Mcgraw Hill Qs

Thyroid hormone stimulating its target cells

Cellular metabolism ↑ in these cells. Basal body temperature ↑ as a result of this stimulation

Which of the following are at high risk 3 - 16 wks pregnancy

Central Nervous System

2 types of folding lead to the cylindrical body shape of the human embryo

Cephalocaudal folding & transverse (or lateral) folding

Continuous, fenestrated, sinusoids capillaries location

Continuous capillaries are the most common type of capillary. The endothelial cells form a complete continuous lining and are connected by tight junctions These capillaries are found in muscle, skin, the thymus, the lungs, and the CNS. Fenestrated capillaries have holes (or fenestrations) within each endothelial cell, but the basement membrane of the endothelial cells is continuous. Fenestrated capillaries are seen in tissues where a great deal of fluid transport bw blood and tissues occurs, such as the intestinalvli, ciliary process of the eye, most endocrine glands, and the kidney. Sinusoids (discontinuous capillaries) have larger gaps than fenestrated capillaries, and a discontinuous or absent basement membrane. Sinusoids are found in bone marrow, the anterior pituitary, parathyroid glands suprarenal glands, the spleen, and the liver

The sutures represents the articulation between the

Corona Suture anterior frontal bone & the more posterior parietal bones. Lambdoid suture is the articulation bw the parietal bones & the occipital bone. Sagittal suture is the articulation bw the right & left parietal bones. Squamosal suture articulates the temporal bone & the parietal bone on each side of the head.

Breathing as we age

Due to aging, in the amount of gas that can be exchanged with each breath and the ventilation rate both decrease. In some conditions, such as emphysema, there are fewer alveoli, which causesa reduced capacity for gas exchange. Additionally, a lifetime of carbon, dust, and pollution accumulation causes some of the lymph nodes in the lungs to turn black, resulting in a speckled appearance to the lungs, even in nonsmokers. Some alveolar epithelial cells die and are replaced by connective tissue, thus further reducing the lungs' capacity for gas exchange

Regional Anatomy

Specific regions of the body such as the head or chest

Exocytosis

The waste left after digestion is removed from the phagocyte.

Homeostasis

The consistent internal environment maintained by control & regulatory mechanisms wi an organism

rotate the radius wo causing either flexion or extension of the elbow

The pronator teres, pronator quadratus, and supinator

Except for parts of the skull and the___bones of the axial skeleton form almost entirely through ___ossification .

clavicles; endochondral

4 main types of skeletal muscle fiber

circular muscles, convergent muscles, parallel muscles, & pennate muscles

Not a basic feature of all organisms

circulation

Which type of angular motion describes a circular path?

circumduction

Inferior to the clavicle, a small surface depression bordered by the deltoid and pectoralis major muscles is called the

clavipectoral triangle

Lysosomes function

destruction & recycling of old organelles

In the blastocyst, the fluid-filled chamber that separates the bilaminar germinal dise from the trophoblast is the

amniotic cavity

Cilia

are cytoplasmic projections whose beating-like movement moves materials along the exposed cell surface

The pelvic ______surrounds the superior opening into the true pelvis, a space called the pelvic ______

brim; inlet

A prominent feature of the temporal bone is the___a passageway for a major artery supplies blood to the brain

carotid canal

The series of mitotic divisions that transforms the zygote into a blastocyst is caled

cleavage

Orbicularis oculi muscle contracts, you

close your eyelid (wink, blink, or squint)

In the anatomic position, all of the following are aligned directly anterior or posterior to one another except

greater and lesser tubercles of humerus

3rd layer of smooth muscle

in the stomach wall assists in the mechanical digestion of the swallowed bolus

The three components of the sternum are the

manubrium the body (gladiolus), and the xiphoid process. Ribs 1- 7 articulate directly with the sternum

The three parts of the sternum are the

manubrium, body, and xiphoid process

Symptoms of the most commonly hernlated intervertebral discs may include any of the following except

pain in the chest and difficulty breathing

The thalamus refers to

paired oval masses of gray matter on either side of the third ventricle. Sensory information for all conscious senses except olfaction are processed there and projected to the sensory cortex

Which bones form the hard palate?

palatine bones and maxillae

The three regions of the temporal bone are the

petrous, squamous, and tympanic regions. The mastoid process is located in the petrous region

Cells expected to contain the most active lysosomes

phagocytosing WBC

To destroy bacteria in the ISF fluid, leukocytes would employ the process of

phagocytosis

Intercalated discs facilitate

rapid transmission of impulses for cardiac muscle contraction.

3 bones in the shoulder region

scapula, clavicle, & proximal part of the humerus

Sebum is produced by

sebaceous glands. It is an oily waxy secretion that has some bactericidal properties

The odontoid process, or dens, is located on the

second cervical vertebra, called the axis. A fracture to the odontoid process would fracture the axis.

Which epidermal cell type is responsible for detecting touch sensations?

tactile (Merkel) cell

Helper T-lymphocytes recognize an AG & stimx

the production of 1. cytotoxic T-lymphocytes mount a cellular attack against foreign cells 2. B-lymphocytes form plasma cells that produce ABs against AGs

Changes in the vertebrae as one moves down the back from C, through T12 include

the vertebral canal gradually diminishes as the centra enlarge

Glding, anguiar, rotational, and special al describe

types of movements at diarthroses

______does not participate in the wrist joint, nor does the ______articulate at the knee

ulna; fibula

Connecting stalk that attaches the early embryo to the placenta is the precursor to the

umbilical cord

The apical ectodermal ridge signals the

underlying tissue to grow and differentiate into the components of the limb

What are satellite cells?

unfused myoblasts

Ejaculatory duct formed from

union of the ampulla of the ductus deferens & proximal region of the seminal vesicle

The three structural types of neurons are

unipolar (1 process extends from cell body) bipolar (2 processes extend from cell body) multipolar (3+ processes extend cell body) 3 functional types of neurons are 1. sensory neurons (afferent,unipolar,& bipolar) 2. interneurons (multipolar neurons lie entirely wi the CNS & carry out integrative fxns) 3. motor neurons (efferent, multipolar)

Which of the following is a carpal bone? A) cuneiform B) cuboid c) trapezium D) talus

trapezium

Structures that extend into the sarcoplasm as a network of deep invaginations of the sarcolemma

transverse tubules

suture

A synarthrosis found only bw adjacent skull bones

Leukopenia condition

# of leukocytes is ↓ normal range of bw 5000-10,000 per microliter of blood

3 main arterial branches emerge from the Aortic Arch

(1) Brachiocephalic trunk bifurcates into the R common carotid artery supplying arterial blood to the R side of the head & neck, R subclavian artery supplying the R upper limb & some thoracic structures. (2) L common carotid artery supplies the L side of the head & neck. (3) L subclavian artery supplies L upper limb & some thoracic structures

Hormones of the reproductive system

(1) GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone) is released by the hypothalamus to stimulate the release of (2) FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) and (3) LH (luteinizing hormone) from the anterior pituitary. At the beginning of the follicular phase, FSH and LH stimulate the maturation of some primordial follicles into primary follicles. Each growing primary follicle secretes (4) estrogen as it continues to mature. The estrogen stimulates changes in the uterine lining. Ovulation is induced when there is a peak in LH secretion. The corpus luteum secretes estrogen as well as (5) progesterone, which stabilize and build up the uterine lining, and prepare the uterus for possible implantation of a fertilized oocyte. When a woman is pregnant, the levels of estrogen, progesterone, and (6) prolactin rise dramatically. Under the influence of increasing prolactin, the mammary gland grows and forms more expanded and numerous alveoli. While prolactin produces breast milk, (7) oxytocin is responsible for milk ejection upon response to a stimulus, such as a baby crying or sucking the nipple. Oxytocin is also responsible for uterine contractions

Reproductive Hormones

(1) GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone) released by the hypothalamus to stimulate the release of FSH, LH (2) FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) (3) LH (luteinizing hormone) from Anterior pituitary.The beginning of the follicular phase, FSH & LH stimulate the maturation of primordial follicles into primary follicles. Each growing primary follicle secretes estrogen (4) Estrogen stimulates changes in the uterine lining. Ovulation is induced when there is a ↑ in LH secretion. Corpus luteum secretes estrogen as well as (5) progesterone, which stabilize & build up the uterine lining, & prepare the uterus for possible implantation of a fertilized oocyte. When a woman is pregnant, the levels of estrogen, progesterone, ↑ dramatically. (6) Under the influence of ↑ prolactin, the mammary gland grows & forms more expanded & numerous alveoli. While prolactin produces breast milk (7) oxytocin is responsible for milk ejection upon response to a stimulus, such as a baby crying or sucking the nipple.

sounds thru the ear

(1) Sound waves are collected by the auricle & funneled thru the external auditory canal to make the tympanic membrane vibrate. (2) The vibration of the tympanic membrane causes movement in the auditory ossicles The foot of the stapes moves like a piston in the oval window, causing pressure waves in the perilymph fluid of the inner ear. (3) Pressure waves travel thru the perilymph in the scala vestibuli. (4) Pressure waves cause the vestibular membrane to vibrate, resulting in pressure wave formation in the endolymph of the cochlear duct. (5)Pressure waves in the cochlear duct displace a specific region of the basilar membrane, causing distortion of stereocilia on hair cells of the spiral organ. This distortion causes a stimulus in the cochlear nerve. Remaining pressure waves are transferred to the perilymph of the scala tympani. (Excess pressure waves then leave the inner ear thru the round window.)

2 widely accepted criteria for a successful pregnancy are

(1) a pregnancy of longer than 37 weeks and (2) a birth weight of more than 5.5 pounds

5 steps in a reflex arc are:

(1) a stimulus actives a receptor (2) a nerve impulse travels through a sensory neuron to the CNS (3) interneurons integrate and process information (4) a motor neuron transmits the nerve impulse to an effector (5) the effector responds to the nerve impulse

Proteins synthesized on fixed ribosomes

(1) are exported outside of the cell or (2) are inc. into the plasma membrane or (3) form enzymes within a new lysosome

Main functions of the placenta

(1) exchange of nutrients, waste products, & respiratory gases bw maternal & fetal bloodstreams (2) transmission of maternal ABs to the developing embryo or fetus (3) production of hormones to maintain & build the uterine lining

Pairs of extrinsic eye muscles & fxn

(1) inferior & superior rectus muscles (2) lateral & medial rectus muscles (3) inferior & superior oblique muscles. Superior rectus muscles move the eyes superiorly & medially Inferior rectus muscles move the eyes inferiorly & medially Medial rectus muscle pulls the eye medially (adducts the eye) Lateral rectus muscle pulls the eye laterally (abducts the eye). Inferior oblique muscle elevates the eye & turns the eye laterally Superior oblique depresses the eye & turns the eye laterally

Corticospinal tracts conduct conscious motor impulses from the cerebral cortex through the brainstem into the spinal cord. There are two pairs of corticospinal tracts

(1) lateral corticospinal tracts (decussation in the medulla oblongata) and axons extending through the lateral funiculi (2) anterior corticospinal tracts (decussation at the level of the spinal cord from which their information will emerge)

Muscles can be named according to

(1) orientation of muscle fibers (2) muscle attachments, (3) specific body regions, (4) muscle shape, (5) muscle size, (6) muscle heads/tendons of origin, (7) muscle function/movement, and (8) muscle position at body surface

3 main regions of a cell

(1) plasma membrane a bilayer of lipids & proteins & encloses the cell (2) cytoplasm contents of the cell (cytosol, organelles, & inclusions) bw plasma memb & the nucleus (3) nucleus cell's control center, it contains genetic material of the cell

Differences bw cardiac & skeletal muscle

(1) sarcoplasmic reticulum is less extensive & not as well organized in cardiac muscle (2) cardiac muscle has no terminal cisternae (3) a tight assoc of SER & T-tubules is lacking in cardiac muscle (4) T-tubule distribution is reduced in cardiac muscle (5) T-tubules overlie Z lines in cardiac muscle instead of A-I junctions as in skeletal muscle

All connective tissues share a similar structural plan that includes

(1) specific cells that produce (2) protein fibers to strengthen and support the connective tissue (3) a packing material called ground substance, wi which the cells and protein fibers reside. Together the protein fibers and ground substance form an extracellular matrix

Spermatogenesis steps

(1) sperm form from diploid primordial germ cells called spermatogonia (2) spermatogonia divide by mitosis, producing a new spermatogonium and a diploid primary spermatocyte (3)a primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis I, producing two haploid cells called secondary spermatocytes (4) secondary spermatocytes go through meiosis II to form haploid spermatids; and (5) spermatids undergo spermiogenesis to become spermatozoa.

Parathyroid hormone ↑ Ca+ levels in the body by

(1) stimulating osteoclasts to resorb bone (2) stimulating calcitriol synthesis to ↑ Ca+ absorption in the small intestin (3) preventing Ca+ loss during the formation of urine

PNS axon regeneration is dependent on

(1) the amount of drainage (2) the secretion of nerve growth factors, & (3) the distance from the damaged site to the effector.

Paired arterial branches that emerge from the lateral sides of the descending abdominal aorta

(1) the middle suprarenal artery, which supplies each adrenal gland (2) the renal artery, which supplies each kidney (3) the gonadal artery, supplies each gonad (testes in males, ovaries in females) (4) lumbar arteries, supply the inferior abdominal wall

Facilitated diffusion (A) requires, (B) occurs, (C) transports

(A) carrier proteins, specific transporter for a specific molecule (B) either direction depending on the concentration gradient of the molecule (C) sugars and amino acids

Aldosterone regulates

(Na+) & (K+) ion ratio by promoting Na+ ion retention w the concomitant reabsorption of water & the excretion of K+ from tubular fluid thru kidney tubule cells.

Stomach lumen, oral cavity, bladder, lung air sacs are lined w which diff types of epithelium

(a) *Simple columnar epithelium* lines the stomach lumen (b) *Stratified squamous epithelium* lines the oral cavity (c) *Transitional epithelium* lines the urinary bladder (d) *Simple squamous epithelium* lines the tiny air sacs of the lungs

Mitosis stages

*Prophase* chromosomes appear after chromatin coils; the nucleolus breaks down; elongated microtubules grow from centrioles; and the nuclear envelope disappears. *Metaphase* chromosomes align in the equatorial middle of the cell. *Anaphase* microtubule strands pull sister chromatids apart at the equatorial middle of the cell. *Telophase* new chromosomes arrive at each pole of the new cells

Superficial to deep, the layers of the epidermis

*Stratum Corneum* most superficial layer, has 20-30 layers of dead, flattened, anucleate, corneocytes (keratin-filled keratinocytes) *Stratum Lucidum* is composed of 2-3 layers of anucleate, dead cells, & is seen only in thin skin. *Stratum Granulosum* is composed of 3-5 layers of keratinocytes w distinct granules in their cytoplasm. *Stratum Spinosum* has several layers of keratinocytes attached to neighbors by desmosomes, epidermal dendritic cells may be present *Stratum Basale* is a single layer of low cuboidal to columnar cells in contact w the basement membrane, contains keratinocytes, melanocytes, & tactile cells

Structural changes in the kidneys affect urine production. Age can cause changes like

-a gradual reduction in kidney size due to a reduction in blood flow to the kidneys --↓ in the # of functional nephrons in the kidney. Changes lead to ↓ functional capability. ↓ blood flow also contributes to a ↓ glomerular filtration rate; consequently, both reabsorption & secretion are ↓. The loss of nephrons results in diminished ability to filter and cleanse the blood

Describes meiosis II in humans

1 N ➡️ 1 N

Which abnormal spinal curvatures distort the vertebral column along the midsagittal plane? (1) lordosis (2) kyphosis (3) scolliosis

1 and 2

of the following joints , which two are most similar in the details of bot structure and function ? (1) coxal (2) talocrural (3) sacroiliax (4) glenohumeral

1 and 4

Secretion types & occurences

1. *Merocrine* secretion occurs when small secretory vesicles move to the apical surface of the cell & release their contents by exocytosis. 2. *Holocrine* secretion occurs when cells fill w an accumulated product & then the entire cell disintegrates, releasing both product and cell fragments. 3. *Apocrine* secretion occurs when the apical region of the cell pinches off, releasing some cellular fragments and product.

4 types of body membranes

1. *Mucous* membranes, which line body passageways, as in the digestive, respiratory, reproductive, and urinary systems 2. *Serous* membranes, line body cavities (the parietal layer) and cover organs (the visceral layer) 3. *Cutaneous* membrane, commonly called the skin and composed of epidermis , dermis; 4. synovial membrane, lines some joints of the skeletal system

pns cns collect info and

1. The PNS collects information. (2) The CNS processes and evaluates information. (3) The PNS and CNS both respond to information

Papillae on the tongue

1. Filiform papillae are short and spikelike, distributed on the anterior 2/3 of the tongue surface, and do not house taste buds 2. Fungiform papillae are blocklike projections located primarily on the tip and sides of the tongue. They contain only a few taste buds each. 3. Vallate (circumvallate) papillae are the least numerous and the largest tongue papillae. They are arranged in an inverted V-shape on the posterior dorsal surface of the tongue. Most of our taste buds are housed within the walls of these papillae. 4. Foliate papillae are not well developed on the human tongue. They extend as ridges on the posterior lateral sides of the tongue and house only a few taste buds during infancy and early childhood

Elastin in muscular arteries is confined to 2 circumscribed rings

1. Internal elastic lamina that separates tunica intima from the tunica media 2. External elastic lamina that separates the tunica media from the tunica externa

Order in which they occur during meiosis I Separation of homologous chromosomes Independent assortment Synapsis Crossing-over

1. Synapsis 2. Crossing-over 3. Independent assortment 4. Separation of homologous chromosomes

The three categories of connective tissue

1. connective tissue proper 2. supporting connective tissue 3. fluid connective tissue

3 groups of receptors classified by stimulus origin

1. exteroceptors, detect stimuli from the external environment 2. interoceptors, detect stimuli in internal organs 3. proprioceptors, detect body & limb movements

Т. lymphocyte types

1. helper T - lymphocytes that initiate and oversee the immune response 2. cytotoxic T-lymphocytes that kill by secreting substances into foreign or abnormal cells 3. memory T-lymphocytes that mount an even faster immune response at the next encounter w the AG 4. suppressor T-lymphocytes that turn off the immune response 5. B-lymphocyte types include plasma cells that produce ABs & memory B-lymphocytes that mount an even faster immune response at the next encounter with the AG

Which body structures develop from mesoderm?

1. notochord & bone, muscle, & CT 2. components of urinary, reproductive, & cardiovascular systems 3. linings of the body cavities

phases of swallowing are the

1. voluntary phase, the pharyngeal phase, and the esophageal phase. voluntary phase occurs after the ingestion of food. Food mixed with saliva forms a bolus that is pushed into the archway leading into the oropharynx The appearance of the food bolus at the oropharynx initiates the. 2. pharyngeal phase The bolus passes quickly and involuntarily through the pharynx to the esophagus. 3. esophageal phase (involuntary stage) moves the bolus through the esophagus and into the stomach

Joints begin to form in week

6 of development.

Cell that has 3 pairs of chromosomes. What fraction of the gametes produced from this cell will contain only maternal chromosomes?

1/8

cell that has 4 pairs of chromosomes- # of possible chromosome orientations

16

Normal conditions, how many of the 4 spermatozoa produced from each spermatocyte contain a Y chromosome?

