Margin review 17-19

In what different ways did the Ottoman state respond to its various problems?

1.Ambassadors were sent to the courts of Europe to study administrative methods, and European advisers were imported. 2.Technical schools to train future officials were established. 3.The Tanzimat, or reorganization, emerged in the several decades after 1839 and included the establishment of factories producing cloth, paper, and armaments; modern mining operations; Western-style law codes and courts; and new elementary and secondary schools. The legal status of the empire's diverse communities was changed in an effort to integrate non-Muslim subjects more effectively into the state. As part of this process, the principle of equality of all citizens before the law was accepted.

What was distinctive about Britain that may help to explain its status as the breakthrough point of the Industrial Revolution?

1.Britain had a rapidly growing population that provided a ready supply of industrial workers with few alternatives available to them. 2.British aristocrats, unlike their counterparts elsewhere in Europe, had long been interested in commerce. 3.Britain possessed a ready supply of coal and iron ore, often located close to each other and within easy reach of major industrial centers.

How did Western pressures stimulate change in China during the nineteenth century?

1.China was forced to continue to import opium. 2.China had to cede Hong Kong to Britain and open a number of other ports to European merchants. 3.Foreigners were given the right to live in China under their own laws, and they received the right to buy land in China. 4.China was opened to Christian missionaries. Western powers were permitted to patrol some of the interior waterways of China. 5.Ultimately, Western pressure enfeebled the Chinese state at precisely the time when China required a strong government to manage its entry into the modern world, and restrictions imposed by the unequal treaties also inhibited China's industrialization.

What accounts for the massive peasant rebellions of nineteenth-century China?

1.China's population grew rapidly between 1685 and 1853, but agricultural production was unable to keep up; this led to growing pressure on the land, smaller farms for China's huge peasant population, and, in all too many cases, unemployment, impoverishment, misery, and starvation. 2.China's centralized bureaucratic state did not enlarge itself to keep pace with the growing population and lost influence at the local level to aristocrats, who tended to be more corrupt and harsh. 3.Peasants frequently embraced rebellion(Taiping) finding leadership in charismatic figures who proclaimed a messianic religious message.

What accounts for the end of Atlantic slavery during the nineteenth century?

1.Enlightenment thinkers in eighteenth-century Europe had become increasingly critical of slavery as a violation of the natural rights of every person 2.Some Christians in Britain and the United States felt that slavery was incompatible with their religious beliefs. 3.There was a growing belief that slavery was not essential for economic progress. 4.The actions of slaves, including the successful slave rebellion in Haiti and unsuccessful rebellions elsewhere, hastened the end of slavery by making slavery appear politically unwise.

What contributed to changing European views of Asians and Africans in the nineteenth century?

1.Europeans used allegedly scientific methods to classify humans, concluding that whites were more advanced. Collectively, these studies created a hierarchy of race, with whites on top and less developed "child races" beneath them. 2.The Europeans saw it as their duty to undertake a "civilizing mission" that included bringing Christianity to the heathen, good government to disordered lands, work discipline and production for the market to "lazy natives," a measure of education to the ignorant and illiterate, 3.The idea of social Darwinism made imperialism, war, and aggression in Africa and Asia seem both natural and progressive, for they served to weed out the weaker peoples of the world, allowing the stronger to flourish.

How did the end of slavery affect the lives of the former slaves?

1.In most cases, the economic lives of the former slaves did not improve dramatically. 2.Outside of Haiti, newly freed people did not achieve anything close to political equality. 3.The greatest change was that former slaves were now legally free.

What were the differences between industrialization in the United States and that in Russia?

1.In the United States, social and economic change came as free farmers, workers, and businessmen created an industrilized economy without much direct government intervention. In autocratic Russia, change was far more often initiated by the state itself, in its continuing efforts to catch up with the more powerful and innovative states of Europe. 2. In the United States, working-class consciousness among factory laborers did not develop as quickly and did not become as radical unlike Russia, in part because workers in the USA were alowed to unionize and vote and as a result USA workers got better wages and conditions. 3.Unlike industrialization in the United States, Russian industrialization was associated with with the 5 year plans of Stalin

What was distinctive about the Haitian Revolution, both in world history generally and in the history of Atlantic revolutions?

1.Its key distinctive feature in both world history and the history of Atlantic revolutions was that it was the only completely successful slave revolt. 2.It slowed revolutionary movemnts in Latin America 3.It was truly radical in that it either exicuted or forced the ruling elites to flee.

How did Japan's historical development differ from that of China and the Ottoman Empire during the nineteenth century?

