Management Final

Alternatives to leadership

o Closely Knit Teams of Highly Trained Individuals o Intrinsic Satisfaction o Computer Technology o Extensive Professional Education

Evaluations and Implications of LPC

o Fielders LPC theory validity is debatable because the measures lack validity and is not supported by research as well as assumptions about inflexibility of leader behavior is unrealistic. • Important contribution in that it returned the study of the situation and explicitly considered the organizational context in its role of effective leadership

Leader Situation Match

o Mismatched if person-oriented leader faces favorable or very unfavorable situation, or if, task-oriented leader faces a situation of intermediate favorableness o Leadership behavior is a personality trait, thus leaders can readily adapt to situation and achieve effectiveness o When leaders style and situation do not match, job engineering occurs through attempting to improve job matters, like training programs for supervisors

organizational stressor:Role Overload

occurs when expectations for the role exceed the individuals capabilities Manager gives employee several major assignments Individual takes on too many roles at one time • Person trying to work hard at job and serve at church and coach

position power

power that resides in the position regardless of who is filling the position Similar to authority Sphere of power is created for the person filling the position

Coercive Power

—the extent to which a person has the ability to punish or physically or psychologically harm someone else. Threatening with transfer to dead-end to branch. The more negative sanctions a manager can bring to bear on others the stronger the coercive power.

Causes of Political Behavior

• Ambiguous goals, nonroutine technology, unstable environment, organizational change

Evaluation and Implications of Path Goal theory

• Leader behavior and situational factors influence subordinate attitudes and behaviors. Further research support theory's major predictions but does not validate the entire model. Many predictions are too general and not fully refined and tested.

Strengths of LMX Theory

• Recognizes in-groups and out-groups • Only leadership approach that makes the dyadic relationship the centerpiece of the leadership model • Directs our attention to the importance of communication in leadership • Practice of LMX theory results in positive organizational outcomes

Organizational Stressors

• Various factors in the workplace that cause stress • Task demands, physical demands, role demands, interpersonal demands

**Power Politics and Organizational Justice

-->>>>Influence-- is defined as the ability to affect the perceptions, attitudes, or behaviors of other. Can be dramatic or subtle. Both the source and the target of influence might be a person or group. Influence can be intentional or unintentional. Influence can be used in ways that are beneficial or harmful. Hence, influence is a major force in organizations that managers cannot afford to ignore. • In organizations: *Should actually be seen as the cornerstone of the process of one person attempting to affect another *A persons effectiveness in affecting the behavior of others through influence is the ultimate determinant of whether she or he is really a leader • Nature of Influence: When will influence occur and what has been changed? *Change in perceptions, attitude, and in behavior -->>>>>the nature of power the potential ability of a person or group to exercise control over another person or group. Distinguished from influence due to the element of control, the more powerful the control, the less powerful. An extreme form of influence Power can reside in individuals (managers and informal leaders), in formal groups (departments and committees), and in informal groups (clique of influential people). Differences of opinion: All Interpersonal relations are influenced by power. The exercise of power is confined only to certain situations. Power can flow in any direction in an organization. The power is usually in the hands of those that are in higher up positions, however the reversal can happen if for example, someone's reputation is at stake. -->>>>>>Position power vs. personal power Position Power: the power that resides in the position, regardless of who holds it. Legitimate, reward, and some aspects of coercive and expert power all contribute to position power. Similar to authority. Personal Power: the power that resides with an individual, regardless of his or her position in the organization. Referent and some elements of expert, coercive, and rewards power. Charisma is likely to contribute to personal power. Through rational persuasion or by playing on followers' identification with him or her. --->>>>>Negative Effects of Power Formal leaders experience of power leads to increased leader taking→ decreases leaders perceived openness and diminishes team performance. -->>>>>How to obtain power Doing the right things: extraordinary, visible, or relevant activities Cultivating the right people: outsiders, subordinates, peers, superiors. --->>>>Organizational Politics Activities to acquire, enhance, and use power Can affect salaries and hiring Can be appropriate if fair and equitable -->>>>>Reasons for Political Behavior Ambiguous goals, scarce resources, technology and environment, nonprogrammed decisions, and organizational changes --->>>>Techniques of Political Behavior Controlling information, communication, and/or agenda Using outside help Playing games Building coalitions -->>>>How to limit Political Behavior Employees usually dislike politics. By having open communication, reducing uncertainty, and being aware of the causes of political behavior will greatly limit it ---->>>>Organizational Justice The study of people's perceptions of fairness in organizations. -->>>>Four Basic Forms of Organizational Justice • Distributive Justice—The form of organizational justice that focuses on people's beliefs that they have received fair amounts of valued work-related outcomes—when workers of the same position are being paid different salaries • Procedural Justice—People's perceptions of the fairness of the procedures used to determine the outcomes they receive—When workers perceive a high level of procedural justice, they are somewhat more likely to be motivated to participate in activities, to follow rules, and be more accepting of relevant outcomes • Interpersonal Justice—People's perceptions of the fairness of the manner in which they are treated by other people—Idea that manager should treat their employees with dignity and respect, offer information on a timely basis and always be open and honest in their dealings • Informational Justice-- People's perceptions of the fairness of the information used as the basis for making a decision—Decision based on relatively complete and accurate information, and that the information was appropriately processed and considered

