Management 303 last test
coalitions
Enlisting the aid or support of others to persuade the target to agree.
interactionist view of conflict
A harmonious, peaceful, tranquil, and cooperative group is prone to becoming static, apathetic, and unresponsive to needs for change and innovation. But, not all conflicts are good. Functional, constructive forms of conflict support goals. Conflicts that hinder group performance are dysfunctional or destructive forms of conflict.
When individuals or group representatives reach a stalemate and are unable to resolve their differences through direct negotiations, they may turn to a third party.
A mediator An arbitrator A conciliator A consultant
conflict
A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about
The Conflict Process
Stage 1: Potential opposition or incompatibility Stage 2: Cognition and personalization Stage 3: intentions Stage 4: Behavior Stage 5: Outcomes
Culture is transmitted to employees through
Stories, Rituals, Material symbols, and Language.
subculture
Subcultures tend to develop in large organizations to reflect common problems, situations, or experiences that members face
managers are
Supported for taking risks and innovating, Discouraged from unbridled competition, and Guided to not just what is achieved but also how.
What differentiates functional from dysfunctional conflict
Task conflict relates to the content and goals of the work. Relationship conflict focuses on interpersonal relationships. Process conflict relates to how the work gets done. This means task conflicts relate positively to creativity and innovation, but are not related to routine task performance. If the group is engaged in discussion of ideas in a nonconfrontational way, adding conflict will not generate more ideas. Task conflict is related to positive outcomes when members share goals and have high levels of trust.
top management
The actions of top management also have a major impact on the organization's culture
Why do we not see more integrative bargaining in organizations
The answer lies in the conditions necessary for this type of negotiation to succeed. Parties who are open with information and candid about their concerns A sensitivity by both parties to the other's needs The ability to trust one another A willingness by both parties to maintain flexibility
characteristics of spiritual culture
The concept of workplace spirituality draws on our previous discussions of values, ethics, motivation, and leadership.
bargaining and problem solving
The essence of the negotiation process is the actual give-and-take in trying to hash out an agreement. Concessions will undoubtedly need to be made by both parties.
Sustain Through Selection
The explicit goal of the selection process is to identify and hire individuals with the knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform successfully.
The Learner Organization: Organizational Downsizing
The goal of the new organizational forms we've described is to improve agility by creating a lean, focused, and flexible organization. Downsizing is a systematic effort to make an organization leaner by selling off business units, closing locations, or reducing staff.
picture 8
The mechanistic model shown in Exhibit 15-7 suggest it is synonymous with the bureaucracy and has extensive departmentalization, high formalization, a limited information network (mostly downward), and little participation in decision-making. The organic model (Exhibit 15-7) looks a lot like the boundaryless organization. It uses cross-hierarchical and cross-functional teams, low formalization, a comprehensive information network, and high participation in decision-making. Why are some organizations structured along mechanistic lines while others are organic?
matrix organization
The most obvious structural characteristic of the matrix is that it breaks the unity-of-command concept. Exhibit 15-5 shows the matrix form as used in a college of business administration. Its strength is its ability to facilitate coordination when the organization has a multiplicity of complex and interdependent activities. The dual lines of authority reduce tendencies of departmental members to protect their worlds. It facilitates the efficient allocation of specialists. The major disadvantages of the matrix lie in the confusion it creates, its propensity to foster power struggles, and the stress it places on individuals. Violation of unity-of-command concept increases ambiguity that often leads to conflict. Confusion and ambiguity also create the seeds of power struggles. Reporting to more than one boss introduces role conflict, and unclear expectations introduce role ambiguity.
pic 5
The most widely cited example of distributive bargaining is in labor-management negotiations over wages. The essence of distributive bargaining is depicted in Exhibit 14-6. Parties A and B represent two negotiators. Each has a target point that defines what he or she would like to achieve. Each also has a resistance point, which marks the lowest outcome that is acceptable. The area between these two points makes up each one's aspiration range. As long as there is some overlap between A and B's aspiration ranges, there exists settlement range where each one's aspirations can be met.
Cultures within organizations differ markedly—some are warm, relaxed, and supportive; others are formal and conservative.