2

Arrange the following in the proper order in which they occur at the pre-synaptic side of a neuromuscular junction 1. Calcium ions are released 2. AP arrives at the presynaptic terminal 3. Neurotransmitter is released

2 AP arrives at the presynaptic terminal 1 Calcium ions are released 3 Neurotransmitter is released

Mitosis produces

2 daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell

Mitosis & cytoplasmic division result in the formation of

2 genetically identical cells

2nd week of development can be characterized as the "period of twos" because

2 layered germinal disc forms, & from it, 2 extraembryonic cavities the placenta begins to develop from 2 components that merge

Anastomosis occurs

2 or more arteries (or veins) merge to supply the same body region Anastomoses provide alternate blood supply routes to body tissues or organs

Pupil size or diameter is controlled by the

2 smooth muscle layers in the iris Parasympathetic & Sympathetic Sphincter pupillae muscle, or pupillary constrictors are arranged in a pattern that resembles concentric circles around the pupil. Smooth muscle layer is controlled by the Parasympathetic division of the ANS. When these muscle fibers contract, they constrict the pupil. Dilator pupillae muscle, or pupillary dilators is organized in a radial pattern extending peripherally thru the iris from the outer edge of the pupil. This smooth muscle layer is controlled by the Sympathetic division of the ANS. When these muscle fibers contract, they dilate the pupil. Only one set of these smooth muscles can contract at any one time

Tensor tympani & Stapedius

2 tiny skeletal muscles wi the middle ear. They restrict ossicle movement if exposure to loud noises occurs, thus protecting sensitive receptors in the inner ear

Arrange the following in the proper order in which they occur at the post-synaptic side of a neuromuscular junction 1. Action potential is propagated over the muscle cell membrane 2. Depolarization of the post-synaptic membrane 3. Sodium ions move into muscle cell

3 Sodium ions move into muscle cell 2 Depolarization of the post-synaptic membrane 1 Action potential is propagated over the muscle cell membrane

Hepatic portal system consists

3 main branches merge to form this vein 1. inferior mesenteric vein 2. splenic vein 3. superior mesenteric vein, Network of veins that drain the GI tract & shunt the blood to the liver for processing. Hepatic portal vein is the lg vein that receives blood from the GI organs

Rank the following joints in order from the least movable to the most freely movable: (1) elbow (2) Iglenohumeral (3) acromioclavicular (4) coxal (5) radiocarpal

3, 1, 5, 4, 2

Embryonic period extends from fetal period

3-8 weeks after fertilization. In that time, a distinctly humanlike body is formed, & the rudiments of all major organ systems develop. 3rd month - birth. In that time, fetus continues to grow, & the complexity of the organs increases

trimester fetus gains the most weight

3rd trimester

Hypotonic

5% urea solution to a 10 % urea solution

There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves

8 cervical (C1-C8) 12 thoracic (T1-T12) 5 lumbar (L1-L5) 5 sacral (S1-S5) 1 coccygeal (Co)

Sex organs begin to develop during weeks ___of embryogenesis

9 to 12 wks

Part of a sarcomere contains entire thick flaments & lateral end regions w overlapping thin filaments

A band

Aqueous Humor

A fluid in the Anterior part of the eye. A filtrate of plasma that resembles CSF & is produced by the epithelium covering the ciliary body. Secreted into the posterior chamber, an open area bw the lens & iris. From the posterior chamber, it flows thru the pupil into the anterior chamber, which is the space bw the iris & the internal surface of the cornea. Aqueous humor is continually reabsorbed across the covering epithelium into a vascular space, called the scleral venous sinus located limbus bw the cornea & the sclera. Sclera venous sinus conducts the reabsorbed aqueous humor to the veins that drain the eye

Sarcomere Lines A, H, M

A is the dark band in a resting skeletal muscle fiber. It has both an H zone and an M line. H zone is the lighter central region of the A band. H zone is lighter in color bc it contains only thick filaments (Thin filaments are not present in the H zone when the muscle fiber is at rest.) In the center of the H zone is the M M line, is composed of proteins that serve as an attachment site for the thick filaments

Motor units of precise control & much less precise control

A motor unit is composed of a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it controls. The movements of an eye require very precise control; therefore, each motor unit must be small. In contrast, much less precision of movement is needed in the postural muscles of the leg, so one motor neuron has many more fibers under its control than one motor neuron in the eye

Contraction begins

A muscle impulse passes along the T-tubule membrane, Ca+ ions are released from the terminal cisternae, & some of the Ca+ binds to troponin. This causes a change in the conformation of the troponin molecule. As a result, the tropomyosin is moved away from the active sites on the thin filaments, allowing cross bridges to form bw thick & thin filaments, & a contraction begins

AP through a sarcomere

A muscle impulse travels in the membrane of a transverse tubule Calcium ions are released from the terminal cisternae Calcium ions bind to troponin Tropomyosin molecules are moved off active sites on actin. Mvosin crossbridges bind to actin. The myosin head pivots toward the center of the sarcomere Myosin heads bind ATP molecules and detach from actin

Phagolysosome

A phagosome containing the engulfed bacteria combines w a lysosome containing enzymes

follicle maturation

A primordial follicle is the most primitive type of ovarian follicle, & contains a primary oocyte A primary follicle matures from a primordial follicle & contains a primary oocyte. A secondary follicle matures from a primary follicle & contains a primary oocyte. A vesicular follicle matures from a secondary follicle and is the only follicle that contains a secondary oocyte primordial follicle w a primary oocyte↪️ primary follicle w a primary oocyte ↪️ secondary follicle w a primary oocyte ↪️ vesicular follicle only one that has a secondary oocyte

Females stop gamete maturation in their 40s or 50s and menopause occurs.

A reduction in hormone production results in some atrophy of the reproductive organs and the breasts. The vaginal wall thickness decreases, as do glandular secretions for maintaining a lubricated lining. The uterus shrinks and atrophies at menopause, becoming much smaller than it was before puberty. Women also may experience hot flashes and changes in hair patterns, and they have an increased risk of osteoporosis

A single depression multi depression is called

A single depression is a sulcus; multiple depressions are called sulci

motor unit

A single motor neuron, the muscle fibers it controls, & the neuromuscular junctions in bw

Sodium-Potassium Pump

A trans-membrane protein pump ❗️Pumps Na+ ions out of the cell & K+ ions into the cell ❗️Breakdown of ATP powers the pump ❗️1 cycle binds & moves 3 Na+ & 2 K+

Following are fxns of skeletal muscle tissue except A) cooling of the body B) body movement C) maintenance of posture D) storage & movement of materials

A) cooling of the body

Transport or Carrier protein

A) spans the plasma membrane completely and is thus a transmembrane protein B) has an internal hydrophobic region and hydrophilic regions at both ends C) may use energy from ATP to help a particular substance cross the plasma membrane

Each of the following correctly matches a structural category of joint with a movement that it permits except A) uniaxial, opposition B) biaxial, abduction C) triaxial, rotation D) multiaxial, circumduction

A) uniaxial, opposition

Energy is released when

ATP is broken down into ADP and phosphate.

Movements possible at the glenohumeral joint & the prime movers of each

Abduction (deltoid) Adduction (latissimus dorsi, pectoralis major) Extension (latissimus dorsi, deltoid) Flexion (pectoralis major, deltoid) Lateral rotation (infraspinatus, teres minor) Medial rotation (subscapularis)

Anterior pituitary secretes

AdrenoCorticoTropic Hormone (ACTH), Gonadotropins (FSH and LH) Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Growth Hormone (GH) Prolactin (PRL) Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH). ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce & secrete corticosteroid hormones. FSH & LH influence reproductive system activities by regulating hormone synthesis and secretion in both female and male gonads and the production and maturation of gametes in both sexes. TSH regulates the release of thyroid hormone from the thyroid gland GH affects cellular activities in most body cells, especially growth in the skeletal & muscular systems, causes the liver to produce somatomedin, which stimulates growth at the epiphyseal plate of long bones. GH affects activities in almost every cell in the body, but its strongest effects are upon the growth & development of the skeletal & muscular systems. PRL females, regulates mammary gland growth & the production of breast milk, Males, PRL may play a role in the sensitivity of the interstitial Leydig cells MSH stimulates both the rate of melanin synthesis by melanocytes in the integument & their distribution thru the skin

Globulins are the 2nd largest group of plasma proteins (37% of all plasma proteins) they include

Alpha-globulins small & Beta-globulins lg primarily bind, support, & protect certain water-insoluble or hydrophobic molecules, hormones, & ions. Gamma-globulins, also called immunoglobulins, are the ABs. ABs are soluble proteins that recognize and immobilize specific AGs

Non disjunction in Meiosis

An abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell following meiosis occurs

Genetic sex of an individual is based on the sex chromosomes

An individual w 2 X chromosomes is a genetic female An individual w 1 - X & 1 - Y chromosome is a genetic male In contrast, the phenotypic sex of an individual refers to the appearance of the internal & external genitalia A person who has testes & male external genitalia is phenotypic male, whereas a person who has ovaries & female external genitalia is a phenotypic female

Stages of mitosis that a cell contains twice its normal number

Anaphase & Telaphase

Desmosomes

Anchoring junctions that prevents cells subjected to mechanical stress from being pulled apart; button like thickenings of adjacent plasma membranes connected by fine protein filaments

horn location & fxn

Anterior horns are masses of gray matter that house the cell bodies of somatic motor neurons, which innervate skeletal muscle. Lateral horns, found only in the Tl-L2 regions of the spinal cord, contain cell bodies of autonomic motor neurons, which innervate cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, & glands. Posterior horns are masses of gray matter that house the axons of sensory neurons and the cell bodies of interneurons

Anterior, Posterior horns house

Anterior horns- have cell bodies of somatic motor neurons. Posterior horns contain the axons of sensory neurons & cell bodies of interneurons

Auricle

Anterior part of each atrium, wrinkled, flaplike extension

Anterior pituitary & Posterior pituitary controlled by

Anterior pituitary is controlled by regulatory hormones released from the hypothalamus. These hormones enter the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system and stimulate cells in the anterior pituitary. Posterior pituitary is under neural control from the hypothalamus. Axons from neurons in the paraventricular nucleus and supraoptic nucleus terminate in the posterior pituitary. These axons transport the hormones to the posterior pituitary for eventual release. Stimulation of these neurons causes release of hormones from their axon terminals

Bilaterally symmetrical, paired sympathetic chain (paravertebral) ganglia are found

Anterolateral to the vertebral column. Chain is composed of 3 cervical 11 thoracic 4 lumbar 5 sacral 1 coccygeal sympathetic ganglia Bundles of axons link individual ganglia into long sympathetic chain ganglia (sympathetic trunks), which extend inferiorly from neck to the coccyx. Prevertebral ganglia or collateral ganglia, are variable in appearance & located on the external anterior & anterolateral surface of the descending aorta. Differ from the sympathetic chain ganglia in that they (1) are single structures, not paired (2) are located anterior to the vertebral column on the anterior surface of the aorta; and (3) are located only in the abdominopelvic cavity

Aortic semilunar valve separates the Rt Atrioventricular valve separates the

Aortic semilunar valves separate the Lt ventricle & Aorta Rt AtrioVentricular valve separates the Rt atrium & Rt ventricle

ANS respiratory centers in the pons

Apneustic center & Pneumotaxic center Both areas influence the ventilation rate by modifying the activity of the respiratory center in the medulla oblongata

Arteries carry blood veins carry blood

Arteries carry blood away from the heart Veins carry blood back to the heart

Arteries & Veins blood flow direction

Arteries conduct blood away from the heart toward capillary beds veins drain capillaries & conduct blood toward the heart. The lumen of an artery is narrower than that of a corresponding vein. In contrast, the thickness of the artery wall is greater than that of a corresponding vein. Arteries must withstand high BP while veins are not subject to high BP. tunica media is thicker in the artery than in the companion vein, while the tunica externa is thicker in the vein than in the companion artery

Systemic circulation carries Pulmonary corculation carries

Arteries of the systemic circulation carry oxygenated blood from the Lt side of the heart to body tissue capillary beds, & veins carry deoxygenated blood from these capillary beds back to the Rt side of the heart. Pulmonary circulation is responsible for carrying deoxygenated blood in its arteries from the Rt side of the heart to the lungs, & then returning the newly oxygenated blood to the Lt side of the heart in its veins

symphysis

Articulating bones are separated only by a pad of fibrocartilage

saddle joint

Articulation bw the trapezium & the first metacarpal

gormphosis

Articulation that a periodontal ligament holds a tooth in its socket

synchondosis

Articulation type in Epiphyseal plates of growing bones

Glial cells & fxn

Astrocytes are the most numerous & largest glial cells in the CNS. form the blood-brain barrier, regulate tissue fluid composition, strengthen & reinforce nervous tissue in the CNS, replace damaged neurons, & assist w neuronal development. Ependymal cells & nearby blood capillaries form the choroid plexus, which produces CSF. Cells have patches of cilia on their apical surfaces that help circulate the CSF. Microglia are small phagocytic cells that wander thru the CNS & phagocytize cellular debris (dead nervous tissue, microorganisms, waste products, foreign matter) Oligodendrocytes myelinate the axons in the CNS. Satellite cells, located in the PNS, separate peripheral nervous system neuron cell bodies from their surrounding interstitial fluid & regulate the continuous exchange of nutrients & waste products bw peripheral neurons & their environment. Neurolemmocytes myelinate the axons in the PNS Oligodendrocytes form the myelin sheath in the CNS neurolemmocytes form it in the PNS. Each oligodendrocyte can myelinate several small portions of different axons in the CNS; however, each neurolemmocyte can only myelinate a small portion of one axon in the PNS

Desmosomes

At junctions, the sarcolemmas of adjacent cardiac muscle fibers interlock through desmosomes & gap junctions. Desmosomes hold the adjacent membranes together, & the gap junctions facilitate ion passage bw cells. This free movement of ions allows each cell to transmit an electrical impulse & directly stimulate its neighbors.

Tendons

At the ends of a muscle, the connective tissue layers merge to form a fibrous tendon, which attaches a muscle to bone, skin, or another muscle. Tendons have a thick, cordlike structure. An aponeurosis also attaches a muscle to bone, skin, or another muscle. However, its structure is a thin, flattened sheet.

What is a synaptic knob?

At the synaptic knob, the action potential is converted into a chemical message which, in turn, interacts with the recipient neuron or effector. This process is synaptic transmission.

In what order would a scalpel first penetrate these layers of connective tissue brachii muscle: (1) endomysium (2) epimysium (3) perimysium

B) 2, 3, 1

All of the following characterize the coxal joint except A) extremely dense and strong articular capsule B) only slightly less stable than glenohumeral Joint C) retinacular fibers refiect around neck of femur D) reinforced by three spiraling intracapsular ligaments

B) only slightly less stable than glenohumeral Joint

Blood Brain Barrier fxn

BBB almost isolates neural tissue from general circulation by strictly regulating what substances can exit the vascular system & enter the interstitial fluid of the brain. Wo the BBB, the brain would be exposed substances (e.g., drugs, waste products being transported in the blood) or to variations in the levels of normal substances (hormones, ions, etc.), & these substances could adversely affect brain function.

Basophils & Lymphocyte differences in fxn

Basophils are involved in the release of histamine & heparin during anti-inflammatory, allergic reactions. Lymphocytes attack pathogens, destroy cancer cells, coordinate immune cell activity, & produce antibodies

Plasma membrane is effective in isolating the cytoplasm from the ECF

Bc the lipid "tails" in the phospholipid bilayer form a sheet that repels water

Hypertension HTN

BP is greater in arteries than in veins Hypertension causes fxnal & structural changes in the blood vessel walls, making them more prone to further injury. As damage ↑, blood vessels are prone to atherosclerosis. HTN causes undue stress on arterioles, resulting in arteriolosclerosis thickened arteriole walls & reduced luminal diameter Furthermore, HTN is a major cause of heart failure bc of the extra workload placed on the heart.

Gonads & gametes

Both reproductive systems have organs called gonads that produce reproductive cells, called gametes. gonads produce large amounts of sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone in the female, and androgens in the male) that control maturation, development, and changes in the reproductive system organs. Both reproductive systems have a duct system to convey gametes away from the gonads toward the site of fertilization (in females) or simply to the outside of the body (in males). Both reproductive systems are primarily nonfunctional and "dormant" until puberty. Homologues are (female to male): clitoris to penis, labia majora to scrotum, and vestibular glands to bulbourethral glands

Which list of muscle structures proceeds from smaler to larger in diameter

C) myofilament, myofibril, muscle fiber, fascicle

Sensory stimuli detected by gustatory cells within taste buds result in nerve impulses conducting this information through

CN VII (facial) from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue and CN IX (glossopharyngeal) from the posterior one-third of the tongue. All gustatory information projects first to the nucleus solitarius in the medulla oblongata and then to the hypothalamus and amygdala for activation of autonomic reflexes, and to the thalamus for processing. From the thalamus, axons project gustatory information to the cerebral cortex for analysis of taste sensations.

CSF FLOW

CSF is produced by the choroid plexus wi the ventricles. CSF flows from the lateral & 3rd ventricle into the cerebral aqueduct then into the 4th ventricle. A small amount of CSF from the central canal of the spinal cord travels to the 4th ventricle too. Most of the CSF in the 4th ventricle flows into the subarachnoid space by passing thru openings in its membranous roof, either the paired lateral apertures or the single median aperture. CSF flows thru the subarachnoid space surrounding the brain & spinal cord As additional CSF is inc into the subarachnoid space, the hydrostatic pressure on the CSF wi the arachnoid villi forces the CSF into the dural venous sinuses, excess CSF is released into the venous bloodstream wo allowing any venous blood to enter the subarachnoid space

PTH secretion occurs

Ca+ ion concentration in the body ↓ Ca+ ions are needed for many body fxns, such as activity at nerve synapses & muscle contraction. Wo adequate levels of blood Ca+, the body can't fxn Symptoms of insufficient PTH are neuromuscular, ranging from mild tingling in the fingers & limbs to marked muscle cramps & contractions (tetany); in severe cases, convulsions may occur

Cell body & Axons of Upper & Lower Motor Neurons

Cell body of an upper motor neuron is housed wi either the cerebral cortex or a nucleus wi the brainstem. Axons of the upper motor neuron synapse either on lower motor neurons or interneurons. Cell body of a lower motor neuron is housed either wi the anterior horn of the spinal cord or wi a brainstem cranial nerve nucleus Axons of lower motor neurons exit the CNS & project to the skeletal muscle to be innervated

Keratin assists

Cells filled w keratin are strong, so they assist the protective & physical barrier functions of the integument

Cerebral nuclei & cerebellum MOA

Cerebral nuclei do not exert direct control over lower motor neurons; instead, they adjust the motor commands issued in other nuclei and provide a background pattern and rhythm once a movement is under way. Play a key role in cognition & emotions. Cerebellum influences & controls movement by indirectly affecting the excitability of motor neurons thru its actions on the descending motor pathways. Critically important in coordinating movements by specifying the precise timing of control signals to different muscles

fxn of chemo, thermo, mechano, baro, noci -receptors

Chemoreceptors detect specific molecules in our environment; for example, taste buds on the tongue detect specific molecules in our food and drink Thermoreceptors respond to changes in temperature, as when free nerve endings in our skin alert us that we are touching something hot. Mechanoreceptors respond to touch, pressure, vibration, and stretch; for example, hair cells in the ear detect changes in equilibrium Baroreceptors detect changes in pressure within body structures, as when receptors alert us to an expanding bladder and the need to evacuate it. Nociceptors respond to pain as a result of tissue damage

Choraderm, Paraxial, Mesoderm, Laterl plate Mesoderm, head mesenchyme make

Chordamesoderm forms the notochord. Paraxial mesoderm forms somites, & in turn form most bone, muscle, cartilage, dermis, & connective tissue Mesoderm forms most of the urinary & reproductive systems Lateral Plate Mesoderm forms most of the cardiovascular system. Head Mesenchyme forms the connective tissues & musculature of the face

Occurs prior to both mitosis & meiosis

Chromosome duplication, DNA replication

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death

Cranial nerves VII, IX, V, X receive

Cranial nerves VII & IX receive taste sensations from the tongue Cranial nerves V & X receive general sensory information from the tongue

Cytosol

Cytosol viscous, syruplike fluid of the cytoplasm that contains solutes (ions, nutrients, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, & small molecules)

The intercarpal and intertarsal joints are classified as A) uniaxial joints B) synovial (planar) joints c) gliding diarthroses D) all of the above

D) all of the above

Progresses from the thinnest to the thickest in diameter

DNA histone nucleosome chromosome

dense regular connective tissue vs dense irregular connective tissue

DRCT collagen fibers are packed tightly & aligned parallel to applied forces DIRCT collagen fibers form a scattered meshwork in which individual bundles of fibers extend in all directions

Compaction

Day 3 after fertilization, the cells of the preembryo adhere tightly to each other & ↑ their surface contact

Leukocytes (WBC) function

Defend against pathogens, destroys cancer cells & removes old cells & are designed to recognize & attack

Molecules move passively across a membrane

Diffusion, Facilitated diffusion, Osmosis

Diverging & Reverberating circuit

Diverging circuit spreads information from 1 presynaptic neuron to several postsynaptic neurons, or from 1 pool to multiple pools. Reverberating circuits utilize feedback to produce a repeated, cyclical stimulation of a neuronal pathway or circuit, which continues until inhibitory stimuli or synaptic fatigue break the cycle of stimulation

Adrenal medulla releases

EPI & NE

Lymph node anatomy

Ea node is surrounded by a tough ct capsule & has trabeculae (internal extensions) subdividing it into compartments. Deep to the lymph node capsule is an outer cortex & an inner medulla. Cortex consists of lymphatic nodules & cortical sinuses. The medulla contains strands of medullary chords (lymphatic tissue) & medullary sinuses. Lymph nodes filter lymph.

