Management ch 13-18

Collaborative discussion sites

Web- or software-based discussion tools that allow employees to ask questions and share knowledge

Standards

a basis of comparison for measuring the extent to which various kinds of organizational performance are satisfactory or unsatisfactory

Underreward

a form of inequity in which you are getting fewer outcomes relative to inputs than your referent is getting

Overreward

a form of inequity in which you are getting more outcomes relative to inputs than your referent

Participative leadership

a leadership style in which the leader consults employees for their suggestions and input before making decisions

Supportive leadership

a leadership style in which the leader is friendly and approachable, shows concern for employees and their welfare, treats them as equals, and creates a friendly climate

Directive leadership

a leadership style in which the leader lets employees know precisely what is expected of them, gives them specific guidelines for performing tasks, schedules work, sets standards of performance, and makes sure that people follow standard rules and regulations

Achievement-oriented leadership

a leadership style in which the leader sets challenging goals, has high expectations of employees, and displays confidence that employees will assume responsibility and put forth extraordinary effort

Trait theory

a leadership theory that holds that effective leaders possess a similar set of traits or characteristics

Contingency theory

a leadership theory that states that in order to maximize work group performance, leaders must be matched to the situations that best fit their leadership styles

Path-goal theory

a leadership theory that states that leaders can increase subordinate satisfaction and performance by clarifying and clearing the paths to goals and by increasing the number and kinds of rewards available for goal attainment

Intrinsic reward

a natural reward associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake

Blog

a personal website that provides personal opinions or recommendations, news summaries, and reader comments

Control

a regulatory process of establishing standards to achieve organizational goals, comparing actual performance to the standards, and taking corrective action when necessary

Extrinsic reward

a reward that is tangible, visible to others, and given to employees contingent on the performance of specific tasks or behaviors

Intermittent reinforcement schedule

a schedule in which consequences are delivered after a specified or average time has elapsed or after a specified or average number of behaviors has occurred

Continuous reinforcement schedule

a schedule that requires a consequence to be administered following every instance of a behavior

Goal

a target, objective, or result that someone tries to accomplish

Reinforcement theory

a theory that states that behavior is a function of its consequences, that behaviors followed by positive consequences will occur more frequently, and that behaviors followed by negative consequences, or not followed by positive consequences, will occur less frequently

Goal-setting theory

a theory that states that people will be motivated to the extent to which they accept specific, challenging goals and receive feedback that indicates their progress toward goal achievement

Expectancy theory

a theory that states that people will be motivated to the extent to which they believe that their efforts will lead to good performance, that good performance will be rewarded, and that they will be offered attractive rewards

Equity theory

a theory that states that people will be motivated when they perceive that they are being treated fairly

Attribution theory

a theory that states that we all have a basic need to understand and explain the causes of other people's behavior

Normative decision theory

a theory that suggests how a leader can determine an appropriate amount of employee participation when making decisions

Variable ratio reinforcement schedule

an intermittent schedule in which consequences are delivered following a different number of behaviors, sometimes more and sometimes less, that vary around a specified average number of behaviors

Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule

an intermittent schedule in which consequences are delivered following a specific number of behaviors

Fixed interval reinforcement schedule

an intermittent schedule in which consequences follow a behavior only after a fixed time has elapsed

Variable interval reinforcement schedule

an intermittent schedule in which the time between a behavior and the following consequences varies around a specified average

Nonverbal communication

any communication that doesn't involve words

Noise

anything that interferes with the transmission of the intended message

Active listening

assuming half the responsibility for successful communication by actively giving the speaker nonjudgmental feedback that shows you've accurately heard what he or she said

Reinforcement contingencies

cause-and-effect relationships between the performance of specific behaviors and specific consequences

Unethical charismatics

charismatic leaders who control and manipulate followers, do what is best for themselves instead of their organizations, want to hear only positive feedback, share only information that is beneficial to themselves, and have moral standards that put their interests before everyone else's

Ethical charismatics

charismatic leaders who provide developmental opportunities for followers, are open to positive and negative feedback, recognize others' contributions, share information, and have moral standards that emphasize the larger interests of the group, organization, or society

Counseling

communicating with someone about non-job-related issues that may be affecting or interfering with the person's performance

Coaching

communicating with someone for the direct purpose of improving the person's on-the-job performance or behavior

Horizontal communication

communication that flows among managers and workers who are at the same organizational level

Downward communication

communication that flows from higher to lower levels in an organization

Upward communication

communication that flows from lower to higher levels in an organization

Constructive feedback

feedback intended to be helpful, corrective, and/or encouraging

Destructive feedback

feedback that disapproves without any intention of being helpful and almost always causes a negative or defensive reaction in the recipient

Goal acceptance

he extent to which people consciously understand and agree to goals

Outcome/input (O/I) ratio

in equity theory, an employee's perception of how the rewards received from an organization compare with the employee's contributions to that organization

Referents

in equity theory, others with whom people compare themselves to determine if they have been treated fairly