The organizational culture will have a bearing on which tactics are considered appropriate. Extraverts are more influential in team-oriented organizations, and highly conscientious people are more influential in organizations that value working alone on technical tasks
definition of conflict
The parties to it must perceive conflict. Commonalties in the definitions are opposition or incompatibility and some form of interaction
Picture 3
The politics-performance relationship appears to be moderated by an individual's understanding of the "hows" and "whys" of organizational politics. When employees see politics as a threat, they often respond with defensive behaviors—reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, blame, or change. When employees see politics as a threat, they often respond with defensive behaviors —reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, blame, or change. Exhibit 13-5 provides some examples of these behaviors. Defensive behaviors are often associated with negative feelings toward the job and work environment. In the short run, employees may find that defensiveness protects their self-interest, but in the long run it wears them down. People who consistently rely on defensiveness find that, eventually, it is the only way they know how to behave. At that point, they lose the trust and support of their peers, bosses, employees, and clients.
Compromise might be your worst enemy in negotiating a win-win agreement.
The reason is that compromising reduces the pressure to bargain integratively.
pic
The socialization component of sustaining a culture is shown in Exhibit 16-2. The process of helping new employees adapt to the organization's culture. The help is called socialization. Most critical time is at the initial entry point. The socialization model is a three stage process. The first stage is Pre-arrival, which explicitly recognizes that each individual arrives with a set of values, attitudes, and expectations. One way to capitalize on prehire characteristics in socialization is to use the selection process to inform prospective employees about the organization as a whole. The selection process ensures the inclusion of the "right type"—those who will fit in. "Indeed, the ability of the individual to present the appropriate face during the selection process determines his ability to move into the organization in the first place. Thus, success depends on the degree to which the aspiring member has correctly anticipated the expectations and desires of those in the organization in charge of selection." The second stage is encounter. Individual confronts the possible dichotomy between expectations and reality If expectations were fairly accurate, the encounter stage merely cements earlier perceptions. However, this is often not the case. At the extreme, a new member may become disillusioned enough to resign. Proper recruiting and selection should significantly reduce that outcome, along with encouraging friendship ties in the organization—newcomers are more committed when friends and co-workers help them "learn the ropes."
definition of ground rules
Who will do the negotiating? Where will it take place? What time constraints, if any, will apply? To what issues will negotiation be limited? Will there be a specific procedure to follow if an impasse is reached? During this phase, the parties will also exchange their initial proposals or demands.
Let's consider employee preferences for work specialization, span of control, and centralization.
Work specialization contributes to higher employee productivity. No evidence supports a relationship between span of control and employee satisfaction or performance. Fairly strong evidence links centralization and job satisfaction
spirituality
Workplace spirituality is not about organized religious practices. It is not about God or theology. Workplace spirituality recognizes that people have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by meaningful work that takes place in the context of community.
stories
circulate through many organizations, anchoring the present in the past and legitimating current practices. They typically include narratives about the organization's founders, rule breaking, rags-to riches successes, reductions in the workforce, relocation of employees, reactions to past mistakes, and organizational coping. Employees also create their own narratives about how they came to either fit or not fit with the organization during the process of socialization, including first days on the job, early interactions with others, and first impressions of organizational life.
Five basis of power
coercive power, reward power, legitimate power, expert power and referent power
dominant culture
culture expresses the core values that are shared by a majority of the organization's members. most org have them
concepts of chain of command
less relevant today because of technology and the trend of empowering employees. Operating employees make decisions previously reserved for management. The popularity of self-managed and cross-functional teams. Many organizations find most productive by enforcing the chain of command.
innovation
means a strategy for meaningful and unique innovations. This strategy may appropriately characterize 3M Company
nonsubstitutability
means the more that a resource has no viable substitutes, the more power that control over that resource provides
mediator
neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning and persuasion, suggesting alternatives, and the like. They are widely used in labor-management negotiations and in civil court disputes. Their settlement rate is approximately 60 percent, with negotiator satisfaction at about 75 percent. The key to success—the conflicting parties must be motivated to bargain and resolve their conflict, intensity cannot be too high, and the mediator must be perceived as neutral and noncoercive.
relationship between organizational politics and individual outcomes
perceptions of organizational politics are negatively related to job satisfaction. The perception of politics leads to anxiety or stress. When it gets to be too much to handle, employees quit. higher levels of job distress and were less likely to help their co-workers
referent power
person who has desirable resources or personal traits develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person
negotiation
process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree upon the exchange rate for them
strength of functional
putting like specialists together and the pooling and sharing of specialized resources across products
Image
rational persuasion is the only tactic effective across organizational levels. Inspirational appeals work best as a downward influencing tactic with subordinates. When pressure works, it's generally downward only. Personal appeals and coalitions are most effective as lateral influence. Other factors that affect the effectiveness of influence include the sequencing of tactics, a person's skill in using the tactic, and the organizational culture. You're more likely to be effective if you begin with "softer" tactics that rely on personal power, such as personal and inspirational appeals, rational persuasion, and consultation. If these fail, you can move to "harder" tactics, such as exchange, coalitions, and pressure, which emphasize formal power and incur greater costs and risks. Interestingly, a single soft tactic is more effective than a single hard tactic, and combining two soft tactics or a soft tactic and rational persuasion is more effective than any single tactic or combination of hard tactics. The effectiveness of tactics depends on the audience. People especially likely to comply with soft power tactics tend to be more reflective, are intrinsically motivated, have high self-esteem, and have greater desire for control. People especially likely to comply with hard power tactics are more action oriented and extrinsically motivated and are more focused on getting along with others than with getting their own way.