Types of power

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****Stress essays ***

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Management Vs. Leadership

Management and Leadership are closely related but are not the same. There are key behavioral distinctions between the two. You can be a manager, a leader, both, or neither.

Situational Factors

Personal Characteristics: • our locus of control and perceived ability Perceived Ability: • how people view their own ability with respect to the task

Life Stressors

• Events that occur outside of the organization that are either life change or life trauma

Consequences of Stress

• Individual—behavioral, psychological, medical • Organizational—performance, withdrawal, attitudes • Burnout—general feeling of exhaustion developing from simultaneously experiencing too much pressure and few resources of satisfaction

Weaknesses

• Run counter to basic human values of fairness • The basic ideas and theory are not fully developed • Questions Regarding the measurement of leadership member exchanges in LMX process

Limiting the effects of political behavior

• Techniques target both the reasons it occurs and the specific techniques that people use for political gain o Open Communication • Doesn't allow for one single person to have access to information and if there is scarce resources it is openly known. o Reduce uncertainty o Forewarned is forearmed • Being aware of the causes and techniques of political behavior and managing their effects

Trait Leadership

• Traits affect behaviors and behaviors affect effectiveness o Leaders have certain characteristics that are utilized across time to enhance organizational performance and leader prestige • Leaders differ from non-leaders on six traits: Drive, Desire to lead, Honesty, Self-confidence, Cognitive ability, Knowledge of business

Problems of the Trait Approach

Not sufficient to explain the entire phenomenon of leadership No hypotheses about what a leader should do given a particular set of circumstances, nor to specify the conditions in which different skills and traits are necessary Cannot tell when selecting critical traits Without extensive situational analysis, we cannot know which traits will be omitted. Same trait = same success? Two leaders can use different traits to achieve the same level of success. The same leader could apply the same traits in two different situations, only to succeed in one and fail miserably in the other

The nature of power

Power—the potential ability of a person or group to exercise control over another person or group • Distinguished from influence in the element of control. The more power control the less powerful. • We may be able to control others but may choose not to exercise that control—terms of potential • Power may reside in individuals and in formal groups and in informal groups. • Direct link between power and influence If person can convince another to change their opinion on an issue, engage in or refrain from some behavior, or change view on circumstance, they are exercising influence—and used power

Position Power vs. Personal power

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Stress Defined

a person's adaptive response to a stimulus that places excessive psychological or physical demands on him or her oComponents— (1)Notion of adaption (people adapt to stressful circumstances in several different ways) , (2)The role of the stimulus (the stressor—anything that induces stress), (3)The stressor can be psychological or physical, (4)The demands the stressor places on the individual must be excessive for stress to result.

what does a coach do?

a) Select team members and other new employees b) Provide general direction c) Train and develop team and skills of members d) Assist team to get information and resources e) Help to resolve conflict among team members f) Mediate other disputes Mentor a) Taking more responsibilities b) Helping a less-experienced person learn the ropes to better prepare or advance within organization

Phases of Social Growth

a) Stranger phase- rule bound, low quality exchanges b) Acquaintance phase- testing, sharing more resources and personal/work related information c) Mature relationship phase- mutual trust, respect toward each other

Many organizations contain "substitutes for leadership"

attributes of subordinates, tasks, and organizations that provide task guidance and incentives to perform to such a degree that they virtually negate the leaders ability to either improve or impair subordinate performance. To the extent that powerful leadership substitutes exist, formal leadership, however displayed, tends to be unproductive and can even be counterproductive

Distress Vs. Eustress

o Distress—is the unpleasant stress that accompanies negative events—negative stress—excessive pressure, unreasonable demands, etc. o Eustress—is the pleasurable stress that accompanies positive events—good things—getting married, promotion, and bonus. Stress can be either good or bad, it can motivate or stimulate, or it can lead to any number of dangerous side effects

Refinement and Revision of other theories

o Under LPC, stress has been added to the situational factors, as well as intelligence and experience enable leader to cope with various levels of stress for any specific situation o Under Path Goal theory, there have been 2 more forms of leader behavior added and it has intuitive logic and general research support o Vrooms decision tree approach, continuous development of training and assessment materials to better understand natural decision making styles o there is software versions that help managers determine optimal level of participation in a given situation

personal power

power that resides with an individual regardless of his or her position in the organization Primary bases for this is expert, coercive and reward power. Can be exercised through inspiring loyalty and dedication as well as rational persuasion or by playing on follower identifications with him or her. Followers are acting more from choice than necessity, and will respond more readily to requests and appeals.