Hemoglobin structure & fxn

Each hemoglobin molecule consists of 4 protein building blocks- globins. Ea globin has a heme (nonprotein) a ring shaped grp w an iron (Fe) ion in the center. O2 binds to iron ions for transport in the blood. The O2 binding is fairly weak to ensure rapid attachment & detachment of O2 from the hemoglobin

Pleural Membranes

Each lung is enclosed and protected by a double-layered serous membrane called the pleural membrane (two layers are parietal pleura and visceral pleura)

elastic, muscular arteries & arterioles

Elastic arteries (conducting arteries) are the largest arteries. They have a large proportion of elastin throughout all 3 tunics, esp in the tunica media. The abundant elastin allows the artery to stretch when a ventricle contracts & ejects blood. Ex of elastic arteries the aorta, pulmonary trunk, & brachiocephalic trunk. Muscular arteries (distributing arteries) are medium-sized arteries. The elastin in muscular arteries is confined to 2 circumscribed rings the internal elastic lamina & the external elastic lamina Muscular arteries have a proportionately thicker tunica media w multiple layers of smooth muscle fibers. The greater amount of muscle & lesser amount of elastic tissue result in less elasticity but better ability to vasoconstrict & vasodilate. Ex of muscular arteries the brachial, anterior tibial, & coronary arteries. Arterioles are the smallest arteries & generally have less than 6 lavers of smooth muscle in their tunica media. Larger arterioles have all 3 tunics, the smallest arterioles may have a thin layer of endothelium surrounded by a single layer of smooth muscle fibers

Thymus is part of 2 systems

Endocrine & Lymphatic system

Auditory ossicles conduct

Energy of sound waves Striking the tympanic membrane to the inner ear, causing the footplate of the stapes to move in & out of the oval window. Movement of the stapes initiates pressure waves in the fluid wi the closed compartment of the inner ear.

Regeneration

Ensures the continued repair and renewal of the epithelium

makes up 44 % of whole blood

Erythrocytes

internal external abdominal oblique directions it can move

External & internal abdominal oblique muscles can laterally flex the vertebral column (bend the body laterally) can contract unilaterally or compress the abdominal wall if they are flexed bilaterally

Eyes are protected by

Eyebrows protect against sunlight and potential mechanical damage, eyelids close reflexively to protect the eye from foreign objects, and eyelashes prevent airborne particles from contacting the eyeball

Facial & Cranial bones fxn

Facial bones form the bones of the face and protect the entrances to the digestive and respiratory systems Cranial bones form the rounded cranium that completely surrounds and encloses the brain.

Facilitated diffusion differs from Active transport

Facilitated expends no ATP

3 types of skeletal muscle fibers

Fast fibers (white fibers) have a large diameter, and they contain large glycogen reserves, densely packed myofibrils, and relatively few mitochondria. Fast-fiber muscles produce powerful contractions because they contain a large number of sarcomeres. These contractions use vast quantities of ATP: therefore, their prolonged activity causes the fast fibers to rapidly fatigue. Intermediate fibers exhibit properties that are somewhere between those of fast fibers and slow fibers. Intermediate fibers contract faster than the slow fibers and slower than the fast fibers. Histologically, they resemble fast fibers, but they have a greater resistance to fatigue Slow fibers are usually about half the diameter of fast fibers, contract more slowly, and are specialized to continue contracting for extended periods of time Their vascular supply is more extensive than the network of capillaries around fast muscle fibers; thus they receive more nutrients and oxygen. Slow fibers are also called red fibers because they contain the red pigment myoglobin. Additionally, they have a relatively large number of mitochondria. This permits slow muscle fibers to produce a greater amount of ATP than fast-fiber muscles while contractions are under way, making the cell less dependent on anaerobic metabolism.

Pericardium is composed of 2 layers

Fibrous pericardium attached to the sternum, diaphragm, & inner serous pericardium. 2 layers of the serous pericardium 1. parietal layer- lines the inner surface of the fibrous pericardium 2. visceral layer-covers outside of the heart. Space bw the parietal & visceral layers is the pericardial cavity

eye anaomy & fxn

Fibrous tunic, the external layer of the eye wall, is composed of the anterior 1. Cornea refracts incoming light rays into the interior of the eye 2. Sclera white & tough provides for eye shape & protects its delicate internal components & the posterior sclera. Vascular tunic, middle layer of the eye wall, composed of 3 regions: (posterior to anterior). 1. Choroid houses a vast network of capillaries that supply nutrients & oxygen to the retina. Cells of the choroid are filled w pigment from the numerous melanocytes in this region. 2. Ciliary body is composed of 4 bands of smooth muscle organized into a ring & collectively called the ciliary muscle, which functions in lens shape change for near & far vision. 3. Iris most anterior region of the middle layer. Readily visible anteriorly as the colored diaphragm w a central black hole, called the pupil. Iris is composed of 2 layers of pigment-forming cells (anterior & posterior layers), & 2 groups of smooth muscle fibers, whose contractions adjust the diameter of the pupil to regulate light entry. Retina the internal tunic 1. Outer pigmented layer absorbs light rays that pass thru the inner layer. Inner neural layer houses all of the photoreceptors & their associated neurons. 2. Neural tunic is responsible for receiving light rays & converting them into nerve impulses that are transmitted to the brain

synchondrosis; planar joints

First sternocostal joint is a______the articulations bw the sternum & ribs 2- 7 are ______

Interphase steps

G 1 characterized by cell growth, protein production, and metabolic activities S during which DNA is replicated prior to cell division and growth activities continue G2 characterized by completion of centriole replication, organelle production, & synthesis of proteins needed for cellular division longest part of somatic cell's life cycle

The cell cycle is regulated by checkpoints during the phases

G1, G2, M phases

The success of DNA replication is assessed during & Preparation for cell division occurs

G2 phase

Crackling sounds within swollen, necrotic muscle tissue are a symptom of ___.

Gas Gangrene

Standing on tiptoe for extended periods requires well- developed plantar flexors. A ballet dancer uses the

Gastrocnemius & soleus (prime movers) Flexor digitorum longus Flexor hallucis longus Tibialis posterior Fibularis longus & brevis

Plasma membrane structures that serve in cell recognition & act as markers

Glycolipids & Glycoproteins

Visible in Cytoplasm of granulocytes & agranulocytes

Granulocytes clearly visible microscopic specific granules Agranulocytes lacks visible granules

Distinguishes the hand from the foot

Hand has digit 1 positioned laterally

Teniae coli in the wall of the lg intestine form sacs

Haustra Movement of digested materials thru these sacs is haustral churning. Occurs after a relaxed haustrum fills w fecal material to the point where its distension stimulates reflex contractions in the muscularis, causing churning & movement of the material to more distal haustra.

Process of producing new formed elements in the blood & location

Hemopoiesis ⇢ new formed blood elements Hemocytoblasts are hemopoietic stem cells from which formed elements are derived. 2 lines of blood cell development 1. myeloid line, gives rise to erythrocytes megakaryocytes, & all leukocytes EXCEPT lymphocytes 2. lymphoid line, forms the lymphocytes

Hemocytoblasts

Hemopoietic stem cells. Are pluripotent, means they can develop into many different kinds of cells. They divide continuously to produce committed progenitor cells

Anaphase I of Meiosis differs from Anaphase II Meiosis

Homologous chromosomes move towards opposite cell poles , whereas during Anaphase II of meiosis , sister chromatids are separated

Colony-Stimulating Factors

Hormones & growth factors in the bone marrow, influence the maturation & division of the blood stem cells

Hormone MOA

Hormones are released into the bloodstream. Only cells with specific receptors for the hormone (enabling the hormone to bind to the cell) respond to that hormone These cells are called target cells, and the organs that contain them are called target organs. In contrast, organs, tissues, or cells that do not have the specific receptor for a hormone do not bind or attach the hormone and do not respond to its stimulating effects

When sitting at your desk, what muscles flex the thigh & leg

Iliopsoas, rectus femoris, & sartorius flex the thigh. Adductor brevis, adductor longus, adductor magnus, gracilis, & pectineus adduct & flex the thigh. Biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus, sartorius, gracilis, gastrocnemius plantaris, & popliteus flex the leg

Blastocyst, Trophoblast

Implantation is the burrowing of the blastocyst into the endometrium of the uterine wall. Trophoblast cells around the periphery of the blastocyst begin to invade the functional layer of the endometriunm

Coelom

In embryonic development, the ventral cavity arises from

Thymus in infant & adults

In infants & young children, the thymus is quite large and extends into the superior mediastinum. The thymus continues to grow until puberty, when it reaches a maximum weight of 30-50 grams & then the thymus regresses, & the functional thymus is eventually replaced by adipose tissue. In adults, the thymus becomes almost nonfunctional

5 secondary brain vesicles

In the adult brain: 1. telencephalon forms the cerebrum 2. diencephalon forms thalamus, hypo-thalamus, & epithalamus 3. mesencephalon forms rostral end of the brainstem 4. metencephalon forms pons & cerebellum 5. myelencephalon forms medulla oblongata.

Process of neurulation

In the early embryo, a thickened region of ectoderm called the neural plate forms. During the process of neurulation, the neural plate grows, extends neural folds, and forms a neural tube. The neural tube develops into the central nervous system

vocal folds pitches & volume

Increasing the tension on the vocal folds increases the pitch of the sound produced. less tense of the vocal folds, the less the vocal folds vibrate and the lower the pitch of the sound. Loudness of the sound depends on the force of the air passing across the of vocal folds. A large volume of air forced past the vocal folds produces loud sound.

Pituitary gland location

Inferior to the hypothalamus wi the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone. It is connected to the hypothalamus by a thin stalk, the infundibulum

Infundibulum, Ampulla, Isthmus

Infundibulum is the free, funnel-shaped, lateral margin of the uterine tube. It has numerous fingerlike folds called fimbriae that enclose the ovary only at ovulation. Ampulla is the dilated region of the uterine tube medial to the infundibulum. Isthmus, extending medially from the ampulla toward the lateral wall of the uterus, constitutes about 2/3 of the uterine tube. The interstitial segment extends medially from the isthmus & pierces the wall of the uterus

Basophils MOA

Involved in inflammation Basophil granules release histamine causing vasodilation that leads to ↓ BP. Fluid leaking from dilated blood vessels causes swelling in a local area. Histamine release also occurs during allergy attacks, causing swelling around the nose & eyes. Basophils also release heparin, which inhibits blood clotting

Can cross a selectively permeable membrane

Ions, nutrients, wastes, & secretory products

Megakaryocytes

Large cells that form platelets by shedding small volumes of cytoplasm wrapped wi plasma membrane

Pulmonary veins carry blood high in oxygen, and drain into

L atrium of the heart

Thoracic duct drains the

L side of the head & neck, the L upper limb, L thorax, & all body regions inferior to the diaphragm (including the R lower limb & R side of the abdomen)

Hair types

Lanugo is fine, unpigmented, downy hair that appears on the fetus in the last trimester. Vellus is the primary type of human hair found on the arms and legs Terminal hair is coarser, pigmented, and longer than vellus

Sympathetic preganglionic neurons originate in

Lateral horn of the T1-L2 regions of the spinal cord.

Nasal cavity, paired olfactory organs provide the sense of smell

Lining of olfactory epithelium is composed of 3 cell types: 1. Olfactory nerves (called olfactory receptor cells) to detect odors 2. Supporting cells that sandwich the olfactory nerves & sustain, maintain the receptors 3. Basal cells that fxn as stem cells to replace olfactory epithelium components

Define each Longus, Extensor, Triceps, Rectus, Superficialis

Longus means "long." Extensor indicates that the muscle causes an extension at a joint Triceps muscles have 3 muscular head origins. Rectus means "straight." Superficialis muscles are located at the body surface

Celiac trunk 3 branches

Lt gastric artery, splenic artery, common hepatic artery

Left hemisphere or Categorical hemisphere

Lt hemisphere contains general interpretive & speech centers, & is specialized for language abilities as well as analytical & reasoning tasks.

cardiac impression

Lt lung is slightly smaller than the right lung. Its medial surface indentation, called the cardiac impression, accommodates the heart. The Rt lung has 3 lobes (superior, middle, and inferior), while the left lung has only 2 (superior and inferior)

Lymphatic cells & fxn

Macrophages are monocytes that that mature in the bone marrow & migrate from the bloodstream into other tissues. They are responsible for phagocytosis of foreign substances. Special epithelial cells (nurse cells) in the thymus secrete thymic hormones Dendritic cells in lymphatic nodules of lymph nodes collect AGs from the lymph & present them to other lymphatic cells. Lymphocytes most abundant cells in the lymphatic system, & each type has a specific job in the immune response. 1. T- lymphocytes mature in the thymus. Helper T- lymphocytes initiate the immune response 2. cytotoxic T- lymphocytes kill by secreting substances into foreign or abnormal cells; Memory T-lymphocytes mount an even faster immune response at the next encounter w the AG; & suppressor T-lymphocytes turn off the immune response. 3. B-lymphocyte types include plasma cells, which produce ABs, & Mem B lymphocytes, which mount an even faster immune response at the next encounter w the AG. 4. NK cells lg, granular lymphocytes that kill infected or cancerous cells

In crisis, many effectors innervated by the sympathetic division respond together, a process called

Mass activation Preganglionic sympathetic axons form numerous collateral branches in order to synapse w a lg # of ganglionic neurons to cause stimulation of many ganglionic sympathetic neurons & simultaneous activation of many effector organs. Mass activation of the sympathetic division causes a heightened sense of alertness as a consequence of the stimulation of the reticular activating system

Soft palate of the mouth fxn

Material from the oral cavity and oropharynx is blocked from entering the nasopharynx by the soft palate of the mouth. When swallowing, skeletal muscles in the soft palate contract, elevating the soft palate and sealing off the nasopharynx to prevent food from entering the nasopharynx

Mechanoreceptors & thermoreceptors respond to

Mechanoreceptors touch, pressure, vibration, and stretch Thermoreceptors respond to ↑ or ↓ in temperature

Computed Tomography (CT)

Medical imaging technique uses modified x-rays to prepare 3D cross-sectional "slices" of the body

Platelets are continually produced by

Megakaryocytes in Red bone marrow They are formed as the megakaryocytes shed small volumes of cytoplasm wrapped wi a plasma membrane. Help produce a clot to prevent blood loss.

collectively called cognition

Mental processes such as awareness, knowledge, memory, perception, and thinking

Random orientation of homologous chromosomes occurs

Metaphase I of meiosis

Secondary oocyte is arrested at

Metaphase II

Mechanical digestion parts & fxn

Mouth is the site of initial mechanical digestion via mastication. 3rd layer of smooth muscle in the stomach assists in further mechanical digestion. Small intestine is involved w peristalsis & segmentation, which mixes & breaks down the digested materials Ingested materials into physically smaller pieces through chewing in the oral cavity, muscular churning and mixing in the stomach, and further mixing within the small intestine

Mucus fxn

Mucus covers the respiratory epithelium, where it acts as a lubricant and prevents dehydration. The layer of sticky mucus traps foreign particles and humidifies the inhaled air. If we are exposed to airborne allergens, large quantities of small particulate material, irritating gases, or pathogens, the rate of mucin production increases

Which of the following changes in skeletal muscles is associated with aging?

Muscle fibers increase in diameter

Synergistic muscles also called fixators

Muscle that assists the prime mover in performing its action. Contraction of a synergist usually either contributes to tension exerted close to the insertion of the muscle or stabilizes the point of origin. Most useful at the start of a movement when the agonist is stretched & cannot exert much power. May also assist an agonist by preventing movement at a joint & thereby stabilizing the origin of the agonist.

Anagonist also called a prime mover

Muscle that contracts to produce a particular movement, such as extension of the forearm. Triceps brachii is an agonist of the forearm causing extension.

Middle tunic of the ureter is called the

Muscularis & it consists of an inner longitudinal & an outer circular laver of smooth muscle fibers the smooth muscle in the inferior third of the ureter consists of another outer longitudinal layer of smooth muscle. These muscle layers produce peristaltic waves that proceed along the length of the ureter from the kidney toward the urinary bladder

ACh binds to the receptor sites

Na+ channels open, & diffuse thru & enter the cell

myelination of CNS & PNS axons

Neurolemmocytes myelinate PNS axons oligodendrocytes myelinate CNS axons. Additionally, in the PNS a neurolemmocyte can myelinate only a small part of a single axon (about 1 millimeter), whereas a single oligodendrocyte wi the CNS can myelinate small parts of several axons

Neuron is Axon is a nerve bundle is

Neurons are nerve cells. An axon is a process extending from the neuron's cell body. A nerve is a bundle of many parallel PNS axons, their myelin sheaths, & successive wrappings of ct

WBCs (Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils, Lymphocytes) description

Neutrophils have a multilobed nucleus (as many as 5 lobes) & cytoplasm w pale-colored specific granules. Eosinophils have a bilobed nucleus & cytoplasm w pink-orange to reddish specific granules Basophils have a bilobed or S-shaped nucleus & cytoplasm w deep-purple specific granules Lymphocytes have a round or slightly indented nucleus that fills the cell; the nucleus is darkly stained & surrounded by a thin rim of cytoplasm. These 4 leukocytes are 1.5 x the diameter of an erythrocyte. Monocytes have a kidne, U-shaped, pale-staining nucleus w abundant cytoplasm. They are 3x the diameter of an erythrocyte

Daughter cells produced in meiosis are

Not identical

Bulk filtration (passive)

Of all the passive processes, the only one that does not require a concentration gradient is

Embryoblast (or inner cell mass) is located at

One end of the blastocyst & forms the embryo proper

Direct motor pathway or Pyramidal Pathway

Originates in the pyramidal cells of the primary motor cortex. Pathway is involved in the conscious control of movements. Midbrain nuclei initiate motor commands for the indirect motor pathways. They work at an unconscious level to control movements

Describe Postganglionic axon of the Parasympathetic & Sympathetic division

PS Postgang short & unmyelinated, releases ACh Postganglionic axon of the Sym Post long & unmyelinated few release Ach whereas most release NE

Gallbladder symptom

Pain in the Rt upper abdominopelvic quadrant

Parafollicular cells & Calcitonin

Parafollicular cells secrete the hormone calcitonin in response to ↑ blood calcium levels. Calcitonin ↓ blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoblast activity & inhibiting osteoclast activity. New bone matrix is formed, w simultaneous deposits of calcium salts onto the matrix, & resorption of bone matrix ↓

create an erection and ejaculation, respectively

Parasympathetic and sympathetic innervation work together

During sexual excitement, blood from the

Parasympathetic innervation is responsible for erection of the penis The central artery enters the cavernous bodies of the penis & fills the venous spaces. As venous spaces become engorged w blood, the cavernous bodies become rigid & compress the veins that drain blood away from the venous spaces. Thus, the spaces fill w blood, but the blood will not leave the cavernous bodies until the sexual excitement ceases.