organizational culture
refers to a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organization from other organizations.
formalization
refers to the degree to which jobs within the organization are standardized. A highly formalized job gives the job incumbent a minimum amount of discretion. The greater the standardization, the less input the employee has into how the job is done. Low formalization—job behaviors are relatively nonprogrammed, and employees have a great deal of freedom to exercise discretion in their work.
why managers want to create boundary less organizations
seeks to eliminate the chain of command, have limitless spans of control, and replace departments with empowered teams. Uses cross-hierarchical teams Uses participative decision-making practices Uses 360-degree performance appraisals Functional departments create horizontal boundaries. Boundaryless organizations break down geographic barriers. Culture can be a boundary element. Customers perform functions done by management.
direction of influence
that leadership focuses on the downward influence on one's followers. Leadership research, for the most part, emphasizes style. The research on power focuses on tactics for gaining compliance. It goes beyond the individual as the exerciser of power, because groups as well as individuals can use power to control other individuals or groups.
General Dependency Postulate
the greater B's dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B. When you possess anything that others require but that you alone control, you make them dependent upon you and, therefore, you gain power over them. Dependency, then, is inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply
cost minimization
tightly controls costs, refrains from incurring unnecessary innovation or marketing expenses, and cuts prices in selling a basic product
imitation
tries to capitalize on the best of both minimize risk and maximize opportunity for profit: It moves into new products or new markets only after viability has been proven by innovators. It copies successful ideas of innovators. Manufactures mass-marketed fashion goods that are rip-offs of designer styles.
innovation and risk taking
which is the degree to which employees are encouraged to do both
people orientation
which is the degree to which management decisions consider the effect of outcomes on people within the organization
disadvantage of functional
is the difficulty of coordinating the tasks
authority
"the rights inherent to management to give orders and expect the orders to be obeyed.
exchange
. Rewarding the target with benefits or favors in exchange for following a request
negotiation process
1.preparation and planning 2.definition of ground rules 3.clarrifcation and justification 4.bargaining and problem solving 5.closure and implementation
pic 6
An example of distributive bargaining is buying a car: You go out to see the car. It is great and you want it. The owner tells you the asking price. You do not want to pay that much. The two of you then negotiate over the price. Its most identifying feature is that it operates under zero-sum conditions. The essence of distributive bargaining is negotiating over who gets what share of a fixed pie. (See Exhibit 14-6) By fixed pie, we mean a set amount of goods or services to be divvied up. When the pie is fixed, or the parties believe it is, they tend to bargain distributively.
how organizational structures differ and contrast mechanistic and organic structural models
An organization's structure is a means to help management achieve its objectives. There is considerable evidence to support that an organization's size significantly affects its structure. The impact of size becomes less important as an organization expands. Technology refers to how an organization transfers its inputs into outputs. Every organization has at least one technology. Numerous studies have examined the technology-structure relationship. Organizations engaged in nonroutine activities tend to prefer organic structures. An organization's environment includes outside institutions or forces that can affect its performance. Dynamic environments create significantly more uncertainty for managers than do static ones. Any organization's environment has three dimensions: capacity, volatility, and complexity
personal appeals
Asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty
how can management create more ethical culture
Be a visible role model. Communicate ethical expectations. Provide ethical training. Reward ethical acts and punish unethical ones. Provide protective mechanisms.
spiritual organizations include
Benevolence. Strong sense of purpose. Trust and respect. Open-mindedness.
cultures functions
Boundary-defining role Conveys a sense of identity for members Facilitates the generation of commitment Enhances the stability of the social system Serves as a sense-making and control mechanism Guides and shapes attitudes and behavior of employees
work specialization
By the late 1940s, most manufacturing jobs in industrialized countries were being done this way. Managers also looked for other efficiencies that could be achieved through work specialization. Repetition of work Training for specialization Increasing efficiency through invention
Power
Capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B, so that B acts in accordance with A's wishes. May exist but not be used. a capacity or potential
centralization and decentralization
Centralization refers to the degree to which decision-making is concentrated at a single point in the organization. A decentralized organization can act more quickly to solve problems, more people provide input into decisions, and employees are less likely to feel alienated from those who make decisions that affect their work lives.