Referent Power

power through identification exists when one person wants to be like or imitates someone else similar to charisma, it involves trust similarity and acceptance as well as affection and willingness to follow and emotional involvement

The Stress Process

Dr. Hans Selye—identification of the general adaption syndrome and the concepts of eustress and distress General Adaption Syndrome—WE all have a threshold at which stress starts to affect us, some deal tolerate a higher levels than others. Identifies the three stages of response to a stressor: Alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. Stage 1—Alarm • Person first encounters a stressor • Person may feel some degree of panic and begins to wonder how to cope and resolve to fight or flight question—how will I ever get this done by tomorrow? Stage 2—Resistance • If the stressor is too extreme, person may be unable to cope with it, the individual gathers his or her strength (physical or emotional) and begins to resist the negative effects of the stressor—person resisting effects of stressor Resistance usually ends the process—completing the report Stage 3—Exhaustion—if person cant resist • Prolonged exposure to a stressor without resolution brings on phase 3. At this stage the person literally gives up and can no longer fight the stressor. Manager may fall asleep at desk and fail to finish the report

Management Vs. Leadership con't

Management: plans and budgets an agenda, organizes and staffs a human network for achieving the agenda, and executes plans through controlling and problem solving outcome- produces a degree of predictability and order and has the potential to consistently produce major results expected by various stakeholders Leadership: establishes direct when creating an agenda, aligns people when developing a human network for achieving the agenda, and motivates and inspires while executing the plan outcome: produces change often dramatic degree, and has the potential to produce extremely useful change such as new products or approaches to labor relations

Traditional Models of Leadership

Process: leadership is the use of noncoercive influence to direct and coordinate the activities of group members to meet a goal Property: leadership is the set of characteristics attributed to those who are perceived to use such influence successfully Influence: Is the ability to affect the perceptions, beliefs, attitudes, motivation and/or behaviors of others.

Coach leadership style

a) Charismatic leadership - A process that leads value transformation and emphasizes changing needs, values, self-concepts, and goals of his or her team b) Transactional leadership - Driven by the ability of the leader to appeal to his or her follower's self-interest by the establishment of a relationship based on exchange c) Laissez-Faire leadership - A style that implies the "lack of leadership" or a "hands off" approach to influence d) Transformational leadership - Establishment of the leader as a role model by gaining the trust and confidence of followers, based on their ability to inspire followers and nurture the follower's ability to contribute to the foundational success of the organization e) Servant leadership - Gives emphasis to the needs of the follower over the self-interests of the leader and characterizes the leader's behavior s servant first

Types of Subs.

a) Closely knit teams of highly trained individuals b) Intrinsic satisfaction - The degree of intrinsic satisfaction that employees derive from their work task is a strong leadership substitute c) Computer technology - Companies with computer-integrated manufacturing and networked computer systems rely on computers to take over many of the supervisor's leadership functions. d) Extensive Professional Education - Professional employees may come to their firms with so much formal education that they can perform most work assignments without relying upon technical guidance from their hierarchical superior.

Six principles in guiding the coaching activities of the leader coach

a) Create a safe but challenging environment b) Work in tune with the agenda c) Facilitate and collaborate d) Advocate self-awareness e) Promote sustainable learning from experience f) Model what your coach

* * Leaders as coaches* *

a) Many organizations are becoming less hierarchical 1) Eliminate the old-fashioned command-and-control mentality 2) Motivate and empower individuals 3) Work independently b) Leaders are assigned to control situation, direct work, supervise people, closely monitor performance, make decision, and structure activities c) Nowadays, leaders are being asked to change how they manage people (From overseer to coach)

Types of Leadership Neutralizers

a) Physical Distances - When subordinates work at a physical distance from their leader, many recommended leadership practices have limited usefulness or are nearly impossible to perform. b) Reward Systems - Organizational reward systems can also be important neutralizers of the hierarchical leadership's effects. c) Bypassing management structure - A very different type of neutralization occurs when someone at a higher level repeatedly

Life Change

any meaningful change in a person's personal or work situation; too many life changes over a short period of time can lead to health problems. • Major changes in a person life can lead to stress and eventually to disease. • Events can relate directly or indirectly to work. • Can be both positive or negative events • Holmes and Rahe argue person can handle a certain threshold of LCU's and beyond that the problems set in , more than 150 is usually the threshold, 150-300 = 50% of illness, 300+ 70% illness Offer info to potential cumulative impact of various stressors and underscore limitations in scoping with stressful events -there is mixed support.

organizational stressor: Role Ambiguity

arises when role is unclear—stems from poor job descriptions, vague instructions from supervisor, or unclear cues form coworkers. Results in subordinate not knowing what to do.