Paravertebral, Prevertebral, Terminal ganglia location & fxn

Paravertebral ganglia are immediately lateral to the vertebral column (both sides). Appear as numerous individual spheres connected to their neighbors by bundles of axons (like pearls on a string). Prevertebral ganglia (called collateral ganglia) are clusters of sympathetic division neuron cell bodies of ganglionic neurons located anterior to the vertebral column on the anterolateral wall of the abdominal aorta at the base of major abdominal arteries. Terminal ganglia are a collection of parasympathetic division neuron cell bodies of ganglionic neurons located very close to the target organ

Peptide hormones, Steroid hormones, Biogenic amines

Peptide hormones are formed from chains of amino acids; ex: growth hormone. Steroid hormones are a type of lipid derived from cholesterol; ex: testos-terone. Biogenic amines are small molecules produced by altering the structure of an amino acid; ex: thyroid hormone

Plasma membrane components

Phospholipids, cholesterol, & glycolipids

Positon of the base & apex of the heart

Posterosuperior surface of the heart, the base of the heart. Inferior conical end is called the apex of the heart. Projects slightly anterior inferiorly toward the Lt side of the body

Mitochondria

Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of lg amts of ATP production, dbl-membrane bound organelles

Primary, Secondary, tertiary nueron

Primary neuron 1st neuron in the 3 neuron chain. Its a sensory neuron whose dendritic endings house the receptors that detect a specific stimulus. The cell bodies of primary neurons reside in the posterior root ganglia of spinal nerves. Secondary neuron 2nd neuron in the 3 neuron chain. Is an interneuron, & its cell body resides wi either the posterior horn of the spinal cord (if the primary neuron is associated w a spinal nerve) or wi one of the brainstem nuclei (if the primary neuron is associated w a cranial nerve)

Describe Primary, Secondary, Tertiary neurons

Primary neurons are sensory neurons that have dendritic endings to detect stimuli in the environment. They conduct impulses to secondary neurons wi the CNS Secondary neurons are interneurons that conduct impulses thru the spinal cord and/or brainstem to the tertiary neurons in the thalamus. Tertiary neurons are interneurons wi the thalamus that conduct sensory information to the cerebral cortex

Gastrulation

Process of establishing the 3 primary germ layers. Some of the cells of the epiblast migrate thru the Primitive streak, resulting in the formation of Ectoderm, Mesoderm, & Endoderm

Encoding

Process of organizing information in STM before it is consolidated into LTM

Pronation and supination are movements of the forearm. occurs when

Pronation occurs when the forearm rotates so that the palm faces posteriorly, whereas supination is where the palm faces anteriorly.

Invasiveness

Property of cancer cells most directly contributes to metastasis

When does crossing over occur?

Prophase

Stage of meiosis lasts much longer in females

Prophase I

Telophase II of Meiosis is basically

Prophase II in reverse

Posterior funiculus-medial lemniscal pathway & spinocerebellar pathway

Proprioceptive information concerning limb position. Spinocerebellar pathways conduct proprioceptive information about joints, skeletal muscles, & tendons

Brain 5 vesicle

Prosencephalon forebrain Telencephalon embryonic structure that forms the cerebral hemispheres/cerebrum. Contains lateral ventricles Diencephalon made up of thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus. Contains the third ventricle Mesencephalon midbrain portion of the brain stem. Contains the cerebral aqueduct. Rhombocephalon hindbrain Metencephalon contains pons portion of the brain stem + cerebellum. Contains the fourth ventricle. Myelincephalon contains the medulla oblongata portion of the brain stem and the fourth ventricle.

Brain at 3 vesicle stage - embryo

Prosencephalon - forebrain Mesencephalon - midbrain portion of the brain stem. Contains the cerebral aqueduct. Rhombocephalon - hindbrain

Pulmonary & Systemic circuit

Pulmonary circuit consists of the chambers on the Rt side of the heart (Rt atrium & ventricle) & the pulmonary arteries & veins. Conveys blood to the lungs via pulmonary arteries to exchange respiratory gases in the blood before returning to the heart in pulmonary veins. Systemic circuit consists of the chambers on the Lt side of the heart (Lt atrium & ventricle), along with all the other named blood vessels it carries blood to all the peripheral organs & tissues of the body for nutrient & gas exchange before returning the blood to the Rt atrium

Rt , Lt ventricles seperated by lined by Rt vs Lt ventricle walls

R & L ventricles are separated from the superior atria by AV valves, contain papillary muscles, & are lined by trabeculae carneae. Rt ventricle has thinner walls & pumps blood into the pulmonary trunk Lt ventricle has thicker walls & pumps blood into the aorta

Transferrin & Ferritin

Recycling iron ion of Hb, Transferrin removes & transports the ion to the liver, where it is passed to ferritin Ferritin stores it until needed & trans -ported to the red bone marrow

Chromosomal plate

Region of the cell where chromosome pairs line up

Hypothalamus secretes hormones

Regulatory hormones are neurosecretory cells that secrete hormones to influence the secretory activity of the anterior pituitary gland. (regulatory bc they are secreted into the blood to regulate the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones) Regulatory hormones fall into one of two groups: 1. Releasing hormones (RH) stimx the production & secretion of specific anterior pituitary hormones 2. Inhibiting hormones (IH) deter the production & secretion of specific anterior pituitary hormones. Hypothalamus also produces oxytocin & ADH. Hormones are transported thru axons to the posterior pituitary & stored there until needed.

Superior vena cava, Inferior vena cava, & Coronary Sinus empty into the

Right Atrium

Heart is rotated such that its

Rt atrium & ventricles are located more anteriorly, & its Lt atrium & ventricle are located more posteriorly

Rt coronary artery supplies blood to which area posterior interventricular artery supplies blood to which area

Rt coronary artery typically branches into a marginal artery (which supplies the Rt border of the heart) & posterior inter-ventricular artery (which supplies the posterior surface of both Lt & Rt ventricles). Lt coronary artery typically branches into the anterior interventricular artery or Lt anterior descending artery, which supplies the anterior surface of both ventricles & most of the interventricular septum, & the circumflex artery, which supplies the Lt atrium & ventricle

Right hemisphere or Representational hemisphere

Rt hemisphere bc it is concerned w spatial relationships. Relates the body to the sensory environment & is the seat of imagination & insight, musical & artistic skill, & comparison of sights, sounds, smells, & tastes.

Hemolysis

Rupture of erythrocytes Occur when: -Erythrocytes clump (agglutinate) following a blood transfusion from an incompatible donor -Plasma membrane of an erythrocyte has abnormal proteins making it weak

Atriopeptin

Secreted by the modified cardiac muscle cells in the wall of the Rt atrium

Secretion & Absorption

Secretion is the process of producing and releasing fluid products, such as acid, bile, digestive enzymes and mucus, in order to facilitate chemical digestion or the passage of material through the GI tract. Absorption involves either the passive or active transport of electrolytes, products of digestion, vitamins, and water, through the GI tract epithelium and into the lymph vessels and blood vessels

Segmentation

Segmentation churns and mixes the material being digested, breaking it down into smaller pieces and blending it with intestinal secretions

Cytosol (Cytoplasm)

Semifluid, jellylike substances in which sub-cellular components are suspended

Sensation differs from a stimulus

Sensation is our conscious awareness of incoming sensory information. Stimulus is a change in the environment that is detected by a receptor. Only a stimulus leading to an impulse that reaches the cerebral cortex results in a sensation

Afferent , Efferent Fxn

Sensory (afferent) division of the nervous system is responsible for receiving sensory information from the body and transmitting this information to the CNS Thus, afferent describes "input" and means transmission of information toward the CNS. Motor (efferent) division is responsible for transmitting motor information from the CNS muscles and glands. Thus, efferent describes "output" and means transmission of information from the CNS

Short-term memory Long-term memory

Short-term memory from a few seconds to several hours. It is formed in small segments and is lost relatively easily. Long-term memory has a limitless time of existence. It is formed by continuous review and reinforcement.

Ribosomes

Site of protein synthesis

Types of muscles in the body

Skeletal muscle tissue is composed of long, cylindrical thin muscle cells that often have more than one nucleus Skeletal muscle cells are striated, attached to the skeleton, and voluntary. Cardiac muscle tissue is confined to the heart wall; its cells are often shorter than skeletal muscle cells, but they are striated like skeletal muscle cells. Cardiac muscle cells are usually branched, and they contain 1 or 2 centrally located nuclei. Cardiac muscle cells are connected by intercalated discs, which are strong gap junctions bw the cells Smooth muscle tissue lacks striations and is involuntary. Smooth muscle is sometimes called visceral muscle bc it is found in the walls of most viscera (organs) such as the stomach, urinary bladder, and blood vessels Its contraction helps propel material

Macula

Small, raised oval area in the saccule & utricle along the internal wall of both sacs. Its function is to report on changes in the position of the head

microtubules and microfilaments

Small, thin proteins that help support and give structure to a cell. A cells cytoskeleton.

Somatic nociceptors detect visceral nociceptors detect

Somatic nociceptors detect molecules in our external environment, whereas visceral nociceptors detect molecules in our internal environment. Referred pain occurs when impulses from some viscera are not perceived as originating in the organ, but in dermatomes of the skin. This misinterpretation of the pain source is related to both the site of visceral pain origin and the superficial area to which the pain is referred. Often these sensations occur because neurons from the same spinal cord segment innervate both the visceral region where the damage occurs and the superficial region to which the pain is referred

Axons exit the sympathetic trunk ganglia 1 of 4 pathways

Spinal nerve pathway Postganglionic sympathetic pathway Splanchnic nerve pathway Adrenal medulla pathway

Spermatogonia

Stem cells that form mature spermn

Origin, innervation, insertion & Unilateral, Bilateral contraction of sternocleidomastoid muscles

Sternal head & clavicular head origin: head is sternal manubrium, chalavicle head is mid clavicle innervated: accesory nerve, direct branches of cervical plexus insertion: mastoid process of temporal bone & superior nuchal line of occipital bone Unilateral contraction = lateral flexion, rotates head to opposite side Bilateralcontraction = dorsal extension, elevation of head, supports inspiration by holding head still

Causes chromaffin cells to secrete epinephrine

Stimulation by the sympathetic division of the ANS

Relationship bw structure & function

Structure determines fxn

Microscopic anatomy

Study of anatomy that examines structures not readily seen by the unaided eye (structures that must be magnified first) is

Site of inguinal hernias

Superficial inguinal ring is superior to the medial portion of the inguinal ligament. It may be palpated superolateral to the pubic tubercle. This ring represents a weak spot in the abdominal wall

Cells produced in the stomach & fxn

Surface mucous cells line the stomach lumen & secrete mucin to protect the stomach wall. Mucous neck cells deep to the base of the gastric pit produce an acidic mucin to maintain the acidic conditions caused by the secretion of hydrochloric acid by parietal cells. Parietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid (to denature proteins) & intrinsic factor (to assist in vitamin B absorption) Chief cells secrete enzymes to initiate the chemical digestion of proteins. Enteroendocrine cells produce peptide hormones that affect digestion activities

Sympathetic, Parasympathetic location of pre ganglionic & ganglionic neurons

Sympathetic Preganglionic neurons are located in the lateral horns of the T1-L2 region of the spinal cord. Ganglionic neurons are located wi the sympathetic chain ganglia (paravertebral ganglia) or the prevertebral ganglia (collateral ganglia). Exceptions are the cells of the adrenal medulla that receive this preganglionic stimulation. Parasympathetic Preganglionic neurons are located in the brainstem & lateral gray regions of the S2-S4 region of the spinal cord

General fxns of the Sympathetic & Parasympatheic division

Sympathetic Prepares the body for emergencies ⬆️ BP & HR, ⬆️ release of stored nutrients, ⬆️ respiration rate, dilation of pupils Parasympathetic division is primarily involved w conserving energy & replenishing energy stores

Bladder is supplied by both sympathetic & parasympathetic nerve fibers

Sympathetic fibers come from the T11-L2 segments of the spinal cord. These fibers contract the internal urethral sphincter & inhibit contraction of the detrusor muscle. Thus, sympathetic fibers inhibit micturition (urination). Pain from the ureter (ex:kidney stone) is referred to the T11-L2 dermatomes. Dermatomes are along a "loin-groin" region, so "loin-groin" pain = ureter &/or kidney involvement. Parasympathetic fibers come from the pelvic splanchnic nerves (S2-S4). They relax the internal urethral sphincter (so urine can pass through) and stimulate contraction of the detrusor muscle. Thus, the parasympathetic fibers stimulate micturition

Sympathetic & Parasympathetic innervation

Sympathetic innervation ↑ HR rate & force of contractions Parasympathetic innervation ↓ HR, have no effect on force of contractions, except in special circumstances

Systole & Diastole

Systole contraction of a heart chamber. During this period, contraction of the myocardium forces blood either into another chamber (atrium to ventricle) or into a blood vessel (ventricle into the attached large artery). Diastole Relaxation phase of a heart chamber. During this period, the myocardium of each chamber relaxes bw contraction phases, & the chamber fills w blood

Thymus fans as a site for

T-lymphocyte maturation and differentiation. T-lymphocytes wi the thymus do not participate in the immune response and are protected from AGs by a blood-thymus barrier around the blood vessels in the cortex

A muscle impulse travels deep into the muscle fiber along

T-tubule membranes

terminal & respiratory bronchioles

Terminal bronchioles are the last strictly conducting passageway in the respiratory system. They affect air resistance by either constricting or dilating Respiratory bronchioles are the first respiratory portion of the respiratory system. They continue to have a conducting function, but they also have alveoli outpocketings in their walls where gas exchange occurs

adduct the thigh

The adductor longus, adductor brevis, adductor magnus, gracilis, and pectineus

Spleen white & red pulp

The arterial supply to the spleen is associated w white pulp & consists of T- lymphocytes, B-lymphocytes, & macrophages. The white pulp detects AGs in the blood & mounts an immune response. The red pulp is assoc. w the venous drainage of the spleen. It is formed by splenic cords (cords of Bilroth) & splenic sinusoids. The red pulp is reservoir of erythrocytes; macrophages there remove aged or damaged erythrocytes

matrix cells are

The cells in a hair follicle that are responsible for forming hair

cervical enlargement & lumbar enlargement contains

The cervical enlargement contains the neurons that innervate the upper limbs. The lumbar enlargement contains the neurons that innervate the lower limbs

abduct the hand at the wrist

The extensor carpi radialis longus and the extensor carpi radialis brevis extend the wrist and abduct the hand at the wrist

extend the toes

The extensor digitorum brevis, extensor hallucis brevis, and lumbricals

laterally rotate the thigh

The gluteus maximus, piriformis, superior gemellus, obturator internus, inferior gemellus, obturator externus, and quadratus femoris

gray matter locations & white matter

The gray matter in the spinal cord is centrally located and shaped like an H or a butterfly. Bilaterally symmetrical R&L regions of gray matter are connected in the midline by a thin, horizontal bar of gray matter, the gray commissure, which surrounds a narrow central canal. Gray matter regions on both sides are separated into 3 projections, called horns. Peripheral white matter is organized into funiculi. The anterior funiculi are interconnected by the white commissure

Permanent teeth include

The incisors are designed for slicing or cutting into food. Canines have pointed tips for puncturing and tearing food. Premolars have flat crowns with cusps that can crush and grind ingested materials. Molars have large, broad, flat crowns with distinctive cusps, and are also used for grinding and crushing

forms the fold of the buttock

The inferior border of the gluteus maximus muscle

Endoderm forms

The lining of the digestive tube & the lining of the respiratory tube

Uterine Cycle:

The menstrual phase occurs during days 1-5 when the functional layer is sloughed off. proliferative phase occurs from day 6-14. The initial growth and development of the functional layer of the endometrium overlap the time of follicle growth and estrogen secretion. last phase is the secretory phase extending from approximately day 15-28, during which vascularization and development of uterine glands increase as a result of progesterone secretion from the corpus luteum

Cytoskeleton

The microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules Microfilaments- composed of Actin protein (thin filaments) of 2 intertwined strands. Maintain cell shape, support cell shape changes, help muscles contract, separate the two cells formed during cell division, & facilitate cytoplasmic streaming Intermediate filaments are slightly lgr & more rigid than microfilaments. They support cells structurally & stabilize junctions bw cells. Microtubules are hollow tubes made of Tubulin (long chains of proteins). Hold organelles in place, maintain cell shape & rigidity, direct organelle movement bw different regions of the cell, provide a means of cell motility, & move chromosomes during cell division

Regulates protein synthesis

The nucleus & the genes it contains most directly controls all of the cells in the body

Parietal Pleura

The outermost layer of the pleural membrane

oogonia

The ovary contains primordial germ cells called oogonia, which are diploid cells (containing 23 pairs of chromosomes). Oogonia divide by meiosis to produce oocytes

anterior, posterior axillary fold formed by

The pectoralis major forms the anterior axillary fold. The latissimus dorsi and teres major muscles form the posterior axillary fold.

Site of vascular problems in the elderly

The popliteal fossa is the depression on the posterior part of each knee joint

The tibial nerve innervates the

The posterior leg muscles and muscles on the sole of the foot. The common fibular nerve branches into a deep fibular nerve (supplies anterior leg and dorsal foot muscles) and a superficial fibular nerve (supplies lateral leg muscles)

Marks the beginning of gastrulation

The primitive streak on the epiblast surface

palpate posterior tibial artery greater trochanter medial and lateral malleoli tendinous attachments of the hamstring

The pulse for the posterior tibial artery may be palpated posteroinferior to the medial malleolus of the tibia. greater trochanter can be palpated on the superior lateral surface of the thigh. medial and lateral malleoli are prominent projections at the distal end of the tibia and fibula (respectively) that form part of the ankle. tendinous attachments of the hamstring muscles can be palpated along the posterior aspect of the knee joint when the knee is flexed

protract the scapula

The serratus anterior and the pectoralis minor

pancreatic juice fxn

The simple cuboidal epithelial cells lining the pancreatic ducts secrete an alkaline fluid (pancreatic juice) to help neutralize the acidic chyme arriving in the duodenum from the stomach.

mediastinum

The space in the thoracic cavity between the lungs

The scapula is triangular in shape and has three borders.

The superior border is the horizontal edge of the scapula that is superior to the spine. The medial border (sometimes called the vertebral border) is the scapular edge closest to the vertebrae. The lateral border (sometimes called the axillary border) is closest to the xilla

Hyoid bones placement & fxn supra, infra etc

The suprahyoid muscles are superior to the hyoid bone, and the infrahyoid muscles are inferior to the hyoid bone The suprahvoid muscles are associated with the floor of the mouth. In general, these muscles elevate the hyoid bone during swallowing and speaking. The infrahyoid muscles either depress the hyoid bone or depress the thyroid cartilage of the larynx

Sarcomere Lines I & Z

The thick filaments do not change shape. Myosin proteins in the thick filaments do not shorten. I band becomes narrower as the thin filaments slide past the thick filaments. sarcomere shortens as the Z discs move toward each other.

Capilliary types & locations

The thin wall and the narrow vessel diameter of capillaries are optimal for the function of diffusion of gases, nutrients, and wastes between blood in the capillaries and body tissues. The three basic kinds of capillaries are continuous capillaries, fenestrated capillaries, and sinusoids. Continuous capillaries have endothelial cells that form a complete, continuous lining and are connected by tight junctions. Materials can pass through endothelial cells or the intercellular clefts via simple diffusion or pinocytosis. Fenestrated capillaries have holes wi each endothelial cell. These fenestrations measure bw 10-100 nanometers in diameter. The basement membrane remains continuous Fenestrated capillaries are found where a great deal of fluid transport across the blood vessel wall occurs Sinusoids have lger gaps than fenestrated capillaries, & they have a discontinuous or absent basement membrane. Sinusoids tend to be wider, larger vessels, and their large openings allow for transport of larger materials, such as proteins or formed elements, through vessel walls

Blood is carried to a kidney in a renal artery. Up to 5 segmental (lobar) arteries branch from the renal artery wi the renal sinus.