Chapter 13
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Chapter 15
Chapter 16
Chapter 16
Differences across countries in conflict resolution strategies may be based on collectivistic tendencies and motives.
Collectivist cultures see people as deeply embedded in social situations. They will avoid direct expression of conflicts, preferring indirect methods for resolving differences of opinion.
inspirational needs
Developing emotional commitment by appealing to a target's values, needs, hopes, and aspirations
Research asks questions (organizational culture)
Does it encourage teamwork? Does it reward innovation? Does it stifle initiative?
pic
Exhibit 16-4 summarizes how an organization's culture is established and sustained. The original culture derives from the founder's philosophy and strongly influences hiring criteria as the firm grows. Top managers' actions set the general climate, including what is acceptable behavior and what is not. The way employees are socialized will depend both on the degree of success achieved in matching new employees' values to those of the organization in the selection process, and on top management's preference for socialization methods.
pic
Exhibit 16-6 depicts organizational culture as an intervening variable. Employees form an overall subjective perception of the organization based on factors such as degree of risk tolerance, team emphasis, and support of people. This overall perception becomes, in effect, the organization's culture or personality and affects employee performance and satisfaction, with stronger cultures having greater impact. Just as people's personalities tend to be stable over time, so too do strong cultures. This makes a strong culture difficult for managers to change if it becomes mismatched to its environment. But as this chapter's Point/Counterpoint demonstrates, changing an organization's culture is a long and difficult process. Thus, at least in the short term, managers should treat their organization's culture as relatively fixed. One of the most important managerial implications of organizational culture relates to selection decisions. Hiring individuals whose values don't align with those of the organization is likely to yield employees who lack motivation and commitment and are dissatisfied with their jobs and the organization. Not surprisingly, employee "misfits" have considerably higher turnover rates. An employee's performance also depends to a considerable degree on knowing what to do and not do. Understanding the right way to do a job indicates proper socialization. As a manager, you can shape the culture of your work environment. All managers can especially do their part to create an ethical culture and to consider spirituality and its role in creating a positive organizational culture.
Negotiators who are agreeable or extraverted are not very successful in distributive bargaining
Extraverts are outgoing and friendly, they tend to share more information than they should. And agreeable people are more interested in finding ways to cooperate rather than to butt heads.
Narrow spans have three major drawbacks
First, as already described, they are expensive because they add levels of management. Second, they make vertical communication in the organization more complex. Third, narrow spans of control encourage overly tight supervision and discourage employee autonomy
Culture creation occurs in three ways:
Founders hire employees who feel the way they do. Employees are indoctrinated and socialized into the founders' way of thinking. Founders' behaviors act as role models
language
Fourth is language. Many organizations and subunits within them use language to help members identify with the culture, attest to their acceptance of it, and help preserve it. Unique terms describe equipment, officers, key individuals, suppliers, customers, or products that relate to the business. New employees may at first be overwhelmed by acronyms and jargon, that, once assimilated, act as a common denominator to unite members of a given culture or subculture.
departmentalization
Grouping jobs together so common tasks can be coordinated is called departmentalization. By functions performed By type of product or service the organization produces By geography or territory By process differences By type of customer
Outline conflict process
Groups that resolve conflicts successfully discuss differences of opinion openly. The most disruptive conflicts are those that are never addressed directly. Managers need to emphasize shared interests in resolving conflicts. Groups with cooperative conflict styles and an underlying identification to group goals are more effective than groups with a more competitive style.
closure and implementation
Here is formalizing the agreement that has been worked out and developing any procedures that are necessary for implementation and monitoring Major negotiations will require hammering out the specifics in a formal contract. For most cases, however, closure of the negotiation process is nothing more formal than a handshake.
organizational characteristics
High formalization creates predictability, orderliness, and consistency. Formalization and culture are two different roads to a common destination. The stronger an organization's culture, the less management needs to develop formal rules and regulations. Employees internalize guides when they accept the organization's culture.