Leadership Neutralizer

attributes of subordinates, tasks, and organizations that also interfere with a leader's attempts to influence subordinates. Unlike leadership substitutes, however, neutralizers do not replace the leader's impact over subordinates, but rather create an "influence vacuum" that can have serious negative consequences.

• Leader-Member Exchange Model

conceptualizes leadership as a process that is centered on the interactions between leaders and followers. The LMX theory makes the dyadic relationship between leaders and followers the focal point of the leadership process. The theory challenges the assumption that leaders treat followers in a collective way, as a group Early studies of LMX resulted in different types of relationships • In-group - In this group, the leader and the follower have a mutual trust amongst each other, respect and liking. They often receive more information and receive it earlier, have more influence, confidence and concern. They are often more dependable, highly involved and highly communicative • Out-group - In this group, the followers have a relationship with the leader marked by formal communication based on the job description. The members of this group are often less compatible

organizational stressor:Interpersonal Demands

group pressures, leadership, and personality conflict • Group pressures—pressure to restrict output, pressure to conform to the groups norms, etc. Group informally agreeing how much each person needs to complete • Leadership Style—non-sympathetic or too autocratic • Conflicting personalities and Behaviors—conflict occurs when two or more people must work together even though their personalities, attitudes, and behaviors differ • Job holders today experience stress from a variety of sources simultaneously Airport Security—pressure from passengers to job as fast as possible but as secure as possible

organizational stressor: Role Demands

is a set of expected behaviors associated with a particular position in a group or organization Can be formal or informal requirements. People in the organization expect a person in a particular role to act in certain ways and then transmits these expectations formally and informally and individuals perceive role expectations with varying degrees of accuracy and then attempt to enact the role.

Leader Behaviors

o Directive Lets subordinates know what is expected of them, gives them specific guidance. Schedules work to be done. Maintains definitive standards of performance for subordinates o Supportive Friendly and shows concern for subordinates, well-being, and needs . o Participative Leader consults with subordinates about issues and takes their suggestions into account o Achievement oriented • Involves setting challenging goals, expecting subordinates to perform at their highest level and showing strong confidence that subordinates will put forth the effort and accomplish goals. o In this theory it is assumed that, unlike in LPC, leaders can change their behavior and exhibit any or all of the leadership styles. Appropriate combination of leadership styles depends on situational factors

Leader Motivation and Situational Favorableness

o Good relations a structured task and either high or low position power result in a very favorable situation for the leader. Poor relations and unstructured task and either high or low position power create very unfavorable conditions for the leader. o Task oriented leader is appropriate for very unfavorable as well as very favorable situations o If leader member relations are poor, task is unstructured, and leader position power is low, task oriented leader will be effective o Task oriented leader will be effective if leader member relations are good and task is structured and leader position power is high. Situations of intermediate favorableness, person-oriented leader will be most likely to achieve high group performance

Situational Factors

o The personal characteristics of the subordinates • Locus of control—internal prefer participative leader, external prefer directive leader • Perceived ability—how people view their own ability with respect to the task . high = not a directive leader preference, low = directive leader preference o The characteristics of the environment • Task structure • Formal authority system • Primary work group If leader helps subordinates cope with environmental uncertainty created by such characteristics they will be motivational to employees. When task structure is high, there is less need for a highly directive leader The extent to which leader behavior matches the people and environment in the situation is influencicning motivation and performance.

organizational stressor: Role Conflict

occurs when the messages and cues from others about the role are clear but contradictory or mutually exclusive. Interrole conflict—conflict between roles • Boss says they need to work overtime and spouse says more time is needed with family Intrarole Conflict—conflicting demands form different sources within the context of the same role • Boss says they need to pressure subordinates to follow new work rules and subordinates indicate they expect to get new rules changed • Cues are in conflict and managers may be unsure about which course to follow Intrasender Conflict—occurs when a single source sends clear but contradictory messages • Boss says one morning there can be no overtime over the next month but after lunch tells someone to work late that night Person-Role conflict—results from discrepancy between role requirements and the indviduals personal values, attitutdes, and needs • Person is told something that is unethical or illegal or distasteful Conflict occurs in variety of situations and leads to a variety of adverse consequences including stress, poor performance, and rapid turnover