1.Japan was engaged in an isolationist orientation wntil the 1860's at which point Japan agreed to a series of unequal treaties with various Western powers in order to avoid the problems of China, which initially resisted such treaties. 2.Japan, unlike China or the Ottoman Empire, sought in the aftermath of the Meiji restoration to save Japan from foreign domination by a thorough transformation of Japanese society, drawing upon all that the modern West had to offer. 3.Japan was of less interest to Western powers than either China or the Ottoman Empire, allowing it to reform while under less pressure. 4.Japan industrialized more thoroughly than either China or the Ottoman Empire. 5.Japan did not become as dependent on foreign capital as the Ottoman Empire.

In what ways and with what impact was Latin America linked to the global economy of the nineteenth century?

1.Latin America exported food products and raw materials to industrializing nations, increasing exports by a factor of ten in the sixty years or so after 1850. 2.In return for these exports, Latin America imported the textiles, machinery, tools, weapons, and luxury goods of Europe and the United States. 3.Upper-class landowners benefited from the trade as exports flourished and the value of their land soared 4.But the vast majority of the population lived in rural areas, where they suffered the most and benefited the least from exports to the global economy; many lower-class farmers were pushed off their land, ending up either in remote and poor areas or working as dependent laborers for poor wages on the plantations of the wealthy

How did Karl Marx understand the Industrial Revolution? In what ways did his ideas have an impact in the industrializing world of the nineteenth century?

1.Marx saw the Industrial Revolution as the story of class struggle between the oppressor (the bourgeoisie, or the owners of industrial capital) and the oppressed (the proletariat, or the industrial working class). 2.For Marx, the Industrial Revolution bore great promise as a phase in human history, for it made humankind far more productive, thus bringing the end of poverty in sight. 3.However, according to Marx, capitalist societies could never eliminate poverty, because private property, competition, and class hostility prevented those societies from distributing the abundance of industrial economies to the workers whose labor had created that abundance.

How did Britain's middle classes change during the nineteenth century?

1.Middle-class society was composed of political liberals who favored constitutional government, private property, free trade, and social reform within limits. 2.Ideas of thrift and hard work, a rigid morality, and cleanliness characterized middle-class culture. 3.Women were cast as homemakers, wives, and mothers and charged with creating an emotional haven for their men. They were also the moral center of family life and the educators of respectability

How were the Spanish American revolutions shaped by the American, French, and Haitian revolutions that happened earlier?

1.Napoleon conquered Spain and Portugal, deposing the monarchs who ruled over Latin America. 2.Enlightenment ideas that had inspired earlier revolutions also inspired the revolutions in Latin America. 3.The violence of the French and Haitian revolutions was a lesson to Latin American elites that political change could easily get out of hand and was fraught with danger.

What factors contributed to the making of a revolutionary situation in Russia by the beginning of the twentieth century?

1.Russian factory workers quickly developed an unusually radical class consciousness, based on harsh conditions and the absence of any legal outlet for their grievances. 2.A small but growing number of educated Russians found in Marxist socialism a way of understanding the changes they witnessed daily and hope for the future in a revolutionary upheaval of workers. 3.World War I caused enormous hardships that, when coupled with the immense social tensions of industrialization within a still autocratic political system, sparked the Russian Revolution of 1917.

What accounts for the growth of nationalism as a powerful political and personal identity in the nineteenth century?

1.The Atlantic revolutions declared that sovereignty lay with the people. 2.Increasingly, populations saw themselves as citizens of a nation, deeply bound to their fellows by ties of blood, culture, or common experience. 3.Other bonds weakened during the nineteenth century as science weakened the hold of religion on some, and migration to industrial cities or abroad diminished allegiance to local communities. 4.Nationalism was often presented as a reawakening of older linguistic or cultural identities and certainly drew upon songs, dances, folktales, historical experiences, and collective memories of earlier cultures.

What strategies did China adopt to confront its various problems? In what ways did these strategies reflect China's own history and culture as well as the new global order?

1.The Chinese instituted a "self-strengthening" program in the 1860s and 1870 to bolster traditional China while also borrowing some new traditions from the West. 2.They sought out qualified candidates for bureaucratic positions by instituting a new examination system. 4.New industrial factories were built and older industries expanded. 5.However, China faced opposition from conservative leaders; they hoped the "self-strengthening" program would allay fears that older systems of power privileges would disappear. They also underscored China's dependence on foreign machinery, materials, and manpower. 6. Local aristocratic elelments, rather than the central government, largely controlled industrial enterprises and used them to strengthen their own position rather than that of the nation as a whole.

In what ways did the ideas of the Enlightenment contribute to the Atlantic revolutions?

1.The Enlightenment promoted the idea that human political and social arrangements could be engineered, and improved, by human action. 2. Enlightment ideas of liberty, equality, free trade, provided the intellectual underpinnings of the Atlantic revolutions. 3.The Enlightment was one of the causes of the French Revolution which in turn led to many of the Latin American revolutions of the 1820's

In what different ways did various groups define the Ottoman Empire during the nineteenth century?