Characteristics shaping high ethical standards:
High in risk tolerance Low to moderate in aggressiveness Focuses on means as well as outcomes
A bureaucracy is characterized by:
Highly routine operating tasks. Very formalized rules and regulations. Tasks grouped into functional departments. Centralized authority. Narrow spans of control. Decision-making that follows the chain of command.
span of control
How many employees a manager can efficiently and effectively direct is an important question. All things being equal, the wider or larger the span, the more efficient the organization
how ethical culture can be created
If the culture is strong and supports high ethical standards, it should have a very powerful and positive influence on employee behavior. The negative consequences of a systematic culture of unethical behavior can be severe and include customer boycotts, fines, lawsuits, and government regulation of an organization's practices
When can a person have power over you
If they have something you desire
What creates dependency
Importance Scarcity Nonsubstitutability
consultation
Increasing the target's support by involving him or her in deciding how you will accomplish your plan
factors contributing to political behavior
Individual: high self-monitors, internal locus of control, high mach personality, organizational investment, perceived job alternatives, expectations of success organizational: reallocation of resources, promotion opportunities, low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation system, zero-sum reward practices, democratic decision making, high performance pressures, self serving senior managers
Research identifies seven primary characteristics that capture the essence of an organization's culture:
Innovation and risk taking. Attention to detail. Outcome orientation. People orientation. Team orientation. Aggressiveness. Stability.
3
Institutionalization Barriers to Change Barriers to Diversity Barriers to Acquisitions and Mergers
matrix structure
It combines two forms of departmentalization—functional and product:
Most important aspect of power
It is a function of dependency
Culture in negotiation
Japanese negotiators and found the generally conflict-avoidant. Managers with high levels of economic power from Hong Kong, which is a high power-distance country, were more cooperative in negotiations over a shared resource than German and U.S. managers, who were lower in power distance.
It differs from job satisfaction
Job satisfaction is evaluative. Organizational culture is descriptive
Contrasting leadership and power
Leaders use power as a means of attaining group goals. Leaders achieve goals, and power is a means of facilitating their achievement
nine distinct influence tactics
Legitimacy Rational Persuasion Inspirational Needs Consultation Exchange Personal Appeals Ingratiaing Pressure Coalitions
gender differences in negotiation
Men and women do not negotiate differently. A popular stereotype is that women are more cooperative, pleasant, and relationship-oriented in negotiations than are men. The evidence doesn't support this belief. Because women are expected to be "nice" and men "tough," research shows women are penalized when they initiate negotiations Evidence also suggests women's own attitudes and behaviors hurt them in negotiations. Managerial women demonstrate less confidence than men in anticipation of negotiating and are less satisfied with their performance afterward. Women are also less likely than men to see an ambiguous situation as an opportunity for negotiation
apply impression management techniques
Most job applicants use IM. Some IM techniques work better than others in the interview. In general, applicants appear to use self-promotion more than ingratiation. Ingratiating always works because everyone—both interviewers and supervisors—likes to be treated nicely. Almost all our conclusions on employee reactions to organizational politics are based on studies conducted in North America. The few studies that have included other countries suggest some minor modifications.
picture two
Most managerial decisions take place in the large and ambiguous middle ground of organizational life. (Exhibit 13-2)Because most decisions have to be made in a climate of ambiguity, people within organizations will use whatever influence they can to taint the facts to support their goals and interests. These are activities we call politicking. It is possible for an organization to be politics free, if all members of that organization hold the same goals and interests, however, that is not the organization most people work in.
connection between sexual harassment and abuse of power
Most studies confirm that the concept of power is central to understanding sexual harassment. Sexual harassment is more likely to occur when there are large power differentials. Thus sexual harassment by the boss typically creates the greatest difficulty for those being harassed. A recent review of the literature shows the damage caused by sexual harassment. Individuals who are sexually harassed report lower job satisfaction and diminished organizational commitment as a result. Sexual harassment also negatively affects the group in which the harassment "is significantly and substantively associated with a host of harms." Managers have a responsibility to protect their employees from a hostile work environment, but they also need to protect themselves. Managers may be unaware of sexual harassment, but being unaware does not protect them or their organization. If investigators believe a manager could have known about the harassment, both the manager and the company can be held liable.
A review of the evidence leads to a pretty clear conclusion: you can't generalize
Not everyone prefers the freedom and flexibility of organic structures. Different factors stand out in different structures as well. Some people are most productive and satisfied when work tasks are standardized and ambiguity minimized
chain of command
Once a cornerstone in design of organizations, "an unbroken line of authority that extends from the top of the organization to the lowest echelon and clarifies who reports to whom." Two complementary concepts: authority and unity of command.