Legitamate Power

power that is granted by virtue of ones position in the organization mangers have this power over subordinates. Bounds of legitimacy are bound by the formal nature of the position and partly by informal norms and traditions.

organizational stressor: Task Demands

stressors associated with the specific job a person performs • Aside from task-related pressures, unhealthy conditions as well as lack of job security are also task demands that can cause stress • Stress increases during periods of layoff or after a merger with another firm • Overload—occurs when a person has more work than she can handle. It can be quantitative or qualitative. • Low task demands result in boredom but overload results in tension and anxiety. • A moderate degree of work-related stress is optimal, because it leads to high levels of energy and motivation

Expert Power

the extent to which a person controls information that is valuable to someone else—expertise or information The more important the information and the fewer alternative sources for getting the greater the power Much less associated with formal authority

Reward Power

the extent to which a person controls rewards that are valued by another. Power of control over organizational rewards: pay, promotions, work assignments. As well as recognition and acceptance and be praised or acknowledged.

organizational stressor: Physical Demands

the physical requirements on the worker; these demands are a function of the physical characteristics of the setting and the physical tasks it involves • Temperature—working outdoors in extreme temperatures results in stress. As well as working in a overly heated or cooled office, carrying heavy cargo • Office Design—resulting in too much or too little co-worker interaction or lack of privacy, can lead to boredom or loneliness or a distraction • Poor Lighting, Inadequate work surfaces, and shift in work can cause disruptions for people because of the way it affects their sleep and leisure-time activities

Life Trauma

—narrower, more direct, and short term focus. Any upheaval in an individuals life that alters his or her attitudes, emotions, or behaviors. • Divorce, marital problems, family difficulties, health problems initially unrelated to stress

Situational Favorableness

• 3 factors that determine favorableness of the situation in order of importance o Leader-Member Relations—the personal relationship that exists between subordinates and their leader. Based on a the extent to which subordinates trust, respect, and have confidence in the leader, vice versa. High degree is a good relation, low degree is a poor relation. o Task Structure—a structured task is routine, simple, easily understood, and unambiguous. Structured tasks are favorable because the leader doesn't need to devote time to defining activities and can dedicate time to other activities. An unstructured task is one that is nonroutine, ambiguous, and complex; this task is more unfavorable because the leader has to play a major role in guiding and directing activities o Leader position power—the power inherent in the leaders role itself. High and favorable if they have power to assign work, reward and punish employees, and recommend for promotion. Opposite if job assignments must be approved and does not control rewards and punishment and has no voice in promotions low and unfavorable.

Organizational Politics

• Activities people perform to acquire, enhance, and use power and other resources to obtain their desired outcome—in a situation where there is uncertainty or disagreement. o It is the general means by which people attempt to obtain and use power.

Charismatic leadership

• Based on the individuals trait of charisma—form of interpersonal attraction that inspires support and acceptance. • A type of influence based on the leaders personal charisma • Highly charismatic= successfully influencing subordinates behaviors o Have high self confidence, firm confidence in their beliefs and ideals, and a strong need to influence people. o Communicate high expectations about follower performance and to express confidence in their followers. o Envisioning, energizing, enabling • Charismatic leaders enable other by supporting them, empathizing with them, and expressing confidence in them.

The meaning of leadership

• Can be defined in both process and property oAs a process—leadership involves the use of noncoercive influence to direct and coordinate the activities of group members to meet a goal, thus leadership is attributed to those that influence successfully. o Influence—the ability to affect the perceptions, beliefs, attitudes, motivation, and/or behaviors of others. o Leadership is vital because it had powerful influence on individual and groups behavior. It involves neither force nor coercion. A manager or supervisor may not be a leader.

Cross Cultural Leadership

• Culture encompasses both international differences and diversity-based differences within one culture o Changing leadership styles when working in the US than in Japan o Most leadership research is on white males and with increasingly diverse workforce, it may be necessary to reassess how applicable current theories and models of leadership are when applied

Nature of Stress

• Defined many ways but most say stress is caused by a stimulus, that the stimulus may either be psychological or physical and that the individual responds to the stimulus in some way Person must perceive the demands as excessive or stress will not actually be present • Airline Workers→ increased stress → seeking counseling services and turnover & absenteeism are also increasing

LPC least preferred worker

• Degree a task or relationship motivation in a given leader is measured by it. • Scale presumes to measure a leaders motivation • Asks all respondents to chose the least preferred worker and then describe the coworker by making a series of sixteen scales. Higher numbers are associated with positive evaluations and respondents who describe their least preferred workers in relatively positive terms receive a high LPC score and those who do in negative terms have a low LPC score o Believed that everyone's LPS is like to be equally unpleasant and that differences in descriptions actually reflect differences in personality traits among he leaders responding to LPC scale • High LPC= more concerned with interpersonal relations • Low LPC leaders are more concerned with task relevant problems

