Media/screen time

television -> more obesity video games -> helps with visuospatial skills, might make more aggressive by early childhood can learn from media more tv -> hyperactivity parents need to regulate use of internet

Bayley Scales of Infant Development

widely used scales developed by Nancy Bayley for assessing infant development. Current version (Bayley-III) has five scales: cognitive, language, motor, socio-emotional, and adaptive. First 3 administered to infant, latter two to caregiver. Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence: infant's ability to process information

men/women development

women: important for them to be self-motivated men: die earlier (alcoholism, stress, accidents) m/f relationships: encourages men to disparage women m/m relationships: too little nurturing from fathers men need to be more emotionally intelligent

work

young children: idealistic; early twenties: realistic Moen career mystique: work hard for long hours will lead to success happiness adolescence: 3/4 have paid employment, less engaged but some get + benefits emerging adulthood: college and working adults: 90% work 30+ hours/week - many stressed out at work (55%) Dual-career couples has increased, but decisions made for men's earning power many late adulthood looking for parttime work bc don't have adequate $ to retire - older workers have lower absenteeism

Vygotsky

zone of proximal development scaffolding children use speech to help them solve tasks. social constructivist approach dialogue is important tool between parent and child self-talk is helpful for child (Piaget thought was immature) endpoint can differ for everyone (Piaget thought end in formal ops) children construct knowledge through social interaction (Piaget thought by organizing previous knowledge( critique: overemphasized role of language