Other research has conceptualized culture into four different types based on competing values
One is the collaborative and cohesive clan. Two is the innovative and adaptable adhocracy. Three is the controlled and consistent hierarchy. Four is the competitive and customer focused market
Managing Functional Conflict
One of the keys to minimizing counterproductive conflicts is recognizing when there really is a disagreement. Successful conflict management recognizes these different approaches and attempts to resolve them by encouraging open, frank discussion focused on interests rather than issues.
Analyze the behavioral implications of different organizational designs
Organization's structure can have significant effects Although research is slim, it does suggest national culture influences the preference for structure. So consider cultural differences along with individual differences when predicting how structure will affect employee performance and satisfaction.
functional and dis effects
Organizational climate is shared perceptions about the organization and work environment. The same appears true for organizations. Factors of climate has been studied, including safety, justice, diversity, and customer service. Climates can interact with one another to produce behavior. Climate also influences the habits people adopt.
national culture may affect the way organizational culture is transported to a different country
Organizational cultures often reflect national culture. One of the primary things U.S. managers can do is to be culturally sensitive. The management of ethical behavior is one area where national culture can rub up against corporate culture. U.S. employees are not the only ones who need to be culturally sensitive.
reward power
People comply because doing so produces positive benefits; therefore, one who can distribute rewards that others view as valuable will have power over those others. These rewards can be either financial—such as controlling pay rates, raises, and bonuses—or nonfinancial, including recognition, promotions, interesting work assignments, friendly colleagues, and preferred work shifts or sales territories
which bases of power are most effective
Personal sources are most effective. Both expert and referent power are positively related to employees' satisfaction with supervision, their organizational commitment, and their performance, whereas reward and legitimate power seem to be unrelated to these outcomes. Coercive power usually backfires. Individuals in positions of power tend to be blamed for their failures and credited for their successes to a greater degree than those who have less power. In the same way, studies suggest that leaders and managers in positions of power pay greater costs for unfairness and reap greater benefits for fairness.
Individual Differences in Negotiation Effectiveness
Personality Traits in Negotiation Negotiators who are agreeable or extraverted are not very successful in distributive bargaining. Research also suggests intelligence predicts negotiation effectiveness, but, as with personality, the effects aren't especially strong Moods and emotions influence negotiation, but the way they do appears to depend on the type of negotiation. In distributive negotiations, negotiators in a position of power or equal status who show anger negotiate better outcomes because their anger induces concessions from their opponents. Anxiety also appears to have an impact on negotiation. Culture in negotiation Gender differences in negotiation
goal compatibility
Power does not require goal compatibility, merely dependence. Leadership, on the other hand, requires some congruence between the goals of the leader and those being led.
rational persuasion
Presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate a request is reasonable
some tactics more effective then others
Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation tend to be the most effective, especially when the audience is highly interested in the outcomes of a decision process. Pressure tends to backfire and is typically the least effective of the nine tactics. You can also increase your chance of success by using more than one type of tactic at the same time or sequentially, as long as your choices are compatible. Using both ingratiation and legitimacy can lessen the negative reactions from appearing to "dictate" outcomes, but only when the audience does not really care about the outcomes of a decision process or the policy is routine.
legitimacy
Relying on your authority position or saying a request accords with organizational policies or rules
pic
The third stage is the metamorphosis stage, which is the process of working out any problems discovered during the encounter stage. The options presented in Exhibit 16-3 are alternatives designed to bring about the desired metamorphosis. Most research suggests there are two major "bundles" of socialization practices. The more management relies on formal, collective, sequential, fixed, and serial socialization programs and emphasize divestiture, the more likely newcomers' differences will be stripped away and replaced by standardized predictable behaviors. These institutional practices are common in police departments, fire departments, and other organizations that value rule following and order. Programs that are informal, individual, random, variable, and disjunctive and emphasize investiture are more likely to give newcomers an innovative sense of their role and methods of working. Creative fields, such as research and development, advertising, and filmmaking, rely on these individual practices. Most research suggests high levels of institutional practices encourage person-organization fit and high levels of commitment, whereas individual practices produce more role innovation.
pic
The three-part entry socialization process is complete. When new members have internalized and accepted the norms of the organization and their work group, are confident in their competence, and feel trusted and valued by their peers. They understand the system—not only their own tasks but the rules, procedures, and informally accepted practices as well. Finally, they know what is expected of them and what criteria will be used to measure and evaluate their work. As Exhibit 16-2 showed, successful metamorphosis should have a positive impact on new employees' productivity and their commitment to the organization and reduce their propensity to leave the organization.