Path Goal theory of leadership

• Developed by Martin Evans and Robert House • Focuses on the situation and leader behaviors rather than on fixed traits of the leader o In contrast to LPS , the path-goal theory suggests that leaders can readily adapt to different situations • Rooted in expectancy based theory—persons attitudes and behaviors can be predicted from the degree to which the person believes job performance will lead to various outcomes and the value of those outcomes to the individual • Argues that subordinates are motivated by their leader to the extent that the behaviors of the leader influence their expectancies o Leader affects subordinates performance by clarifying the behaviors that will lead to desired rewards. Path→goals o Getting a reward in an organization depends on effective performance. Also suggesting that a leader may behave in different ways in different situations

Individual Copeing Strategies of stress

• Exercise—less likely to have heart attacks than inactive people, feel less tension, stress, more self confident and have greater optimism • Relaxation—proper relaxation is an effective way to adapt. Many forms include taking regular vacations, while on the job by taking regular rest breaks, sitting quietly for ten minutes in every afternoon with their eyes closed • Time Management—daily pressures can be eased or eliminated by a person who does better job at managing time. Make a list every morning of the things that need to be done that day. Critical activities that mist be performed, important activities that should be performed, and option things that can be delegated or postponed. • Role Management—individual actively works to avoid overload, ambiguity, and conflict. Getting clarifications as to what is expected, or learning to say no when you've always said yes, sometimes saying no is not an option • Support Groups—Develop and maintain support groups which is a group of family members or friends with whom a person can spend time. Helps in dealing with normal stress and during times of crisis.

Transformational Leadership

• Focuses on the basic distinction between leading for change and leading for stability • Much of what a leader does occurs in the course of normal, routine, work-related transactions. Occasionally leader has to initiate and manage a major change such as managing a merger, creating a workgroup, defining organizations work culture • Transactional leadership—essentially the same as management that it involves in routine regimented activities • Transformational leadership—the set of abilities that allows the leader to recognize the need for change to create a vision to guide that change and to execute that change effectively—leader needs major effective influence • Leadership change is important as well as vital organizational function to avoid stagnation or complacency

The LPC theory of leadership

• Fred Fiedler—Suggests that a leaders effectiveness depends on the situation and as a result some leaders may be effective in one situation or organization but not in another • Explains why discrepancy may occur and identifies leader-situation matches that should result in effective performance o Task Vs. Relationship Motivation • Leaders basic personality traits in relation to leadership: task motivation vs. relationship motivation. Conceptualizing context in terms of its favorableness for the leader, high favorable to highly unfavorable • Task motivation closely parallels job-centered and initiating structure leader behavior • Relationship motivation is similar to employee-centered and consideration leader behavior Main difference is in that fielder view, task vs. relationship motivation is grounded in personality in a way that is constant for any given leader

Emergence of Situational Leadership Models

• Helps develop realistic complex approaches to leadership and urge ones to not be so preoccupied with the properties that are possessed by leaders and instead to concentrate on what leaders actually do • There is not one uniform form of effective leadership • Behavior theorists—Although interpersonal and task-oriented dimensions might be useful to describe leaders, they are not useful for predicting or prescribing it

Gender and Leadership

• Increasing women in workforce creates the need for understanding that men and women lead differently. • Women tend to be slightly more democratic in making decisions and men tend to be more autocratic o Due to women having more interpersonal skills and are better able to understand how to effectively involve others in making decisions and have more encounters to more stereotypic resistance to their occupying senior roles thus making it a need to actively work to involve others in making decisions to help minimize any hostility or conflict

Use of Power in Organizaitons

• Leaders should use various kinds of power to be effective, the use of power should engender commitment or at least compliance and least likely to engender resistance • Mechanistic approach—choosing subordinates with similar backgrounds similar to their own to build a referent power base in order for the subordinates to subsequently attempt to emulate the leaders behavior • Expert power leads to confident decisive leader and informed to maintain expertise. • Leader should recognize employee concerns and work to understand their underlying nature and take appropriate steps to reassure subordinates • Legitimate power is exercised by formally requesting subordinates to do something. Make the request diplomatically if subordinate is sensitive about his or her relationship with the leader. Leader is in charge and conveys his command of the situation, the requests are clear, and reasons are explained • Reward power is exercised by verifying compliance, making feasible and reasonable requests that are only ethical and proper and offer only credible rewards that are desired by subordinates • Coercive power is likely to cause resentment and erode referent power and be used infrequently. Compliance is all that can be expected from using coercive power. Resistance is the most likely outcome especially if the power used was in a hostile or manipulative way. Subordinates should be fully informed about the rules and penalties for violating them, prevent accidental violations of a rule. Through responding to first violation and giving a warning before punishing upon next violation. Disciplinary action needs to consistent and uniformly, credibility and information about situation must occur, and severity of punishment should match the seriousness of the infraction. And be punished in private and not in front of others.