Thereafter, the branching of arteries leads to the interlobar arteries, arcuate arteries, interlobular arteries, afferent arterioles, glomerulus, efferent arteriole, peritubular capillaries, & the vasa recta, which drain into the interlobular veins, the arcuate veins, the interlobar veins, & the renal vein. Note efferent arteriole is still carrying oxygenated blood bc gas & nutrient exchange for the tissues in the kidney has not yet occurred. Blood in all arteries, arterioles, glomerulus, peritubular capillaries, & the vasa recta is high in O2. The blood in all veins is low in O2. Peritubular & vasa recta capillary networks are where actual gas & nutrient exchange occurs & where materials are reabsorbed.

Satellite cells are located in PNS ganglia anatomy & fxn

They are flattened and arranged around the cell bodies of neurons, where they support the neurons, separate them from the surrounding interstitial fluid, and regulate the exchange of nutrients and waste between the neurons and their environment

Integral membrane proteins location

They extend across the phospholipid bilayer

Microglia appear to be related to macrophages of the immune system bc

They wander through the CNS and phagocytize cellular debris from dead nervous tissue, microorganisms, waste products, and other foreign matter

Chordae tendineae

Thin strands of collagen fibers that anchor into papillary muscles & attach to the cusp of each AV valve to prevent the valve from prolapsing (everting & flipping into the atrium) when the ventricle is contracting

Round ligaments of the uterus run from the lateral sides of the and help keep the uterus in an anteverted position.

Transverse cervical ligaments run from the sides of the cervix and superior vagina laterally to the pelvic wall, and restrict inferior movements of the uterus. The uterosacra ligaments connect the inferior portion of the uterus posteriorly to the sacrum

Structures Calcium ions bind to when muscle contraction is initiated

Troponin molecule

from the esophagus through the large intestine, anatomy

Tube composed of 4 concentric layers, called tunics Digestive tract (deep to superficial) mucosa-mucous membrane, w a superficial epithelium & an underlying lamina propria, & a thin layer of smooth muscle called the muscularis mucosa; the submucosa, a dense irregular ct layer w few cells, often containing accumulations of lymphatic structures; the muscularis, which typically contains 2 layers of muscle (fibers of the inner layer are oriented circumferentially and fibers of the outer laver are oriented lengthwise); & adventitia, which is composed of areolar ct, or a serosa, which is the adventitia covering plus a covering of visceral peritoneum. Esophagus has tunics, w the following modifications: (1) a stratified squamous epithelium in the mucosa to resist abrasion during swallowing (2) submucosal glands to lubricate the luminal surface of the esophagus (3) mix of skeletal & smooth muscle in the muscularis. Skeletal muscle ensures that the swallowed bolus moves thru the esophagus quickly

Meiosis

Type of cell division that produces haploid cells from a diploid parent cell. Meiosis has 2 rounds of cell division following the replication of DNA. It is how means gametes are formed. Prophase I: Synapsis of homologous, double-stranded chromosomes occurs Metaphase I: Homologous pairs of double-stranded chromosomes line up at the equator. Anaphase: Homologous pairs of dbl-stranded chromosomes separate and get pulled to the opposite ends of the cell. Telophase I: Homologous, dbl-stranded chromosomes arrive at opposite ends of the cell, and the cytoplasm divides by cytokinesis. Prophase II Each of the double-stranded chromosomes scatters throughout the cytoplasm. Metaphase II: Each dbl-stranded chromosome lines up at the cell equator. Anaphase II: The two strands of the dbl-stranded chromosomes (sister chromatids) are pulled toward opposite sides of the cell Telophase II: Each sister chromatid (single-stranded chromosome) arrives at the opposite side of the cell, & the cytoplasm divides by cytokinesis

Unencapsulated & Encapsulated receptors differ

Unencapsulated have no ct wrapping around them & are simple in structure. Encapsulated receptors are covered either by ct or glial cells.

Muscle fiber

Unit of muscle structure that is composed of bundles of myofibrils, enclosed wi a sarcolemma & surrounded by a CT covering called endomysium

mechanism to prevent urine refluxing into the ureters from the bladder

Ureters project thru the bladder wall obliquely, & so the ureteral walls are compressed as the bladder distends.

Fertilization of the secondary oocyte normally occurs in the

Uterine Tube

A PNS axon may repair itself through a process called

Wallerian degeneration. After an axon in the PNS is severed, neurolemmocytes form a regeneration tube. The axon stump puts out several sprouts until one finds its way into the tube. The regeneration tube guides the growing axon back to its original destination until the axon reaches the cells with which it originally connected

Bronchial anatomy

Walls of the primary bronchi are supported by incomplete rings of hyaline cartilage. Complete rings of smooth muscle develop bw the mucosa of the airways & the cartilaginous support in the wall. Bronchioles have a simple columnar or simple cuboidal epithelium, no cartilage in their walls, thicker smooth muscle compared w that of lg bronchi, & separation of groups of smooth muscle cells by ct

Urine flow from glomerulus to exit

Water & waste products are pushed from the glomerulus into the capsular space of the glomerular capsule. Filtrate enters the PCT & is then called tubular fluid & it flows thru the PCT, nephron loop, DCT, & collecting duct, where reabsorption & secretion occur. Tubular fluid leaving the renal papilla is called urine & it passes from the renal papilla into & thru the minor calyx, major calyx, renal pelvis, ureter, urinary bladder, & finally thru the urethra as it is voided from the body.

Rami location & fxn

White rami communicantes carry myelinated preganglionic sympathetic axons from the T1-L2 spinal nerves to the sympathetic trunk. Thru these rami, preganglionic sympathetic axons can enter the sympathetic trunk. Gray rami communicantes carry postganglionic sympathetic axons from the sympathetic trunk to the spinal nerve. Gray rami connect to all spinal nerves, including the cervical, sacral, & coccygeal spinal nerves. In this way, the sympathetic information that started out in the thoracolumbar region can be dispersed to all parts of the body

Transfusion of person w AB blood to person w type A

Would not be successful. The person w blood type A has anti-E ABs & would react to B surface AGs in the donor's blood, causing the blood to agglutinate

Adrenal cortex is partitioned into 3 separate regions, ea synthesizes & secretes a different fxnal category of steroid hormones

Zona glomerulosa ⇢ mineralocorticoids Zona fasciculata ⇢ glucocorticoids Zona reticularis ⇢ androgens

The muscles in the lateral compartment of the leg

evert and plantar flex the foot

Trophoblast subdivides into

a cytotrophoblast & a syncytiotrophoblast

The intertubercular groove is

a depression between the greater and lesser tubercles of the humerus that contains the biceps brachii tendon.

During the last 30 weeks of prenatal development the unborn organism is called

a fetus

At the end of meiosis I, each daughter cell is

a haploid, and each chromosome consists of two chromatids

A mature sperm cell has all of the following components except

a large amount of cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus

Each umbilical artery becomes

a medial umbilical ligament after a baby is born.

Skeletal muscle contraction involves which of the following events?

a nerve impulse followed by a muscle impulse release of calcium ions from terminal cisternae tropomyosin moving to expose active sites on actin molecules

Melanin is

a pigment that accumulates inside keratinocytes.

Keratinization is

a process occurring in the stratum granulosum by which the keratinocytes fill up with the protein keratin. The nucleus and all organelles are lost

Merocrine gland secretion is

a protein-free filtrate of blood plasma, composed primarily of water with some dissolved electrolytes, metabolites, and waste products. Apocrine gland secretion is viscous and cloudy, contains proteins and lipids, and becomes odorous after being acted upon by bacteria.

Word root bursa nearly translates to

a purse

Thick, fibrous ct cord that attaches a muscle to a bone

a tendon

Interphase G, S, and G2.

a time in the cell cycle when the cell appears to be resting bc no overt activity is observed. However, if the cell is preparing for division, is also a time of growth & making new cellular parts.

Facilitated diffusion & Receptor-mediated endocytosis require

a transport protein wi the plasma membrane

A transitional epithelium exhibits

a variable appearance, depending on whether it is relaxed or stretched (distended). This epithelium lines the urinary bladder, an organ that changes shape as it fills with urine

Hilum

a vertical opening in the mediastinal surface of the lung. Through this opening pass the bronchi, pulmonary vessels, lymphatic vessles, and nerves. Collectively, all structures passing through the hilum are termed the "root of the lung

Blastocyst is approximately the same size as

a zygote

a) Intraperitoneal & b) Retroperitoneal organs

a) are completely surrounded by visceral peritoneum. They include the stomach, part of the duodenum of the small intestine, the jejunum and the ileum of the small intestine, cecum, appendix, and transverse and sigmoid colon of the large intestine. b) typically lie directly against the posterior abdominal wall, so only their anterolateral portions are covered w peritoneum. Retroperitoneal organs include most of the duodenum, the pancreas, and the ascending and descending colon of the large intestine

a) cervical enlargement of the spinal cord controls the b) lumbar enlargement controls the

a) controls the upper limbs b) lumbar enlargement controls the lower limbs. These regions are larger bc they contain more neuron cell bodies

Basal lamina & Reticular lamina are produced by

a) is produced by secretions of the epithelial cells b) is produced by secretions of the cells in the underlying connective tissue

a) Loose connective b) Dense connective tissue

a) scattered distribution of fibers that are in relatively low concentration; its primary is ground substance. b) has extensively distributed fibers, which are its primary component. Ground substance is sparse in dense connective tissue

a) means "toward the nose," b) "toward the tail"

a)Rostral b)caudal In human brain anatomy, one structure is rostral to another if it is closer to the forehead and caudal to another if it is closer to the spinal cord.

The intrinsic muscles of the hand that cause abduction of the fingers are the

abductor digiti minimi, dorsal interossei , and abductor pollicis brevis

Mucous membranes function in

absorption, protection, and secretion

Epithelial tissues are classified

according to the number of cell layers and the shape of the cell at the apical surface

The primary neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction is

acetyicholine.

A nerve impulse triggers the release of what chemical at a neuromuscular junction

acetylcholine (ACh)

The neurotransmitters used in the ANS are

acetylcholine (ACh) and norepinephrine (NE)

Principal proteins of muscle contraction

actin and myosin

Cross bridges form between

actin filaments & the myosin heads

When cross bridges form and the muscle fibers contract, the

actin myofilament slides past the myosin myofilament.

Once threshold is reached on the postsynaptic membrane, an

action potential is generated and propagated over the muscle cell membrane

function of the integument

acts as a physical barrier regulates temperature through vasoconstriction and dilation of dermal blood vessels participates in immune defense

___connective tissue is most similar to areolar, but is unique among connective tissues in having relatively little extracellular matrx

adipose

renal corpuscles of juxtamedullary nephrons lie

adjacent to the corticomedullary border, and their relatively long nephron loops extend deep into the medulla. The renal corpuscles of cortical nephrons are near the peripheral edge of the cortex, and their relatively short nephron loops barely penetrate the medulla

4 classes of plasma proteins are

albumins, globulins, fibrinogen, and regulatory proteins

The cells of the stratum spinosum attach to

all of their neighbors by intercellular junctions called desmosomes. These junctions form bridges between all cells to support the integrity of the epidermis

Mammary glands contain secretory units termed

alveoli that produce milk in the lactating female. Tiny ducts drain milk from the alveoli & lobules. Tiny ducts of the lobules merge & form 10-20 larger channels called lactiferous ducts. Ea lactiferous duct approaches the nipple, its lumen expands to form a lactiferous sinus where milk is stored prior to release from the nipple

Bond bw the actin & myosin head is broken when

an ATP molecule binds to the myosin head

Wernicke's area is

an analytical area housed within one hemisphere, usually the left. This area is involved in interpreting written and spoken language

The sternocleidomastoid muscle partitions the neck into

an anterior triangle and a posterior triangle

Cell body of a ganglionic neuron is located in

an autonomic ganglion

Arrector pili is stimulated as a result of

an emotional state, such as fear or rage, or by exposure to cold temperatures

Exocrine glands originate from

an invagination of epithelium that burrows into the deeper connective tissues. These glands maintain their contact with the epithelial surface through a duct.

What type of movement occurs at the humeroulnar joint?

angular

Internal carotid artery forms multiple branches after it enters the skull

anterior & middle cerebral arteries. vertebral arteries emerge from the subclavian arteries & travel thru the transverse foramina of the cervical vertebrae before entering the skull thru the foramen magnum where they merge to form the basilar artery. basilar artery subdivides into the posterior cerebral arteries that supply the posterior portion of the cerebrum. The cerebral arterial circle (circle of Willis) is an important anastomosis of arteries around the sella turcica. The circle is formed from posterior cerebral arteries and posterior communicating arteries (branches of the posterior cerebral arteries), internal carotid arteries, anterior cerebral arteries, and anterior communicating arteries (connect the 2 anterior cerebral arteries). This arterial circle equalizes blood pressure in the brain and can provide collateral channels should one vessel become blocked.

The intracapsular ligaments of the knee are the

anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments. They cross each other in the form of an X. The anterior cruciate ligament prevents hyperextension. The posterior cruciate ligament prevents the femur from sliding off the anterior side of the tibia and prevents the tibia from being displaced posteriorly The

The larynx, hyoid bone, trachea, and sternal notch are palpable on the

anterior midline of the neck

The femoral triangle is on the

anterior side of the thigh This region is traversed by all the major vessels of the lower limb and the femoral nerve, and is an important arterial pressure point for controlling lower limb hemorrhage

Pressure stimuli detected by receptors in the right hand is conducted through the

anterior spinothalamic tract. Axons of secondary neurons decussate in the spinal cord at the level of entry. These axons extend to tertiary neurons in the thalamus prior to being interpreted in the left somatosensory cortex

2 major triangles of the neck

anterior triangle can be subdivided into the submental, submandibular, carotid, and muscular triangles. posterior triangle is subdivided into the occipital and supraclavicular triangles

Pair of directional terms would describe movement along the intersection of a sagittal & trans-verse plane

anterior, posterior

Protraction is a movement of a body part in which direction?

anteriorly in the horizontal plane

The posterior pituitary secretes______in response to dehydration

antidiuretic hormone (ADH) as a consequence of dehydration. ADH secretion results in decreased water loss in urine, and thus the urine becomes more concentrated

The sweat glands that communicate with skin surfaces throughout the body, except in the axillary, areolar, and anal regions, are

apocrine glands.

Each rectus sheath is formed from the

aponeuroses of the external oblique, internal oblique, & transversus abdominis muscles. The linea alba serves as a connecting region bw L & R rectus sheaths

Syndactyly (webbed fingers or toes) would be the result of an embryo's failure to undergo

apoptosis between the digital rays

Peroxisomes

are membrane-enclosed sacs that are usually smaller in diameter than lysosomes. Peroxisomes detoxify specific harmful substances within the cell

Hemiazygos & accessory hemiazygos veins location & function

are on the Lt side of the vertebrae & drain the Lt-side veins Azygos vein drains the Rt-side veins & rcves blood from the hemiazygos veins, esophageal veins, bronchial veins, & pericardial veins. Azygos vein merges w the superior vena cava

Pancreatic acini

are organized into lg clusters termed lobules. They secrete digestive enzymes collectively called pancreatic juice. Endocrine functions are performed by the pancreatic islets

Splanchnic nerves

are preganglionic axons that leave the sympathetic chain ganglia wo synapsing Splanchnic nerves exit the anterior side of the sympathetic chain ganglia & extend to prevertebral ganglia. Wi the prevertebral ganglia, the preganglionic axon synapses w a ganglionic neuron, & the postganglionic axon travels to the effector organs. Most abdominal organs & some pelvic organs receive their sympathetic innervation via this pathway

Centrioles

are responsible for organizing microtubules that attach to chromosomes during cell division (mitosis)

The layers of the epidermis, beginning at the surface,

are the stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale

tissue regions of the uterus

are: the fundus, body, isthmus, and cervix

Which of the following tissues is typically most closely associated with epithelia?

areolar

Abduction of the upper limb would consist of raising the

arm laterally at the midline.

Osteoarthritis is a type of

arthritis in which the articular cartilage breaks down, typically due to wear-and-tear changes as a person ages

All of the following are characteristics of the maxillae except

articulate with all other facial bones

Three tiny bones called ___are housed wi each temporal bone.

auditory ossicles

Mobility and stability at joints depend on the structure or shape of the

articulating bone surfaces, the amount of flexibility of the connective tissue that joins the bones together, and the muscles, tendons, and ligaments associated with the joint. The more movable joint is the less stable it is. Conversely, the more stable a joint is, the less mobile it is

Kytos

as in cytoplasm, means a hollow

Sequence of cross bridge formation & myofilament movement will be repeated

as long as calcium ions are present.

Oxygenated blood leaves the L ventricle & enters

ascending aorta before entering the aortic arch & then the descending thoracic aorta

The posterior fontanel closes at about 9 months, while the anterior fontanel closes

at about 15 months

In vertebral development, the number of separate bone components(secondary ossification centers actually increases ___but then decreases as they fuse into single bones around ___.

at puberty; age 25

Which two of the following joints are unctionally most similar?

atianto-occipital joint, elbow joint

The ______joint is a ______-joint that allows rotational movement .

atlantoaxial, pivot

The vertebra that articulates with the skull is the

atlas

Shaking one's head from side to side (as in gesturing "no") is the primary action facilitated by the articulation between which bones?

atlas and axis

Relatively deep coronary sulcus extends around the circumference of the heart & separates the

atria from the ventricles externally

Interactions between thick and thin filaments during muscle contraction occur in which sequence?

attach, pivot, detach, return

Which of the following are classified as bones associated with the skull? axis and occipital bone auditory ossicles and hyoid bone ethmoid bone and sphenoid bone temporal and parietal bones

auditory ossicles and hyoid bone

Which of the following are classified as bones associated with the skull? axis and occipital bone auditory ossicles and hyoid bone ethmoid bone and sphenoid bone temporal and parietal bones

auditory ossicles and hyoid bone

The facial region contains the

auricular region is composed of the inner and outer structures of the ear, the auricle, the external auditory canal, and the mastoid process. orbital region contains the eyeballs, eyebrows, eyelids, and superior palpebral fissure. nasal region contains the nose (including the bridge of the nose, dorsum nasi, apex, nostrils, & ala nasi). The oral region includes the cheek, lips, structures of the oral cavity, & philtrum. mental region contains the chin

Hypothalamus is the integration & command center for

autonomic functions. contains nuclei that control visceral fxns in both divisions of the ANS, & it communicates w other CNS regions, including the cerebral cortex, thalamus, brainstem, cerebellum, and spinal cord. Hypothalamus is the central brain structure involved in emotions & drives that act thru the ANS. Ex, sympathetic nervous system fight-or-flight response originates in the sympathetic nucleus in this brain region.

autonomic & somatic motor neurons

autonomic motor pathway involves a series of 2 neurons in the motor transmission of impulses somatic motor system transmits impulses along a single axon from the spinal cord to the effector cell

Hypothalamus controls

autonomic nervous system oversees the fxns of the endocrine system; regulates body temperature; cntls emotional behavior, food intake, & water intake; circadian rythym regulates the sleep-wake cycle

5 major terminal branches of the brachial plexus

axillary nerve supplies the deltoid and teres minor. median nerve supplies most anterior forearm muscles (except the medial half of the flexor digitorum longus and flexor carpi ulnaris) lateral two lumbricals, and the thenar muscles. radial nerve innervates the posterior arm and forearm muscles as well as the brachioradialis. musculocutaneous nerve supplies the coracobrachialis, brachialis, and biceps brachii. ulnar nerve innervates the medial half of the flexor digitorum profundus, flexor carpi ulnaris, the hypothenar muscles, medial two lumbricals, and the interossei

Apocrine glands are located in the

axillary, areolar, anal, and pubic regions

Urinary tract infection (UTI) occurs when

bacteria (usually E. coli) or fungi enter the urinary tract & multiply. Females are prone to UTIs bc their urethra is short & close to the anus, which facilitates bacterial entry into the urethra from the GI tract. Sexual intercourse also ⬆️ the risk of UTIs. In addition, UTIs are associated w the use of a urinary catheter

Telophase II of meiosis is

basically prophaseI in reverse

Dorsum of the hand, a dorsal venous arch of veins drains into the

basilic vein & the cephalic vein In the cubital region, an obliquely positioned median cubital vein connects the cephalic & basilic veins Basilic vein eventually helps form the axillary vein. Cephalic vein drains into the axillary vein

Lymphatic system's ability to provide immunity & decreases as we age

bc Helper T-lymphocytes do not respond to AGs as well & do not reproduce rapidly. Wo large #s of helper T- lymphocytes, there are fewer B- lymphocytes & other kinds of T-lymphocytes. Reduced # of lymphocytes means that the bodys ability to acquire immunity & resist infection ↓.