Resolution-focused Conflict
There are some very specific cases in which conflict can be beneficial. Workplace conflicts are not productive. Conflicts produce stress. Researchers have started to focus more on managing the whole context in which conflicts occur, both before and after the behavioral stage of conflict occurs
positive organizational culture
There is a trend today for organizations to attempt to create a positive organizational culture. A positive organizational culture emphasizes building on employee strengths, rewards more than it punishes, and emphasizes individual vitality growth.
rituals
These are repetitive sequences of activities that express and reinforce the key values of the organization.
symbols
These are such things as the layout of corporation headquarters, the types of automobile top executives are given, aircraft, size of offices, or executive perks. These convey to employees who is important, the degree of egalitarianism top management desires, and the kinds of behavior that are appropriate, such as risk taking, conservative, authoritarian, participative, individualistic, or social
definition of politics
Those activities that are not required as part of one's formal role in the organization, but that influence the distribution of advantages within the organization Political behavior is outside one's specified job requirements. It encompasses efforts to influence the goals, criteria, or processes used for decision-making. It includes such varied political behaviors as withholding key information from decision makers, whistle blowing, spreading rumors, leaking confidential information.
functional and dis effects
Today's trend toward decentralized organizations makes culture more important than ever, but ironically it also makes establishing a strong culture more difficult. Individual-organization "fit"—that is, whether the applicant's or employee's attitudes and behavior are compatible with the culture—strongly influences who gets a job offer, a favorable performance review, or a promotion.
Comparing managers in U.S. and China
U.S. managers prefer rational appeal, whereas Chinese managers preferred coalition tactics
how a culture begins
Ultimate source of an organization's culture is its founders. Founders have vision of what the organization should be. Unconstrained by previous ideologies or customs. New organizations are typically small; facilitates the founders' imparting of their vision on all organizational members.
ingratiating
Using flattery, praise, or friendly behavior prior to making a request
pressure
Using warnings, repeated demands, and threats
Picture 4
We know that people have an ongoing interest in how others perceive and evaluate them. Being perceived positively by others should have benefits for people in organizations. Who engages in IM—the high self-monitor (Exhibit 13-6). Low self-monitors tend to present images of themselves that are consistent with their personalities, regardless of the beneficial or detrimental effects for them. High self-monitors are good at reading situations and molding their appearances and behavior to fit each situation. IM does not imply that the impressions people convey are necessarily false. Excuses and acclaiming, for instance, may be offered with sincerity. You can actually believe that ads contribute little to sales in your region or that you are the key to the tripling of your division's sales. Misrepresentation can have a high cost. If the image claimed is false, you may be discredited. Situations that are characterized by high uncertainty or ambiguity that provide relatively little information for challenging a fraudulent claim increase the likelihood of individuals misrepresenting themselves. Most of the studies undertaken to test the effectiveness of IM techniques have related it to two criteria: interview success and performance evaluations.
preparation and planning
What is the nature of the conflict? What is the history leading up to this negotiation? Who is involved, and what are their perceptions of the conflict? What do you want from the negotiation? What are your goals? Determine your and the other side's Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement (BATNA). Your BATNA determines the lowest value acceptable to you for a negotiated agreement. Any offer you receive that is higher than your BATNA is better than an impasse.
Although there are no clear-cut ways to differentiate ethical from unethical politicking, there are some questions you should consider.
What is the utility of engaging in politicking? Is it worth the risk? Does the political activity conform to standards of equity and justice?
determine whether political action is ethical
When faced with an ethical dilemma regarding organizational politics, try to consider whether playing politics is worth the risk and whether others might be harmed in the process. If you have a strong power base, recognize the ability of power to corrupt. Remember that it's a lot easier for the powerless to act ethically, if for no other reason than they typically have very little political discretion to exploit.
clarification and justification
When initial positions have been exchanged, explain, amplify, clarify, bolster, and justify your original demands. This need not be confrontational. You might want to provide the other party with any documentation that helps support your position.
consultant
a skilled and impartial third party who attempts to facilitate problem solving through communication and analysis, aided by his or her knowledge of conflict management." In contrast to the previous roles, the consultant's role is to improve relations between the conflicting parties so that they can reach a settlement themselves. This approach has a longer-term focus: to build new and positive perceptions and attitudes between the conflicting parties.
arbitrator
a third party with the authority to dictate an agreement." It can be voluntary (requested) or compulsory (forced on the parties by law or contract). The authority of the arbitrator varies according to the rules set by the negotiators. The arbitrator might be limited to choosing one of the negotiator's last offers or to suggesting an agreement point that is nonbinding, or free to choose and make any judgment. The big plus of arbitration over mediation is that it always results in a settlement. Any negative depends on how "heavy-handed" the arbitrator appears.