Inputs

in equity theory, the contributions employees make to the organization

Outcomes

in equity theory, the rewards employees receive for their contributions to the organization

Feedback to sender

in the communication process, a return message to the sender that indicates the receiver's understanding of the message

Performance feedback

information about the quality or quantity of past performance that indicates whether progress is being made toward the accomplishment of a goal

Survey feedback

information that is collected from surveys given to organizational members and then compiled, disseminated, and used to develop action plans for improvement

Transactional leadership

leadership based on an exchange process, in which followers are rewarded for good performance and punished for poor performance

Visionary leadership

leadership that creates a positive image of the future that motivates organizational members and provides direction for future planning and goal setting

Transformational leadership

leadership that generates awareness and acceptance of a group's purpose and mission and gets employees to see beyond their own needs and self-interests for the good of the group

Listening

making a conscious effort to hear

Kinesics

movements of the body and face

Company hotlines

phone numbers that anyone in the company can call anonymously to leave information for upper management

Encoding

putting a message into a written, verbal, or symbolic form that can be recognized and understood by the receiver

Extinction

reinforcement in which a positive consequence is no longer allowed to follow a previously reinforced behavior, thus weakening the behavior

Positive reinforcement

reinforcement that strengthens behavior by following behaviors with desirable consequences

Negative reinforcement

reinforcement that strengthens behavior by withholding an unpleasant consequence when employees perform a specific behavior

Punishment

reinforcement that weakens behavior by following behaviors with undesirable consequences

Traits

relatively stable characteristics, such as abilities, psychological motives, and consistent patterns of behavior

Schedule of reinforcement

rules that specify which behaviors will be reinforced, which consequences will follow those behaviors, and the schedule by which those consequences will be delivered

Televised/videotaped speeches and meetings

speeches and meetings originally made to a smaller audience that are either simultaneously broadcast to other locations in the company or videotaped for subsequent distribution and viewing

Strategic leadership

the ability to anticipate, envision, maintain flexibility, think strategically, and work with others to initiate changes that will create a positive future for an organization

Hearing

the act or process of perceiving sounds

Valence

the attractiveness or desirability of a reward or outcome

Charismatic leadership

the behavioral tendencies and personal characteristics of leaders that create exceptionally strong relationships between them and their followers

Initiating structure

the degree to which a leader structures the roles of followers by setting goals, giving directions, setting deadlines, and assigning tasks

Situational favorableness

the degree to which a particular situation either permits or denies a leader the chance to infl uence the behavior of group members

Leader-member relations

the degree to which followers respect, trust, and like their leaders

Position power

the degree to which leaders are able to hire, fire, reward, and punish workers

Task structure

the degree to which the requirements of a subordinate's tasks are clearly specified

Goal difficulty

the extent to which a goal is hard or challenging to accomplish

Consideration

the extent to which a leader is friendly, approachable, and supportive and shows concern for employees

Goal specificity

the extent to which goals are detailed, exact, and unambiguous

Communication medium

the method used to deliver an oral or written message

Distributive justice

the perceived degree to which outcomes and rewards are fairly distributed or allocated

Procedural justice

the perceived fairness of the process used to make reward allocation decisions

Expectancy

the perceived relationship between effort and performance

Instrumentality

the perceived relationship between performance and rewards

Perceptual filters

the personality-, psychology-, or experience-based differences that influence people to ignore or pay attention to particular stimuli

Needs

the physical or psychological requirements that must be met to ensure survival and well-being

Paralanguage

the pitch, rate, tone, volume, and speaking pattern (i.e., use of silences, pauses, or hesitations) of one's voice

Perception

the process by which individuals attend to, organize, interpret, and retain information from their environments

Decoding

the process by which the receiver translates the written, verbal, or symbolic form of a message into an understood message

Reinforcement

the process of changing behavior by changing the consequences that follow behavior

Leadership

the process of infl uencing others to achieve group or organizational goals

Communication

the process of transmitting information from one person or place to another

Motivation Needs

the set of forces that initiates, directs, and makes people persist in their efforts to accomplish a goal

Formal communication channels

the system of official channels that carry organizationally approved messages and information

Defensive bias

the tendency for people to perceive themselves as personally and situationally similar to someone who is having difficulty or trouble

Closure

the tendency to fill in gaps of missing information by assuming that what we don't know is consistent with what we already know

Fundamental attribution error

the tendency to ignore external causes of behavior and to attribute other people's actions to internal causes

Selective perception

the tendency to notice and accept objects and information consistent with our values, beliefs, and expectations while ignoring, screening out, or not accepting inconsistent stimuli or information

Self-serving bias

the tendency to overestimate our value by attributing successes to ourselves (internal causes) and attributing failures to others or the environment (external causes)

Informal communication channel (grapevine)

the transmission of messages from employee to employee outside of formal communication channels

Leadership style

the way a leader generally behaves toward followers

Empathetic listening

understanding the speaker's perspective and personal frame of reference and giving feedback that conveys that understanding to the speaker

Jargon

vocabulary particular to a profession or group

Organizational silence

when employees withhold information about organizational problems or issues