Atria thin walls reason

bc they do not need to generate high pressure to push blood into the ventricles Most of the filling of the ventricles is passive, & ventricles are inferior to the atria, so moving blood into the ventricles from the atria is relatively easy. Rt ventricle wall is relatively thin w respect to the Lt ventricle wall bc the Rt ventricle only has to pump blood thru the pulmonary circuit to the lungs immediately lateral to the heart, whereas the Lt ventricle must generate enough pressure to drive blood thru the entire systemic circuit.

DNA replication occurs

before mitosis

All of a woman's primary oocytes are produced

before she is born

diaphragm location fxn

below the lungs & abone the abdominal region, fibrous central tendon, aponeurosis fxns as the insertion tendon for all peripheral muscle fibers of the diaphragm. The diaphragm contracts, the central tendon is pulled inferiorly, toward the abdominal cavity, ↑ the vertical dimensions of the thoracic cavity.

Suppose you were given a skull fragment (comprising only the roof of the cranium) and asked to determine the person's age at death Upon observing that the coronal suture is completely fused and the sagittal suture is fused endocranially but not ectocranially, you could dazzle your colleagues by correctly estimating the age to be

between 30 and 40 years, probably in the mid-30s

Apocrine sweat glands are

beyond the coiled, tubular glands that release their secretion into hair follicles. They secrete a viscous, cloudy, protein- and lipid-containing solution that is probably used as a communicating material Merocrine sweat glands are simple, coiled tubular glands that are smaller and more numerous than apocrine sweat glands. Their secretory product is a thin, watery solution that functions in thermoregulation, excretion, and antibacterial protection

A joint that permits movement in two planes is classified as

biaxial

Types of pennate muscles

bipennate unipennate multipennate

Embryoblast portion of the blastocyst is called the bilaminar germinal disc, or

blastodisc

The two main components of a typical vertebra are the

body and vertebral arch

Multicellular exocrine glands contain

both a secretory portion and a conducting portion.

Fetal alcohol syndrome & congenital syphilis share what etiological aspect?

both are acquired from the mother across the placental barrier

Trilaminar embryonic disc undergoes

both cephalocaudal folding and transverse folding

The superior and inferior nuchal lines are attachment sites for

both muscles and ligaments that balance the weight of the head over the vertebrae of the neck and stabilize its articulation at the occipital condyles Male skulls tend to have more pronounced nuchal lines than do female skulls

Sutures are immovable fibrous joints that form

boundaries bw cranial bones. In children, sutures allow the cranium to grow & expand. Typically fuse in our adult years after skull growth is complete. Premature fusion can cause abnormal head shape

Prime flexors of the forearm are the

brachialis, brachioradialis, and biceps brachii

3 main branches that arise from the aortic arch

brachiocephalic trunk, Lt common carotid artery, and Lt subclavian artery. brachiocephalic trunk further divides into the right common carotid artery (supplies arterial blood to the right side of the head and neck) and the right subclavian artery (supplies the right upper limb and some thoracic structures). Lt common carotid artery supplies the left side of the head and neck. Lt subclavian artery supplies the right upper limb and some thoracic structures

Hemoglobin in red blood cells appears

bright red after it binds oxygen. Thus, it provides a reddish tint to the skin

Adduction is the opposite of abduction, and in the case of the upper limb, it would mean

bringing the raised arm down back toward the midline. Adduction of the hand would be bringing together the opened fingers

Main function of sympathetic innervation in lungs

bronchodilation (↑ airway diameter of the bronchioles)

Which two foot pathologies can result from overcrowding (albeit in very different locations)?

bunions and talipes equinovarus

The seven tarsal bones & articulates with

calcaneus, talus, navicular, three cuneiform bones (medial cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform, and lateral cuneiform), and the cuboid. The talus articulates with the leg, while the three cuneiform bones and the cuboid bones articulate with the metatarsals of the foot

Stimulated by a muscle impulse, the terminal cisternae releases ___ into the sarcoplasm

calcium ions

Strawberry-colored birthmarks are also called

capillary hemangiomas.

4 regions of the stomach

cardia, fundus, body, and pylorus. cardia is a small narrow, superior entryway into the stomach lumen from the esophagus. fundus is the dome-shaped region lateral and superior to the esophageal connection with the stomach. The body is the largest region of the stomach: it is inferior to the cardiac orifice and the fundus. pylorus is a narrower, medially directed, funnel-shaped pouch that forms the terminal region of the stomach

A symphysis is a

cartilaginous joint with a broad, flat disc of fibrocartilage connecting the articulating bones Because a symphysis allows slight movement, it is functionally categorized as an amphiarthrosis

MELAS syndrome

caused by a genetic defect in mitochondrial rather than nuclear DNA.

The neurotransmitter in the neuromuscular junction..

causes ligand gated sodium channels in the muscle fiber to increase their permeability to sodium, which depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane

The neurotransmitter in the neuromuscular junction...

causes ligand gated sodium channels in the muscle fiber to increase their permeability to sodium, which depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane

Structural components of the abdominal aortic plexus

celiac plexus, superior mesenteric plexus, and inferior mesenteric plexus

If organelles can proliferate in response to increased demand, then which cell type would an alcoholic have more of compared to a non drinker

cells of smooth ER

The perineurium is a

cellular and fibrous connective tissue layer that wraps around nerve fascicles

Anaphasia

cellular changes that are generally indicative of cancer

All epithelia exhibit

cellularity, polarity, attachment to underlying connective tissue, avascularity, innervation, & high regeneration capacity

Differential growth beginning in the late third and fourth weeks of development results in which of the following?

cephalocaudal folding of the embryo transverse folding of the embryo transformation of the flat embryonic disc into a cylindrical embryo

The cingulate gyrus is an internal mass of

cerebral cortex internal to the longitudinal fissures and superior to the corpus callosum surrounding the diencephalon. The hippocampus is nucleus located superior to the parahippocampal gyrus that connects to the diencephalon by the fornix

4 separate CNS components form the somatic motor pathways

cerebral nuclei cerebellum descending pathways motor neurons interneurons

4 CNS regions that control the Autonomic fxns

cerebrum, hypothalamus, brainstem, & spinal cord

Transverse foramina distinguish

cervical vertebrae from all other types

From superior to inferior, the principal nerve plexuses are the

cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral plexuses

The five vertebral regions, proceeding from superior to inferior, are,

cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal

Which sequence proceeds down the vertebral column from the skull?

cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal

Sensory neurons are called afferent neurons. They are unipolar neurons specialized to detect

changes in their environment, such as pressure, heat, light, and chemicals, which they then transmit to the CNS

What must actualy rupture when the water "breaks" during labor?

chorion, amnion, endometrium

Cell begins to divide, its chromatin forms

chromosomes

Olfactory hairs are

cilia that project into the mucus & house receptors for inhaled airborne molecules

The limbic system is composed of the

cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampus, amygdaloid body, olfactory bulbs, olfactory tracts, and olfactory cortex, fornix, habenular nuclei, septal nuclei, mammillary bodies, and some anterior thalamic nuclei

Muscle fibers are arranged concentrically in

circular muscles

ACh receptors in the motor end plate membrane act like

closed doors to prevent ions from moving across the membrane. When these receptors bind ACh, the "door" opens & allows ions to cross the membrane, causing a change in the transmembrane voltage & ultimately resulting in a muscle impulse

Complement factor C3b

coats a bacterium & it binds to C3b receptors on phagocytes, making the bacterium more susceptible to being phagocytized

The mucin-producing glands throughout the GI tract

collectively produce a covering layer of viscous mucus This mucus lubricates the lining and prevents desiccation of the lining cells. Additionally, the mucus protects the epithelial lining from abrasion or from damage by acid or enzymes in the contents of the tract.

Main arterial supply for the lower limb

comes from the external iliac artery (a branch of the common iliac artery). External iliac artery travels inferior to the inguinal ligament, where it is renamed the femoral artery. Femoral artery gives off several branches, including the deep femoral artery. Ral artery is renamed the popliteal artery when it enters the popliteal fossa. Popliteal artery divides into an anterior tibial artery and a posterior tibial artery. Posterior tibial artery gives off a fibular artery. The posterior tibial artery branches into medial & lateral plantar arteries. Anterior tibial artery crosses over the anterior surface of the ankle, where it is renamed the dorsalis pedis artery. Dorsalis pedis artery and a branch of the lateral plantar artery unite to form the plantar arch of the foot. Digital arteries come from the plantar arch

Pre-embryonic cells undergo

compaction to become a tightly grouped ball of cells

The secondary or ___curves of the vertebral column help shift the weight of the trunk over the legs

compensation

A eukaryotic cell that receives a "go-ahead" signal at checkpoint of the cell cycle will

complete the cycle and divide

Intercalated discs are

complex junctions where cardiac muscle fibers join together at their ends. Appear as thick, dark lines bw cells in histologic sections. At these junctions, the sarcolemmas of adjacent cardiac muscle fibers interlock thru desmosomes & gap junctions. Desmosomes hold the adjacent membranes together, & the gap junctions facilitate ion passage bw cells. This free movement of ions allows each cell to transmit an electrical impulse & directly stimulate its neighbors.

Organelles

complex, organized cellular structures are either (1) membrane-bound organelles enclosed wi a membrane similar to a plasma membrane to separate organelle components from the rest of the cell (2) non-membrane- bound organelle are always in contact w the cytosol of the cell

MALT compsed of & located

composed of large collections of lymphatic nodules located in the lamina propria of the mucosa of the GI tract, respiratory tract, and genitourinary tract

Capacitation is the

conditioning stage sperm cells undergo in the female reproductive tract

Joints found bw the metacarpals & phalanges of fingers 2 - 5

condyloid

Binding & release of sodium or potassium ions are due to

conformational changes in the protein

Neurulation primarily involves changes in ectoderm, it could not occur wo inductive

connecting stalk, umbilical vessels, and allantois

Collagen fibers, elastic fibers, & reticular fibers make up

connective tissue proper

Umbilical cord is clamped after birth, the umbilical vein & umbilical arteries

constrict & become nonfunctional. Turn into the round ligament of the liver & the medial umbilical ligaments, respectively. After birth, since there is no blood going thru the umbilical vein & the ductus venosus, the ductus venosus ceases to fxn & constricts to become the liga-mentum venosum. Since pressure is now greater on the L side of the heart, the 2 flaps of the interatrial septum close off the foramen ovale, The only remnant of the foramen ovale is a thin, oval depression in the wall of the septum called the fossa ovalis. Wi 10-15 hours after birth, the ductus arteriosus closes & becomes a fibrous structure called the ligamentum arteriosum

Nucleus

contains 3 basic structures: 1. Nuclear envelope is a double membrane structure that encloses the nucleus 2. Nucleolus is a dark-staining body responsible for making both small & large subunits of ribosomes. Some cells have multiple nucleoli 3. Chromatin is the name of the tightly coiled strands of DNA and protein in the nucleus.

The structural category comprising mostly temporary joints also includes which of the following?

costochondral joints

anterior pituitary

controlled by regulatory hormones secreted by the hypothalamus. Regulatory hormones reach the anterior pituitary by traveling thru a blood vessel network called the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system, is essentially a "shun" that takes venous blood (carrying regulatory hormones) from the hypothalamus directly to the anterior pituitary first, before the blood returns to the heart. Thus, it provides a pathway for hypothalamic hormones to immediately reach the anterior pituitary. In addition, the veins that drain this portal system provide a pathway by which the anterior pituitary hormones may be released into the general bloodstream

Articular surface in each bone that forms a saddle joint has 2 regions

convex & the other concave, & it is shaped like a saddle. This joint permits the movement associated w the opposition of the thumb & exhibits a greater range of movement than a condyloid joint. Condyloid joints have a similar structure, in that they have an oval convex articulating surface on one bone that interfaces with a similarly shaped depression on the articular surface of the second bone

The frontal and parietal bones articulate at the ___ suture

coronal

The four largest sutures that form the boundaries between the cranial bones are the

coronal, lambdoid, sagittal, and squamosal

the anatomic position, which structures are on the anterior surface of the upper limb?

coronoid fossa and coronoid process

The surface features at the distal end of the humerus that accommodate processes of the uina when flexing and extending the elbow are the

coronoid fossa and olecranon fossa

Somatotopy is

correspondence bw specific body areas & CNS areas

The gray matter layer in the superficial region of the cerebral hemispheres is called the

cortex; deep wi the cerebral hemispheres, the gray matter forms oval to spherical bodies called nuclei. White matter lies deep to the gray matter of the cortex & surrounds the nuclei

Basic functions of cells

covering, lining, storage, movement, connection, defense, communication, & reproduction

The skull is composed of both

cranial and facial bones

Of the following, which is the first to oocur during muscle contraction?

crossbridges link thick & thin filaments

Unique to meiosis

crossing over

Located on the anterior surface of the elbow region, the

cubital fossa is a depression within which the mediarn cubital vein connects the basilic and cephalic veins

If, as some argue, lactation involves both merocrine and apocrine secretion, then milk would contain

cytoplasm as well as exocytotic products

Aging affects the muscular system in all of the following ways except decrease in diameter of skeletal muscle fibers decrease in amt of ct tissue within muscles decrease in # of myofibrils & myofilaments in existing muscle decrease in ability to recover from disease or injury

decrease in amount of ct within muscles

A decrease in mucin secretion results in

decrease in the thickness and volume of the mucus that coats and protects the luminal lining of GI tract organs. Wo this protection, the organ lining is subject to abrasion by a moving bolus chyme and damage by acid or

Epidermal ridges are

deep projections of the epidermis toward the dermis, whereas dermal papillae are projections of the dermis toward the epidermis

Blood provides

defense against pathogens & AGs prevent excessive fluid loss by forming blood clots on damaged blood vessels

The extrinsic tongue muscles are used in different combinations to accomplish the

delicate & complex tongue movements necessary for speech, manipulate food wi the mouth in preparation for swallowing. L & R genioglossus muscles protract the tongue. L & R styloglossus muscles elevate & retract the tongue. L& R hyoglossus muscles depress & retract the tongue. L&R palatoglossus muscles elevate the posterior portion of the tongue

Z discs are to skeletal muscle as _______ , are to smooth muscle .

dense bodies

Among the following, which has the fewest cells per unit volume? dense connective tissue nervous tissue simple columnar epithelium

dense connective tissue

Which two tissues compose most of the integumentary system?

dense irregular connective tissue and stratified squamous epithelium

fibrous joint contains

dense regular connective tissue that holds bones together. A cartilaginous joint occurs where bones are joined together by cartilage

A fibrous joint uses

dense regular connective tissue to bind the bones

Differentiation & reproduction are the major functions of any organism's

development

The primary age-related change in a joint is the

development of an inflammatory or degenerative condition called osteoarthritis. As the articular cartilage undergoes wear and tear and degenerates, swelling of the joint, pain, and stiffness result.

hypertrophy, each muscle fiber

develops more myofibrils, and each myofibril contains a larger number of myofilaments. This results in increased fiber size

In the neuromuscular junction, acetylcholine...

diffuses across the synaptic cleft & binds to ACh receptors on the postsynaptic muscle fiber

Results when concentration gradient is eliminated

diffusion and osmosis stop

Placenta provides services for the fetus that will eventually be performed by which organ systems?

digestive, respiratory, urinary

The proximal end of the radius has a

disc-shaped head that articulates with the capitulum of the humerus and the radial notch of the ulna.

Describes a joint injury in which the articulating bones have separated

dislocation

Sympathetic preganglionic axons branch extensively. This broad branching pattern allows the sympathetic nervous system to

display great divergence in innervation transmission. A single preganglionic axon innervates as many as 20 or more ganglionic neurons. A greater degree of divergence in this division provides the means to rapidly activate many visceral organs simultaneously. This results in mass activation of almost all the ganglionic sympathetic neurons

The articular capsule covers the

distal surface of the tibia and the medial malleolus, and the deltoid ligament binds the tibia to the medial side of the foot to ensure correct positioning of the tibia and talus

In the limbs, the insertion of a muscle typically lies

distal to the origin

Cytokinesis

division of the cytoplasm

Respiratory centers DRG, VRG

dorsal respiratory group (DRG) is the inspiratory center. DRG controls the motor neurons that stimulate the muscles of inspiration, and is activated during both normal inhalation and forced, active inhalation ventral respiratory group (VRG) is the expiratory center. VRG functions only during forced exhalation. During normal quiet breathing, the VRG is inactive, and exhalation is a passive event that does not require nervous stimulation

Tropomyosin

double-helical protein that covers the active sites for myosin on the individual actin molecules, thus preventing the actin myosin interaction necessary for contraction of a muscle. As a result of a muscle impulse, the heads of the myosin molecules bind to active sites on the actin molecules, & then the heads swing toward the center of the A band, pulling the attached thin filaments toward the center of the A band & shortening the muscle fiber

The epidural space lies between the

dura mater and the vertebrae. This space houses areolar connective tissue, blood vessels, and adipose connective tissue

All major organ systems appear in the early form of a distinctly humanlike body during the

embryonic period

End of meiosis I

each daughter cell is haploid, & each chromosome consists of 2 chromatids

Choroid plexus location & fxn

each ventricle, is composed of a layer of specialized ependymal cells covered by a capillary-rich layer of pia mater. Choroid plexus produces CSF (cerebrospinal fluid)

All of the following accurately describe aspects of fertilization except

egg cells must be fully mature before they can be ovulated or fertilized

Which one of the following is actually two separate artioulations enclosed in a single articular capsule?

elbow

The two types of synapses are

electrical and chemical

macula densa cells of the juxtaglomerular apparatus continuously monitor

electrolvte concentration in tubular fluid. If BV or solute concentration is reduced, the macula densa cells detect this & stimx the juxtaglomerular cells to release renin. The renin activates the renin-angiotensin pathway, resulting in production of aldosterone, which causes electrolyte concentrations & blood volume to ⬆️ Structures of the juxtaglomerular apparatus work together to help regulate BP

Which special movements involve raising a body part away from the floor relative to the anatomic position?

elevation and dorsiflexion

The trapezius can perform

elevation, depression, retraction, or rotation of the scapula

Ruffini corpuscles

encapsulated receptors that detect both continuous deep pressure & distortion in the skin. They are tonic receptors that do not exhibit adaptation; they are housed within the dermis & subcutaneous tissue. Ruffini corpuscles are the least lamellated of the encapsulated receptors. Some are located wi joint capsules, where they detect the position & movement of the joint

the system that most directly associated with ductless

endocrine

The liver parenchyma, gallbladder, pancreas, and biliary apparatus develop from buds or outgrowths from

endoderm of the duodenum

Innermost uterine tunic is the

endometrium, an intricate mucosal membrane composed of a simple columnar epithelium and underlying lamina propria. The endometrium contains a basal layer, which lies next to the myometrium, and a functional layer, which is shed each month as menses

3 connective tissue layers are the

endomysium the innermost layer, & it surrounds each individual muscle fiber. This thin sheath of loose connective tissue & reticular fibers binds together the neighboring fibers & supports the capillaries that supply these fibers. perimysium surrounds each fascicle. It is a layer of dense irregular connective tissue that supports & contains neurovascular bundles that branch to supply each individual fascicle. epimysium is a layer of dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds the whole skeletal muscle. Often the epimysium integrates or blends w the deep fascia bw adjacent muscles

Simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion requires NO

energy expenditure by the cell

Tight junction Zonula Occludens

ensures that epithelial cells act as "gatekeepers"

Cerebral nuclei receive information from the

entire cerebral cortex and limbic system. The output of the cerebral nuclei is mainly to the primary motor cortex These nuclei provide patterned background movements, and adjust motor commands throughout the motor pathways. The cerebellum has a powerful regulatory influence over motor behavior. The cerebellum coordinates movements by specifying the timing of signals to different muscles

Although the bilaminar germinal disc contains 2 layers of cells, only the ___ gives rise to the 3 layers of the Trilaminar embryo.

epiblast

Cells of the embryoblast differentiate into the

epiblast, hypoblast

second degree burn typically involves the

epidermis and part of the dermis. The subcutaneous layer is not affected

The two major layers of the integument are the

epidermis and the dermis. The epidermis is a stratified squamous epithelium, and the dermis is composed of dense irregular connective tissue

Layer of dense irregular ct that surrounds the entire skeletal muscle

epimysium

Blood vessels and nerve fibers that supply skeletal muscle fibers must penetrate the

epimysum, perimysium, and endomysium

Which of the four peincipal tissue types develops embryonically from all three primary germ layers?

epithelial

Hair matrix is the

epithelial laver involved in hair production, whereas the medulla is the soft core of the matrix

Connective tissues perform al of the following functions except

establishing the body's structural framework defending the body from pathogens transporting fluids & storing energy reserves

Which set includes only bones of the cranium? parietal bone, mandible, & ethmoid bone frontal, sphenoid, & lacrimal bones vomer, inferior nasal concha, & zygomatic bone ethmoid, temporal, & occipital bones

ethmoid, temporal, and occipital bones

Which type of special movement involves turning the sole of the foot laterally?

eversion

If a person were bom without clavicles, what likely effect would this have?

excessive mobility of the shoulder joint

Diffusion is one of the processes whereby materials are

exchanged bw a cell and its environment

Crossing over, genetic material is

exchanged bw homologous chromosomes during Prophase I of Meiosis only

Which of the following characterizes both skeletal and smooth muscle cells?

excitable

The cerebellar peduncles provide the means for

extensive communication among the cerebellum and the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

Joints are classified functionally on the basis of

extent of movement allowed by the joint

external & internal intercostal muscles fxn

external intercostal muscles extend inferomedially from the superior rib to the adjacent inferior rib. They assist in expanding the thoracic cavity by elevating the ribs during inhalation. internal intercostal muscles lie deep to the external intercostals, and their muscle fibers are at right angles to the external intercostals. The internal intercostals depress the ribs, but only during a forced exhalation; normal exhalation requires no active muscular effort.