Managing political behavior

• Must have basic understanding of the following factors o Reasons for Political Behavior • Ambiguous goals, scarce resources, technology and environment (changing environment calls for a need to respond to the dynamics and complexity), nonprogrammed decisions, organizational change • Likely to arise whenever many nonprogrammed decisions need to be made. Two faculty members competing for one tenured position o Techniques of Political Behavior • Understanding is based on informal observation and inference • Control as much information as possible • Creating or exploiting situations to control lines of communication—personal assistants access to boss, managers using outside experts • controlling the agenda—manager can keep an item on or off the agenda, prolonging and unwanted event • Game playing—managers simply work within the rules of the organization to increase the probability that their preferred outcomes will come about Arranging to be called out of town on a crucial business trip when votes take place In a purely manipulative or deceitful way • Using control over information to play games with subordinates and tell them they'll all get the position • Building Coalitions—goal of convincing others that everyone should work together to accomplish certain things—exchanging support in vote for one thing and returning the favor . • Controlling decision parameters—can only be used in certain situations and requires subtlety—Instead of trying to control the actual decision, the manager backs up one step and tries to control the criteria on tests on which the decision is based

Leadership vs. Management Cont'd

• Organizations need both leadership and management to be effective. *Leadership is necessary to create and direct change and to help the organization get through tough times. *Management is necessary to achieve coordination and systematic results and to handle administrative activities during times of stability and predictability • Management and leadership can help achieve planned orderly change and keep the organization properly aligned with its environment • Play a major role in establishing moral climate of organizations and in determining the role of ethics in tis culture

Use of Power

• Power bases, requests from individuals possessing power, and probable outcomes in the form of prescriptions for the manager • The three outcomes that can result are commitment, compliance, and resistance • The outcomes depend on the leaders base of power and how that base is operationalized and the subordinates individual characteristics o Commitment will result form an attempt to exercise power if the subordinate accepts and identifies with the leader. The employee will be highly motivated by the requests that seem important to the leader. o Compliance means the subordinate is willing to carry out the leaders wishes as long as doing so will not require extraordinary effort. The person will respond to normal, reasonable requests that are perceived to clearly be within the normal boundaries of the job, but person will not be inclined to do anything extra or to go beyond the normal expectations for the job. o Resistance occurs when the subordinate rejects or fights the leaders wishes.

Initially, the process in which a new subordinate is decided whether he or she is in the In-group or Out-group follows this process:

• Role taking- The member joins the team and the leader assesses their abilities and talents. Based on this, the leader may offer them opportunities to demonstrate their capabilities • Role making- The leader and member take part in an unstructured and informal negotiation whereby a role is created. Any felt betrayal can result the member becoming part of the Out-group. • Routinization- In this phase, a pattern of ongoing social exchange between the leader and the member becomes established

Situational models of leadership

• Situational models assume that appropriate leader behavior varies from one situation to another o Goal is to identify key situational factors and to specify how they interact to determine appropriate leader behavior • Robert Tannenbaum and Warren H. Schmidt proposed a continuum of leadership behavior, purely job centered behavior and employee centered behavior and several intermediate behavior that a manger might consider • Continuum of behavior ranges from the one extreme of having the manager make the decision alone to the other of having the employee make the decision with minimal guidance from the leader. Acknowledges the fact that leader behaviors represent a continuum rather than discrete extremes and that various characteristics and elements of any given situation would affect the success of any given leadership style It is only speculative even though it points out importance of situational factors FURTHER DEVELOPED IN LPC, PATH GOAL THEORY, VROOMS DECSISON TREE APPROACH • Each point is influenced by characteristics of manager, subordinates, the situation. • Managerial—managers value system, confidence in subordinates, personal inclinations, and feelings of security • Subordinates—ambiguity, interest in the problem, understanding of goals, knowledge, experience, and expectations • Situational—organization, group effectiveness, the problem itself, and the pressures