1.The Young Ottomans defined the empire as a secular state whose people were loyal to the dynasty that ruled it, rather than a primarily Muslim state based on religious principles. 2.During the reactionary reign of Sultan Abd al-Hamid II, a second identity took shape, in which the empire was defined as a despotic state with a pan-Islamic identity. 3.Opposition to Abd al-Hamid II coalesced around another identity associated with the Young Turks, who were led by both military and civilian elites. They largely abandoned any reference to Islam and advocated instead a militantly secular public life. Some among them began to think of the empire as neither a dynastic state nor a pan-Islamic empire, but rather as a Turkish national state.

What were the achievements and limitations of nineteenth-century feminism?

1.The achievements of the women's movement include the admission of small numbers of women to universities and growing literacy rates among women overall. 2.Professions such as medicine opened to a few women, while teaching beckoned to many more. 3.The movement prompted an unprecedented discussion about the role of women in modern society. 4.As far as limitations, aside from New Zealand, women failed to secure the right to vote in the nineteenth century. 5.Nowhere did nineteenth-century feminism have really revolutionary consequences.

What lay behind the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the nineteenth century?

1.The empire shrank in size both because of European aggression in places like Egypt and because of successful nationalist independence movements in the Balkans. 2.The Ottoman state had weakened, particularly in its ability to raise revenue, as loal aristocrats gained greater power. 3. It had also weakened militarily, as the Janissaries (the elite military corps of the Ottoman state) had become reactionary defenders of the status quo whose military ineffectiveness was increasingly obvious. 4.Competition from cheap European manufactured goods hit Ottoman artisans hard and led to urban riots protesting foreign imports.

In what ways did the Industrial Revolution shape the character of nineteenth-century European imperialism?

1.The enormous productivity of industrial technology and Europe's growing affluence created the need for extensive raw materials and agricultural products found in other parts of the world; and the Europeans went and took them. 2.Europe needed to sell its own manufactured goods, and colonies proved to be important markets. 3.The Industrial Revolution produced technological innovations such as the steamship, the breech-loading rifle, and the telegraph that facilitated imperialism.

Did Latin America follow or diverge from the historical path of Europe during the nineteenth century?

1.The population of Latin America increased rapidly, as did urbanization, similar to what was occurring in Europe. 2.Many Europeans immigrated to Latin America. 3.A middle class formed, although it was much smaller than that of Europe. 4.However, Latin America diverged from the historical path of Europe in certain ways; central to this divergence was the lack of a thorough Industrial Revolution anywhere in Latin America and the development instead of an economy dependent on financial capital from and exports to the industrial economies of Europe.

In what respects did the roots of the Industrial Revolution lie within Europe? In what ways did that transformation have global roots?

1.The roots of the Industrial Revolution lay within Europe because Europe's political system, which was composed of many small and highly competitive states, favored innovation. 2.Globally, Europe after 1500 became the hub of the largest and most varied network of exchange in the world, which generated extensive change and innovation and stimulated European commerce. 3.The conquest of the Americas allowed Europeans to draw disproportionately on world resources and provided a growing market for European machine-produced goods.

How did Japan's relationship to the larger world change during its modernization process?

1.The unequal treaties established in the 1860's were rewritten in Japan's favor. 2.Japan launched its own empire-building enterprise, leaving it with colonial control of Taiwan, Korea, and parts of Manchuria. 3.Japan fought successful wars with China and Russia in the process. 4.Japan became an economic, political, and military competitor for Western powers. 5.Japan also became an inspiration for other subject peoples, who saw in Japan a model for their own modern development and perhaps an ally in the struggle against imperialism.

How did the Industrial Revolution transform British society?

1.While landowning aristocrats suffered little in material terms, they declined as a class as elite urban groups grew in wealth and status 2.As Britain's industrial economy matured, it gave rise to a sizeable "lower middle class" people employed in the growing service sector as clerks. This group distinguished itself from the working class because they did not undertake manual labor. 3.Over time, laboring classes also sought greater political participation, organized after 1824 into trade unions to improve their conditions, and developed socialist ideas that challenged the assumptions of capitalist society.

Why did Marxist socialism not take root in the United States?

2.The immense religious, ethnic, and racial divisions of American society undermined the class solidarity of American workers and made it far more difficult to sustain class-oriented political parties and a socialist labor movement. 2.The country's remarkable economic growth generated on average a higher standard of living for American workers than their European counterparts experienced. 3.By 1910, a particularly large group of white-collar workers in sales, services, and offices outnumbered factory laborers.