Muscles of the abdominal wall are the

external oblique, internal oblique, transversus abdominis, and rectus abdominis

Reduction in the number of sensory neurons leads to diminished ability to detect and discriminate among various

external stimuli, such as pain, light touch, pressure, and postural stimuli. The affected individual cannot appropriately assess his or her immediate environment.

T/F both the arm and thigh bones have epicondyles near the proximal end

false

4 cranial dural septa are the

falx cerebri, tentorium cerebelli, falx cerebelli, & diaphragma sellae. Falx cerebri projects into the longitudinal fissure bw the L&R cerebral hemispheres. Anteriorly, its inferior portion attaches to the crista galli of the ethmoid bone; posteriorly, its inferior portion attaches to the internal occipital crest & the tentorium cerebelli. Tentorium cerebelli separates the occipital & temporal lobes of the cerebrum from the cerebellum. It lies over the posterior cranial fossa & is shaped like a crescent. Falx cerebelli extends into the midsagittal line inferior to the tentorium cerebelli & divides the L&R cerebellar hemispheres. Located in the posterior cranial fossa. Diaphragma sellae is a continuation of the dural sheet that forms a "roof" over the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone

Physical conditioning can effectively ↓ the proportion of which type of muscle fibers?

fast

R vitelline vein gives rise to

most of the hepatic portal system

Main nerves of the lumbar plexus

femoral nerve and the obturator nerve. The main nerve of the sacral plexus is the sciatic nerve, which divides into the tibial and common fibular nerves

Identify the bone that articulates with the os coxae at the acetabulum.

femur

The fusion of two haploid sex cells to produce a diploid zygote is

fertilization

Spermiogenesis a sperm is not ready to

fertilize an egg cell

Cardiac muscle resembles skeletal muscle in that

fibers in both types of muscle are striated & have extensive capillary networks that supply needed nutrients & oxygen

defective gene on chromosome 15 causes Marfan syndrome, a suite of health problems stemming from the abdomen

fibrillin , collagen , and elastin proteins in the matrix of connective tissues

Kidneys are protected & attached by diff tissues

fibrous capsule covers the outer surface of the kidney. It maintains kidney shape, protects the kidney from trauma, and helps prevent the spread of infectious pathogens. perinephric fat (adipose capsule) is external to the fibrous capsule and completely surrounds the kidney to offer cushioning and insulation. renal fascia is external to the perinephric fat. It anchors the kidney to the posterior abdominal wall and the peritoneum. paranephric fat is the outermost layer that surrounds the kidney. It is composed of adipose ct & lies bw the renal fascia & the peritoneum.

3 structural classes of articulations are

fibrous, cartilaginous, & synovial joints

urinary system fxn

filters water and waste from the blood plasma; stores some water and waste products as urine until the body is ready to expel the urine; excretes the urine from the bladder to outside the body; helps maintain blood volume by preventing excess water loss; and regulates erythrocyte production

Tactile discs

flattened, unencapsulated nerve terminals that fxn as tonic receptors for fine touch. These receptors are important in distinguishing the texture & shape of the stimulating agent. Tactile discs are associated w special tactile cells (Merkel cells), located in the stratum basale of the epidermis.

Flexor digitorum superficialis inserts on the middle phalanges of fingers 2-5 and causes

flexion at the wrist, MP joints, and PIP joints of these fingers. flexor digitorum profundus inserts on the distal phalanges of fingers 2-5 & causes flexion of the MP, PIP, & DIP joints of these fingers. At the middle of the phalanges the tendons of the flexor digitorum superficialis split to allow the flexor digitorum profundus tendons to pass to the tips of the fingers.

The intervertebral joints permit which of the following movements?

flexion, extension, and lateral nexion

Tendons of 4 flexor muscles on the forearm may be palpated along the anterior surface of the wrist

flexor carpi ulnaris, superficial digital flexor, palmaris longus, and flexor carpi radialis

Cerebellum contains the

flocculonodular lobes, folia, and a vermis

Pleural Cavity

fluid filled area between the pleural layers

The anatomical neck is an almost indistinct groove that marks the location of the

former epiphyseal plate. The anatomical neck is located between the head and two prominent projections called the greater and lesser tubercles, respectively. The surgical neck, a common fracture site of the humerus, is a narrowing of the bone immediately distal to the tubercles, at the transition from the head to the shaft

Plasma membrane

forms cell border composed of lipids & proteins. regulates the passage of gases, nutrients, & wastes bw the internal & external environments

Ovarian Cycle:

follicular phase occurs from day 1 - 13 of a 28 day cycle. FSH & LH stimulate some primordial follicles to mature into primary follicles. One primary follicle matures into a secondary follicle, & matures into a vesicular follicle. Division of the primary oocyte produces a secondary oocyte. Ovulation, occurring on day 14, is the release of the secondary oocyte from a vesicular follicle Luteal phase extends from day 15- 28, when the remaining follicle cells in the ruptured vesicular follicle turn into a corpus luteum. corpus luteum secretes lg amts of progesterone & some estrogen to stabilize & build up the uterine lining, and prepare the uterus for possible implantation of a fertilized oocyte

Developmental anatomy

follows changes in structure wi an individual from conception thru maturity

Fibrous membrane remnants between the cranial bones at birth are called

fontanels

The compression of an infant's skull bones at birth is facilitated by spaces between unfused cranial bones called

fontanels

Inversion and eversion are movements of the

foot. Inversion is where the sole of the foot is turned medially (inward), while eversion is where the sole of the foot is turned laterally (outward). Eversion is sometimes referred to as foot pronation, and inversion is sometimes referred to as foot supination

Reason Erythrocytes lack organelles

for room to carry as much Hb as possible Hemoglobin, ↑ their efficiency in transporting O2 & CO. However, the absence of both a nucleus & cellular organelles means that the erythrocyte cannot synthesize proteins

Which set includes only foramina found in the sphenoid bone?

foramen ovale, optic foramen, and foramen rotundum

All of the following are foramina in the sphenoid the

foramen rotundum. foramen spinosum. optic foramen.

All of the following are openings in cranial bones that transmit nerves except A) foramen ovale, crilbriform foramina B) foramen spinosum, infraorbital foramen C) optic foramen, stylomastoid foramen D) foramen rotundum, hypoglossal canal

foramen spinosum, infraorbital foramen

BP

force per unit area that blood places on a blood vessel wall. BP is measured in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg). Systolic BP is the pressure in the blood vessels during systole (ventricular contraction). Systolic pressure is greater than diastolic pressure due to the greater force from ventricular contraction Diastolic BP occurs during diastole (ventricular relaxation). BP readings are expressed in a ratio format where the numerator (upper #) is the systolic pressure and the denominator (lower #) is the diastolic pressure

Blastodisc

forms during the 2nd wk of development contains a hypoblast layer and an epiblast layer gives rise to the embryo, amnion, and yolk sac

Amniocentesis is performed during which month of pregnancy

fourth

Fibrous Skeleton location & fxn

fs of the heart located bw the atria & ventricles & is formed from dense irregular ct. Fxns: (1) separating the atria & ventricles (2) anchoring heart valves by forming supportive rings at the attachment point of the valves (3) providing electrical insulation bw the atria & the ventricles (4) provides a rigid framework for the attachment of cardiac muscle tissue

Synovial joints are

freely movable articulations that allow the widest range of motion performed at any joint in the body. Functionally, all synovial joints are classified as diarthroses. All synovial joints have an articular capsule, a joint cavity, synovial fluid, articular cartilage, nerves and blood vessels, and supporting ligaments

Brain 5 lobes & fxn

frontal lobe is voluntary motor functions, concentration, verbal communication decision making, planning, and personality. parietal lobe sensory reception as well as understanding speech and formulating words temporal lobe hearing, interpreting speech, language, and smell. occipital lobe receives and processes incoming visual information and compares it to past visual experiences. insula is involved in memory and the interpretation of taste

The paranasal sinuses are cavities in the

frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, and maxillae bones. Their mucous lining helps humidify and warm inhaled air. Additionally, these cavities help lighten the skull and provide resonance to the voice

bones that compose the nasal complex

frontal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones

The paranasal sinuses are located in which bones?

frontal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones and maxilla

Each os coxae forms through the

fusion of an ilium, an ischium, and a pubis

How do skeletal muscle fibers get mutiple nuclel?

fusion of embryonic myoblasts

Neurofibril nodes, or nodes of Ranvier, are the

gaps along myelinated axons between the myelin wrapping

Which of the following sets includes only features of cranial bones?

glabella, selle turcica, hypoglossal canal, zygomatic process

Because of the shallow ______muscles of the rotator cuff must not only move the shoulder joint but also help stabilize it

glenoid cavity

Components of a nephron are the renal corpuscle, composed of a flow of fluid

glomerulus & a glomerular capsule; PCT; the nephron loop; & the DCT. glomerulus -blood passes thru, water & waste products are pushed from the glomerulus into glomerular capsule space, crudely filtering the blood. Filtrate leaves the glomerular capsule & enters the PCT, where it is called tubular fluid. Its cells actively reabsorb almost all nutrients, electrolytes, & any plasma proteins from the tubular fluid. Water is reabsorbed by osmosis. The solutes & water are returned to the vascular system via the peritubular capillaries surrounding the CT. From the PCT, the tubular fluid next enters the loop of Henle, where additional water & solutes are reabsorbed. From there, it goes to the DCT convoluted tubule, where ions are secreted into the tubular fluid from the blood. Reabsorption of water can occur here as well

renal corpuscle

glomerulus thick tangle of capillaries glomerular capsule epithelial capsule surrounding it, called the e, make up the renal corpuscle. The glomerular capsule has a visceral layer directly overlying the glomerulus and a parietal layer formed from simple squamous epithelium. Between these layers is a capsular space. As blood passes through the glomerulus, waste products and water are pushed from the glomerulus into the capsular space

Renal corpuscle parts

glomerulus-thick tangle of capillaries glomerular capsule epithelial capsule surrounding it make up the renal corpuscle. glomerular capsule has a visceral layer directly overlying the glomerulus & a parietal layer formed from simple squamous epithelium. Bw these layers is a capsular space. As blood passes thru the glomerulus, waste products & water are pushed from the glomerulus into the capsular space

Hormones produced by the Endocrine cells of the Pancreas

glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, & pancreatic polypeptide

Responsible for thigh extension

gluteus maximus prime mover of thigh extension adductor magnus, biceps femoris, semitendinosus, & semimembranosus.

Reflecting their different needs, fast muscle fibers contain large ______reserves whereas slow fibers contain the oxygen-carrying pigment______.

glycogen; myoglobin

Which exocrine glands do not have ducts

goblet cells

3 types of fibrous joints are

gomphoses is a "peg-in-the- socket" fibrous joint that only occurs where the roots of individual teeth articulate w the sockets of the mandible & the maxillae. Functionally, it is classified as a svnarthrosis. sutures are immovable fibrous joints that tightly bind bones to each other. They occur only bw bones of the skull, & are functionally classified as synarthroses. Syndesmoses are fibrous joints in which articulating bones are bound together exclusively by ligaments only bc syndesmoses allow slight movement, they are classified as amphiarthroses. The distal tibiofibular & radioulnar joints are ex of syndesmoses

Muscles that flex the knee joint are the

gracilis, sartorius, biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, gastrocnemius, popliteus, and plantaris

Cartilaginous is based on word root that literally translates to

gristle

Surface anatomy

gross anatomy considers both superficial anatomic markings & internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin

Erythrocytes structure & fxn

have a unique biconcave disc shape that allows respiratory gases to be loaded & unloaded rapidly & efficiently. Structure facilitates single-line stacking of these cells (rouleaux) as they pass thru sm blood vessels, & enough flexibility to permit their passage thru the smallest vessels

Ribs 11 and 12 are called floating ribs because they

have no connection to the sternum

Slow fibers contract more slowly than fast fibers, often taking 2-3 times as long to contract after stimx. These fibers are specialized to continue contracting for extended periods of time. Therefore, an athlete who excels at sprinting would benefit from

having more fast fibers than slow because sprinting is not a long-term aerobic activity. A successful sprinter would have more fast fibers due to the powerful contractions they produce w the help of their large number of sarcomeres

The glenoid cavity articulates with which bone or bone feature?

head of the humerus

Damage to the temporal bone would most likely impair the sense of

hearing

Effects of age on heart & vessels

heart & blood vessels become less resilient. Elastic arteries are less able to wstand the forces of the pulsating blood. Systolic BP may ↑ w age As a result, older individuals are prone to developing an aneurysm, whereby part of the arterial wall thins & balloons out. ↑ incidence & severity of atherosclerosis

Flexibility & elasticity in ct decrease w aging, heart valves become inflexible, & result in

heart murmur & altered blood flow through the heart

Sympathetic nerve pathway innervates

heart, esophagus, lungs, & thoracic blood vessels

Blood plasma absorbs & distributes

heat thru the body. Blood vessels in the dermis can dilate & dissipate excess heat. Likewise, if heat needs to be conserved these same blood vessels constrict, & blood is shunted to deeper blood vessels

Vasodilation of blood vessels in the dermis allows

heat to dissipate thru the skin to help cool off the body. Sweat glands secrete a thin, watery fluid called perspiration that helps remove heat from the body as it evaporates.

Circulation to the skin must be closely regulated to

help maintain body temperature without wide fluctuations. Increased blood supply to the skin results in heat loss, whereas decreased blood supply to the skin helps the body retain heat

Nasal conchae fxn

help produce air turbulence in the nasal cavity. Because of the turbulence, the air remains in the nasal cavity for a longer period of time, allowing it to come into contact with the mucosa and become conditioned. Without the nasal conchae, aiir would pass quickly through the nasal cavity and not be sufficiently conditioned before entering the rest of the respiratory system

Cerebral lateralization refers to the many fnxal differences bw the

hemispheres. Each hemisphere tends to be specialized for certain tasks. Higher-order centers in both hemispheres tend to have different but complementary functions

Periphery of hepatic lobules are several portal triads, composed of a branch of the hepatic portal vein, the hepatic artery, & the bile duct

hepatic portal vein carries blood that is rich in nutrients and other absorbed substances but relatively poor in oxygen. hepatic artery, a branch of the celiac trunk, carries well- oxygenated blood and supplies the remaining blood to the liver. Blood from branches of these 2 vessels mixes in passing to and through the liver lobules and drains into the central veins. Bile produced by hepatocytes is secreted into bile canaliculi; it flows through these tiny channels to the hepatic duct. Bile emulsifies fat arriving in the small intestine

Portal triads are composed of branches of the

hepatic portal vein, the hepatic artery, and the hepatic duct.

Synovial joint that limits angular movements to a single axis

hinge

Because each secretory cell is destroyed during

holocrine secretion, the ruptured, dead cells are replaced by regeneration

Autonomic reflexes maintain the body state known as

homeostasis

Synapsis is the side-by-side alignment of

homologous chromosomes

During anaphase I of meiosis,___move towards opposite cell poles, whereas during anaphase II of meiosis, ____are separated

homologous chromosomes It sister chromatids

Crossing over

homologous chromosomes trade parts during meiosis genes can be shuffied even before fertilization occurs one chromosome can combine genes from both parents

Parafollicular cells secrete

hormone calcitonin in response to elevated blood Ca++. Calcitonin ↓ blood Ca++ levels by stimulating osteoblast activity & inhibiting osteoclast activity. New bone matrix is formed, w simultaneous deposition of Ca++ salts onto matrix, & resorption of bone matrix ↓

Secretions of endocrine glands

hormones

When preganglionic axons synapse on cells within the adrenal medulla, the adrenal medulla cells release

hormones that are circulated wi the bloodstream & help prolong the fight or flight response. The cells of the adrenal medulla primarily secrete EPI &, to a lesser degree, NE. Once secreted into the bloodstream, these hormones potentiate (prolong) the effects of the sympathetic stimulation

Articular cartilage is special type of ______that lacks _____

hyaline cartilage; a perichondnium

Lysosome contain

hydrolytic enzymes

Which bone has no direct articulation with any cther?

hyoid

Mylohyoid elevates

hyoid bone & elevates the floor of the mouth when it contracts

Some muscles that control the tongue and larynx are attached to the

hyoid bone.

Lack of control over the emotions indicates

hypothalamus may be damaged.

A lumbar puncture must be performed inferior to the end of the spinal cord to prevent damage to the spinal cord. The physician must palpate the

iliac crests to identify the level of the L4 vertebra, then make the puncture bw L3 & L4 when the patient's back is flexed

Erector spinae is the largest muscle mass in the back. Consists of 3 groups of muscles organized into columns

iliocostalis (located laterally) longissimus (located intermediately) spinalis (located medially) Muscles of the erector spinae maintain posture & help us stand erect after bending over at the waist

Simple squamous epithelium is the thinnest and occurs

in areas where maximum filtration and diffusion are needed.

Under normal conditions, deterioration of the axial skeleton begins

in early childhood and continues throughout life

Lysosome Enzymes are formed

in the Endoplasmic Reticulum

Why are ventricles in diastole for a long time

in the cardiac cycle to ensure that proper filling occurs before the next cycle

Effective regeneration occurs

in the epithelial & connective tissue components of the skin bc both contain stem cells

Atrioventricular node is located

in the floor of the right atrium, bw the right AV valve & the coronary sinus opening

The tensor fasciae latae muscle is located

in the iliotibial tract

In skeletal muscie fibers, where do calcium ions occur at varying concentrations?

in the terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum throughout the sarcoplasm in regions where the thin and thick filaments overlap

The eight carpal bones of the wrist are arranged

in two rows of four bones each. From the lateral to the medial side, the carpal bones of the proximal row are the scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, and pisiform bones. Again beginning on the lateral side, the bones of the distal row of carpal bones are the trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate bones

Blood vessels pass through all of the following except A) carotid canal, foramen magnum B) mandibular foramen, mastoid foramen c) incisive foramen, inferior orbital fissure D) superior orbital fissure, mental foramen

incisive foramen, inferior orbital fissure

A decreased number of melanocytes causes

increased sensitivity of the skin

Aging causes the following changes in the integument

increased time to repair damage, decreased elasticity, diminished immune response due to fewer epidermal dendritic (Langerhans) cells, increased dryness, altered pigmentation, diminished sweat production, thinning or loss of hair, and diminished vitamin D production.