conciliator
a trusted third party who provides an informal communication link among parties." This role was made famous by Robert Duval in the first Godfather film. Conciliation is used extensively in international, labor, family, and community disputes. Comparing its effectiveness to mediation has proven difficult. Conciliators engage in fact finding, interpreting messages, and persuading disputants to develop agreements.
dependence is based on
alternatives that B perceives and the importance that B places on the alternative(s) that A controls
sexual harassment defined
any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individual's employment and creates a hostile work environment.
human diseconomies from specialization
are boredom, fatigue, stress, low productivity, poor quality, increased absenteeism, and high turnover
bureaucracy is efficient only
as long as employees confront familiar problems with programmed decision rules.
traditional view of conflict
assumed all conflict was bad and to be avoided. It was viewed negatively and discussed with such terms as violence, destruction, and irrationality to reinforce its negative connotation. This traditional view of conflict was consistent with attitudes about group behavior that prevailed in the 1930s and 1940s. Conflict was a dysfunctional outcome resulting from poor communication, a lack of openness and trust between people, and the failure of managers to be responsive to the needs and aspirations of their employees
bureaucracy primary strength
is in its ability to perform standardized activities in a highly efficient manner.
coercive power
base is being dependent on fear of negative results. It rests on the application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs
legitimate power
broader than the power to coerce and reward. It includes acceptance of the authority of a position by members of an organization.
stability
degree to which activities emphasize maintaining the status quo
outcome orientation
degree to which employees are expected to exhibit precision, analysis, and attention to detail
aggressiveness
degree to which people are aggressive and competitive
team orientation
degree to which work activities are organized around teams rather than individuals
product departmentalization
facilitates coordination. It provides clear responsibility for all activities related to a product, but with duplication of activities and costs.
Differences between leadership and power
goal compatibility and the direction of influence
virtual organization drawbacks
have become increasingly clear as their popularity has grown. They are in a state of perpetual flux and reorganization, which means roles, goals, and responsibilities are unclear, setting the stage for political behavior. Cultural alignment and shared goals can be lost because of the low degree of interaction among members. Team members who are geographically dispersed and communicate infrequently find it difficult to share information and knowledge, which can limit innovation and slow response time. Ironically, some virtual organizations are less adaptable and innovative than those with well-established communication and collaboration networks. A leadership presence that reinforces the organization's purpose and facilitates communication is thus especially valuable.
U.S. supreme court..
helped to clarify this definition by adding a key test for determining whether sexual harassment has occurred—when comments or behavior in a work environment "would reasonably be perceived, and [are] perceived, as hostile or abusive
unity of command
helps preserve the concept of an unbroken line of authority. It states that a person should have only one superior to whom he/she is directly responsible.
bureaucracy's weaknesses
include subunit conflicts, unit goals dominate, obsessive behavior, covering weak management
People in different countries prefer different power tactics
individualistic countries tend to see power in personalized terms and as a legitimate means of advancing their personal ends, whereas those in collectivistic countries see power in social terms and as a legitimate means of helping others
Most current strategy frameworks focus on three strategy dimensions:
innovation, cost minimization, and imitation.
expert power
is "influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skill, or knowledge." As jobs become more specialized, we become increasingly dependent on experts to achieve goals.
virtual organization
which management outsources all of the primary functions of the business. The dotted lines in this exhibit represent those relationships typically maintained under contracts. In essence, managers in virtual structures spend most of their time coordinating and controlling external relations, typically by way of computer-network links. The major advantage to the virtual organization is its flexibility. The primary drawback is that it reduces management's control over key parts of its business. Virtual organizations' drawbacks have become increasingly clear as their popularity has grown. They are in a state of perpetual flux and reorganization, which means roles, goals, and responsibilities are unclear, setting the stage for political behavior. Cultural alignment and shared goals can be lost because of the low degree of interaction among members. Team members who are geographically dispersed and communicate infrequently find it difficult to share information and knowledge, which can limit innovation and slow response time.
6 elements of organizations structure
work specialization, Departmentalization, Chain of command, Span of control, Centralization and decentralization, and Formalization.
sexual harassment
wrong. It can also be costly to employers. Mitsubishi paid $34 million to settle a sexual harassment case. A former UPS manager won an $80 million suit against UPS on her claims it fostered a hostile work environment. It can have a negative impact on the work environment, too.