Contemporary Situational Theories of leadership organization

• The Leader-Member Exchange Model o Stresses the importance of variable relationships between supervisors and each of their subordinates o Each superior subordinate pair is referred to as a vertical dyad. It then focuses on the differential relationship leaders often establish with different subordinates. • In-group—supervisors establish a special relationship with a small number of trusted subordinates whom often receive special duties requiring more responsibility and autonomy, have special privileges, and more discretion about work schedules. • Out-group—receive less of the supervisors time and attention and are more likely to be assigned the more mundane tasks the group must perform and not be in the loop in so far as information being shared. • Leader choses in and out group based on personal compatibility and subordinates competence. • In-group tends to perform higher and have a higher level of satisfaction. The Hersey and Blanchard Model o Based on the notion that appropriate leader behavior depends on the notion that appropriate leader behavior depends on the readiness of the leaders followers. o Readiness refers to the subordinates degree of motivation, competence, experience, and interest in accepting responsibility • as readiness of followers improves the leaders basic style should also change • if low the leader should rely on a telling style by providing direction and defining roles • if low to moderate selling style should offer direction and role definition with explanation and information • if moderate to high participating style should allow followers to share in decision making • if high delegating style by allowing followers to work independently with little to no overseeing.

Attribution and Leadership

• The attribution perspective on leadership—holds when behaviors are observed in a context associated with leadership, then others may attribute varying levels of leadership ability or power to the person displaying those behaviors. • The attribution made affect both own behavior and the actual capacity of an individual to behave like a leader • If we and others reinforce the person confidence in continuing the leadership role by mimicking their behavior • Follower's pay especially close attention to a leaders behavior during a time of crisis particularly if followers feel that their own best interests are directly at stake

Organizational Strategies of Stress

• View 1: because the organization is at least partly responsible for creating stress they should help relive it • View 2: workers experiencing lower levels of harmful stress will function more effectively • 2 basic strategies for helping employees manage stress—institutional and collateral programs o Institutional Programs—undertaken through established organizational mechanisms. Properly designed jobs and work schedules. Organizational Culture—norms such as not taking long vacations can cause major stress. Strive to foster a culture that reinforces a healthy mix of work and non work activities. Supervision can be a major source of overload if they cant keep the workload reasonable. o Collateral Programs—an organizational program specifically created to help employees deal with stress. • Stress management programs and health promotion programs, employee fitness programs, attack stress indirectly by encouraging employees to exercise • Career development programs

Leaders as coaches

• Whereas leaders were once expected to control situations, direct work, supervise people, closely monitor performance, make decisions, and structure activities, many leaders today are being asked to change how they manage people and become coaches o Leader help select team members and other new employees, provide some general direction, to help train and develop the team and the skills of its members, and to help the team get the information and other resources it needs. o Help resolve conflict among team members, mediate other disputes that arise. Leader keeps a low profile and allows the group to get its work done with little or no direct oversight • Within the coaching role, some leaders may excel and take on more responsibilities as a Mentor—the role of helping a less experienced person learn the ropes to better prepare himself or herself to advance within the organization—can occur through mentoring programs

Path Goal theory of leadership

• argues that their leader motivates subordinates to the extent that the behaviors of that leader influence their expectancies. It also entails that leaders may behave in different ways in different situations. 4 leader behaviors • Directive: the leader knows what is expected of them, gives specific guidance as to how to accomplish tasks, schedules work to be done, and maintains standards • Supportive: friendly and shows concern for subordinates status, well- being and needs • Participative: the leader consults with subordinates about issues and takes their suggestions into account before making a decision • Achievement Oriented: setting challenging goals, expecting subordinates to perform at their highest level, and showing strong confidence that subordinates will put forth effort to accomplish goals

The pervasiveness of political behavior

• survey results suggest that managers see political behavior as an undesirable but unavoidable facet of organizational life • instead of eliminating political behavior managers should consider when and how organizational politics can be used constructively • A political behavior alternative (PBS is given course of action, largely political in character in a particular situation o It is ethical and appropriate to consider political behavior under two conditions: • 1. If it respects the rights of all affected parties • 2. It adheres to canons of justice • managers must recognize the inevitability of political behavior and not attempt to eliminate political activity and try to use it effectively and following an ethical model. Manager can take certain steps to minimize the potential dysfunctional consequences of abusive political behavior

Leadership Vs. Management

•A person can be a manager, a leader, both or neither •Kotters Distinctions between management and leadership o Creating an agenda • Mangement:planning and budgeting • Leader: establishing direction o Developing a human network for achieving agenda • Management—organizing and staffing • Leadership—aligning people o Executing plans—managers focus on monitoring results and comparing them with goals and correcting deviations and a leader focuses on energizing people to overcome hurdles to reach goals • Management—controlling and problem solving • Leadership—motivating and inspiring o Outcomes • management: produces degree of predictability and order and has potential to consistently produce major results expected by various stockholders • leadership: produces change, dramatic in degree and has potential to produce extememely useful change