Notochord

induces the process of Neurulation

Potential spaces filled w lubricating serous fluid

inferior portion of the mediastinunm , the Rt & Lt lungs, most of the abdominopelvic viscera

Which two of the following joints are structurally most similar

inferior tibiofibular joint, coronal suture

The true pelvis lies

inferior to the pelvic brim. It encloses the pelvic cavity and forms a deep, inferior bowl that contains the pelvic organs.

The spine of the scapula separates which two fossae?

infraspinous, supraspinous

The word root anulus most nearly means

ing

In dual innervation, an effector is

innervated by both ANS divisions

Examples of planar joints include

intercarpal joints intertarsal Joints vertebrocostal joints

Elbow is an extremely stable joint because of

interlocking surfaces of the humerus & ulna a fairly thick, protective articular capsule strong ligaments reinforcing the capsule

The interosseous membrane extends between the

interosseous borders of the tibia and fibula. This membrane helps stabilize the positions of the two bones and provides additional surface area for muscle attachment

Joints found in the foot

interphalangeal joints intertarsal tarsometatarsal joints metatarsolphalangeal joints

In the spaces surrounding the seminiferous tubules reside the

interstitial cells, which produce androgens. There are several types of androgens, the most common one being testosterone

Lymph is

interstitial fluid containing dissolved solutes & sometimes foreign material. Once lymph enters the lymphatic capillaries, it is transported to & from lymph nodes via lymphatic vessels, lymphatic trunks, and finally lymphatic ducts before being emptied into large veins in the neck.

Making up approximately one-quarter of the entire vertebral column, absorbers between adjacent vertebral bodies.

intervertebral discs

Pharyngeal constrictors are

involuntary skeletal muscle groups that ensure that the swallowed bolus moves quickly through the pharynx and into the esophagus (about 1 second elapses during this phase)

Autonomic reflexes are comparable to spinal reflexes bc they

involve a sensory receptor, sensory neurons, interneurons in the CNS, motor neurons, and effector cells

Invagination

inward movement of cells through the primitive streak at gastrulation

Cerebral nuclei are paired,

irregular gray matter masses in the central white matter basal region of the cerebral hemispheres inferior to the lateral ventricle floor

Palpation

is a method of clinical examination that involves feeling a body structure

Chromatin

is a strand of unwound DNA & its proteins. Chromosomes are the highest level of organization of genetic material. Wi it a molecule of DNA & proteins are tightly wound

Hypertrophy

is an increase in muscle fiber size. The repetitive, exhaustive stimulation of muscle fibers results in an increased number of mitochondria, larger glycogern reserves, and an improved ability to product ATP Ultimately, each muscle fiber develops more myofibrils, and each myofibril contains a larger number of myofilaments. Repeated stimulation of muscles to produce near-maximal tension, such as lifting weights, causes muscle hypertrophy

Perineum

is diamond-shaped area cırcumscribed by the pubic symphysis anteriorly, the ischial tuberosities laterally, and the coccyx posteriorly. It is the inferior trunk area between the origin of the thighs where the external genitalia and the anus for both sexes are located

Neural tube formation

is formed by fusion of the neural folds

PCT

is lined by a simple cuboidal epithelium w tall microvilli that markedly ⬆️ its reabsorption capacity. Most of the reabsorption occurs in the PCT, & thus microvilli are not required elsewhere in the nephron

Nuclear envelope

is the boundary around the nucleus that controls the entry and exit of materials betweern the nucleus and the cytoplasm

Chorion

is the extraembryonic membrane that is the fetal component of the placenta, the site of exchange bw the embryo & the mother

Filtration

is the process by which water and some dissolved solutes in the blood plasma passively move out of capillaries due to pressure differences across the filtration membrane into the capsular space of the renal corpuscle

Spermatogenesis

is the process of sperm development that occurs wi the seminiferous tubule of the testis. Spermatogenesis does not occur until puberty, when significant levels of FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone) are secreted and stimulate the testis to begin developing gametes

Synapsis of the chromosomes

is the side-by-side alignment of homologous chromosomes

Diffusion

is the tendency of molecules to move down their concentration gradients (regions of ⬆️ concentration to regions of ⬇️ concentration)

Transduction

is the transformation of energy of one system into a different form of energy (e.g., a flashlight converts the chemical energy in a battery into light energy). In sensory receptors, transduction results in the conversion of the stimulus (touch, temperature, sound) into nerve impulses

Cancer's main characteristic

is uncontrolled cell growth

The greater and lesser sciatic notches are separated by the

ischial spine

When sitting upright, you are resting on your

ischial tuberosities.

The ______are designed to bear one's weight, and the spines of the same coxal component limit the effective size of the ______

ischial tuberosities; birth canal

4 endocrine cell types form

islets: Alpha cells ⇢ Glucagon to ↑ blood glucose levels Beta cells ⇢ insulin to cause blood glucose levels to ↓ Delta cells ⇢ somatostatin to ↓ or 🚫 activities in the digestive tract F cells ⇢ pancreatic polypeptide to suppress & regulate somatostatin secretion from delta cells

Isometric & Isotonic contraction

isometric contraction, the length of the muscle does not change because the tension produced by this contracting muscle never exceeds the resistance, so the muscle does not shorten. isotonic contraction, the tension produced exceeds the resistance, and the muscle fibers shorten, resulting in movement. In the arm muscles, an isometric contraction occurs when a person tries to lift a weight that is too heavy, while an isotonic allows a person to lift a book

Which structures may be composed of either elastic or tissue?

ligaments

stratified cuboidal epithelium fxn

its main function is protection, & secretory

The juxtaglomerular apparatus consists of juxtaglomerular cells & the macula densa & their MOA

juxtaglomerular cells are modified smooth muscle cells in the wall of the afferent arteriole. Macula densa cells are modified epithelial cells that line the DCT at the point of contact bw the afferent arteriole & the DCT. Juxtaglomerular apparatus continuously monitors the fluid electrolyte concentration in the DCT (by macula densa cells) ⬇️BV ⬇️ solute concentration the macula densa cells stimulate the juxtaglomerular cells to release renin. Ultimately aldosterone is produced, which ⬆️ blood electrolyte concentrations & BV

In body regions where mechanical stresses are severe, one would most likely encounter which type of epithelium

keratinized stratified squamous

In which of the following joints do the opposing articular surfaces have the same names?

knee and sacroillac

The duct that drains tears into the nasal cavity is most closely associated with which bone?

lacrimal

Lacrimal gland continuously produces

lacrimal fluid Excretory ducts conduct the lacrimal fluid into the conjunctival sac of the superior eyelid. There, the blinking motion of the evelids "washes" the lacrimal fluid over the eyes. Fluid drains thru the lacrimal puncta into the lacrimal canaliculi. A lacrimal sac temporarily stores the fluid. The nasolacrimal duct receives the fluid & delivers it into the nasal cavity

CN 7 innervates

lacrimal glands & most salivary glands

Tactile corpuscles are

large, encapsulated oval receptors. They are formed from highly intertwined dendrites that are enclosed by modified neurolemmocytes, which are then covered with dense irregular connective tissue. Tactile corpuscles are phasic receptors for fine touch and texture. They are housed within the dermal papillae of the skin, especially in the eyelids, fingertips, genitalia, nipples and palms

The anterior region of the neck contains the

larynx, trachea, and sternal notch

A compression fracture resulting from a hard fall would most ikely involve the

last thoracic and first two lumbar vertebrae

Which of the following correctly matches a ligament of the knee joint with one of its stabilizing functions?

lateral collateral ligament prevents hyperadduction of the leg

Unilateral contraction of the sternocleidomastoid muscle causes

lateral flexion and rotation of the head to the opposite side

The bony feature paipated on the lateral side of the ankde is the

lateral malleolus.

CN 6 innervates the

lateral rectus eye muscles

The glenoid cavity is a shallow, cup-shaped fossa on the

lateral side of the scapula where the head of the humerus articulates with the scapula. It has tubercles on its superior and inferior edges that represent the attachment sites for muscles that position the shoulder and arm. The acetabulum is a deep, curved depression on the lateral surface of the os coxae where the ballshaped head of the femur articulates with the pelvis

Affected spinal tract is the

lateral spinothalamic tract.

The fibula is a

laterally placed bone in the leg that does not bear any weight, but serves as the attachment site for several muscles. Additionally, its distal tip, called the lateral malleolus, extends inferiorly to the ankle joint, where it provides lateral stability to the ankle

work together to medially rotate the arm

latissimus dorsi and pectoralis major

Visceral Pleura

layer of the pleural membrane that is attached to the surface of the lung

The middle cranial fossa ranges from the

lesser wings of the sphenoid anteriorly to the anterior part of the petrous region of the temporal bone posteriorly

muscles used to smile

levator anguli oris, zygomaticus major, & zygomaticus minor elevate the corners of the mouth. risorius contracts as well if you make a closed-mouth smile. depressor anguli oris muscle contracts when you frown, pulling the of the mouth inferiorly. If you frown & pout as well, that also requires contraction of the depressor labii inferioris, mentalis, & platysma

Sensory pathways conduct information related to

limb position, touch, temperature, pressure, and pain.

The parietal layer of a serous membrane

lines the body cavity, and the visceral layer covers organs

If a person continues to overeat, liposuction may not be a permanent solution to excess weight because of

lipogenesis by remaining adipocytes production of adipocytes from stem cells

Skeletal muscle tissue has

long, cylindrical, multinucleated cells w obvious striations

The anterior rami of L1-L4 make up the

lumbar phexus The femoral and obturator nerves form from this plexus.

Lymphocytes originate from

lymphoid stem cells in the red bone marrow. T-lymphocytes mature in the thymus B-lymphocytes mature in the red bone marrow

Lysosomes contain

lysozyme & proteases which digest bacteria lysosome is an organelle found inside the phagocyte that contains digestive enzymes

The reticular activating system is responsible for

maintaining a state of consciousness and mental alertness. It arouses us from sleep by processing various incoming stimuli, and if there is no disturbing stimulus, it permits us to sleep

Which one of the following does not correctly distinguish male from female pelves?

male pelvic inlet is more spacious, wider, and oval in shape

Teratogens would be most lkely to cause which of the following types of congenital anomalies?

malformations

The three tiny bones of the auditory ossicles are the

malleus, the incus, and the stapes

Lateral & medial pterygoid muscles elevate & protract the

mandible & move it from side to side during chewing

The only unpaired bones of the face are the

mandible and vomer

The temporomandibular joint is the articulation bw the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone & the ___ of the mandible.

mandibular condyle

The temporomandibular joint is the articulation bw the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone & the ___of the mandible.

mandibular condyle

The clavicles articulate with the ___of the sternum .

manubrium

The sternal angle is the articulation between the

manubrium and the body of the sternum. It is easily palpated and is located at the level of the costal cartilage of the second rib, so this landmark is clinically important for counting ribs

Which of the following selections includes only wandering cells that may occur in connective tissue proper?

mast cells, neutrophils, and free macrophages

Fetal metabolic wastes are eliminated by transfer to the

maternal blood

Which stage of an individual's developmental history typically lasts the longest?

maturation

Sex hormones control

maturation, development, and changes in the activity of reproductive system organs

Differentation

mechanisms that produce cellular diversity and order during an individual's development

The femur articulates with the tibia at the

medial and lateral condyles.

The pulse of the brachial artery can be palpated along the

medial side of the brachium (arm)

Vasomotor center location & fxn

medulla oblongata Controls BP by regulating contraction & relaxation of smooth muscle in the walls of the smallest blood vessels & altering vessel diameter

Is not a stage of embryogenesis

meiosis

# of cells produced by meiosis is how much more than the # of cells produced by mitosis

meiosis produces 2x more cells Meisosis 4 Mitosis 2

Lysosomes

membrane-bound sacs, formed by the Golgi that contain catalysts (digestive enzymes) used by the cell to digest waste products & other macromolecules membrane sacs formed by the Golgi apparatus. Contain enzymes used by the cell to digest waste products & ingested macromolecules.

Membranous labyrinths are

membrane-lined, fluid-filled tubes & spaces wi bone. Housed wi a cavernous space in dense bone, called the bony labyrinth, which is located wi the petrous portion of the temporal bone

Not an extraembryonic membrane

mesoderrm

In some women, the vaginal lining transforms after puberty from simple columnar to stratified squamous epithelium. This is an example of

metaplasia

Myocardium is the

middle & thickest layer of the heart wall & is composed of cardiac muscle tissue

3rd ventricle location

midline of the diencephalon

Which of the following would be the most likely consequence of a genetic defect that prevented the placenta from producing hormones?

miscarriage as soon as the corpus luteum ceases to function

Somatic cell division

mitosis described as somatic & is actually a division of the nucleus

Simple diffusion definition

molecules from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration

A stretch reflex is a

monosynaptic reflex that monitors regulates skeletal muscle length; when a muscle is stretched, it reflexively contracts to shorten. A withdrawal reflex is a polysynaptic reflex that causes traumatized body part to move away from the source harm. A Golgi tendon reflex prevents skeletal muscles from tensing excessively

Pre-embryo arrives in the uterine cavity as a ___but is a ___by the time it begins implantation.

morula; blastocyst

The lumbar region is

most at risk for disc herniation bc of relatively great mobility & increased weight on the discs in this region

Synaptic knobs are to axons as ______are to sarcolemmae, in that both are structural modifications involved in transmitting electrochemical signals across the synaptic cleft.

motor end plates

Depressor anguli oris pulls the corner of the

mouth inferiorly into the frown position

Active transport

moved against a concentration gradient & energy ATP is needed. types of endocytosis are phagocytosis, pinocytosis, & receptor-mediated endocytosis.

Passive transport

moves substances across a plasma membrane wo energy, & down a concentration gradient (area of ⬆️ concentration to ⬇️) processes: diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, & bulk filtration.

Contraction of the superior or inferior rectus muscle

moves the eye in the direction indicated by the muscle name. However, neither the superior nor the inferior rectus muscle pulls directly parallel to the long axis of the eyeball; thus, both muscles also move the eye slightly in the medial direction. So, the superior rectus muscles move the eyes superiorly and medially, while the inferior rectus muscles move the eyes inferiorly and medially

Unicellular exocrine glands produce

mucin

4 main tunics & their default patterns

mucosa (typically lined with simple columnar epithelium) submucosa muscularis (typically formed from 2 layers of smooth muscle) adventitia or serosa.

Circular folds are composed of & fxn

mucosa and submucosa. increase the surface area of the small intestine, allowing more nutrients to be absorbed and they slow down the movement of chyme to ensure that it remains wi the small intestine for maximal nutrient villi fingerlike projections of mucosa, that further increase the surface area for secretion and absorption. Microvilli are apical membrane surface folds that increase the absorptive and secretory surface of each cell

In addition to humidifying and warming inhaled air, the ___lining the paranasal sinuses provides protective functions typical of all such tissues.

mucous epithelium

Pseudostratified epithelium appearance

multilayered, stratified, bc the cells' nuclei are distributed at different levels bw the apical & basal surfaces. Although all of these epithelial cells are attached to the basement membrane, some of the cells do not reach its apical surface

Individual skeletal muscle cells are known as

muscle fibers

Reflexes are rapid, automatic, involuntary reactions of

muscles or glands to a stimulus. Conscious movements are usually somewhat slower and not as predictable as reflexes

The arches of the foot prevent

muscles, nerves, and blood vessels that supply the inferior surface of the foot from being squeezed between the metatarsals and the ground. In addition, the segmented structure of the foot can best support the weight of the body if the foot is arched, much like the strength exhibited in the arch of a bridge

In the sliding filament mechanism, crossbridges are large

myosin heads that bind to active sites on a thin filament

During development, the ______of a somite skeletal muscle.

myotome

Of the 3 pairs of scroll-like ___located in the lateral walls of the nasal cavity, only the inferior pair are separate bones.

nasal conchae

The proximal row of tarsal bones includes which of the following?

navicular bone, talus, and calcaneus

The annular ligament surrounds the

neck of the radius and binds the proximal head of the radius to the ulna. The annular ligament helps hold the head of the radius in place

In an adult, cells that have the longest Go phase

nerve cells

Ectoderm gives rise to

nervous system, the epidermis skin, and epidermal derivatives such s hair and nails

The components of the cranial and spinal nerves form from

neural crest cells

Individual axons in the PNS are surrounded by

neurolemmocytes and then wrapped in a delicate layer of loose ct called the endoneurium. Groups of axons are wrapped into bundles of nerve fascicles, by a cellular ct layer the perineurium. All of the fascicles are bundled together by a superficial dense irregular ct covering termed the epineurium

The inductive process that transforms a flat layer of ectodermal cells into a hollow nervous system tube is called

neurulation

Association areas integrate

new sensory inputs w memories of past experiences. Motor & sensory regions of the cortex are connected to adjacent association areas that process & interpret incoming data or coordinate a motor response

Thick skin contains

no hair follicles or sebaceous glands

Cell is placed in an isotonic medium

no net movement of water

ECM extracellular matrix

non-cellular 3D macromolecular network, scaffolding composed of collagens, proteoglycans/ glycosaminoglycans, elastin, fibronectin, laminins, & glycoproteins. Matrix components bind each other as well as cell adhesion receptors forming a complex network into which cells reside in all tissues & organs.

Planar joints are

nonaxial joints where the flat articular surfaces permit gliding movements. The intercarpal and intertarsal joints are examples. Ball-and-socket joints have a rounded bone end that fits into a cup-shaped bony socket. This joint permits almost all movements except rotation. Examples are the glenohumeral and coxal joints

Rigor mortis demonstrates that skeletal muscle tissue

normally requires energy to end as well as to start a contraction can survive & fxn for some time after the heart stops beating, muscle maintains powerful contractions even w no ATP, until autolysis occurs

The preganglionic neurons in the parasympathetic division are housed within

nuclei in the brainstem or within the gray matter of spinal cord segments S2-S4

The large intestine's tunica mucosa contains

numerous goblet cells that produce large quantities of mucin to continue lubricating the undigested material as it passes through the GI tract

As the literal translation of the name implies ("to occlude"), in life the ______is covered by a sheet of collagen fibers for the attachment of muscles and visceral structures

obturator foramen

Which of the following form through a combination of intramembranous and endochondral ossification?

occipital and temporal bones

The atlas articulates with which structures?

occipital condyles

Each temporal bone articulates with the

occipital, zygomatic, sphenoid, and parietal bones, and the mandible.

All of the following are unique features of cardiac muscle except

occurs only in the myocardium is both striated and involuntary contains intercalated dises

Cranial nerves involved in cranial Parasympathetic division of the ANS include

oculomotor (CN III) facial (CN VII) glossopharyngeal (CN IX) vagus (CN X)

Receptor molecules in olfactory hairs bind to

odor molecules dissolved in the mucus lining the olfactory epithelium of the nasal cavity. The olfactory neurons (receptor cells) project axons through the cribriform plate into the paired olfactory bulbs lying inferior to the frontal lobes of the brain. These axons synapse on neurons in the olfactory bulbs, which then project axon bundles through the olfactory tracts directly to the olfactory cortex in the temporal lobe

Skin repair processes take longer to complete in aged individuals because

of the reduced number and activity of stem cells

Late ventricular diastole is a continuation

of ventricular relaxation. The AV valve opens, & passive filling of the ventricle from the atria begins

Osmosis defined as the movement

of water molecules across a membrane from an area of ↑concentration to an area of ↓ con -centration

Sebaceous glands secrete an

oily, waxy substance calle sebum

The posterior surface depression at

olecranon fossa.

Ribs are elongated, curved, flattened bones that originate

on or bw thoracic vertebrae & end in the wall of the thoracic cavity. first 7 pairs of ribs, the true ribs, connect individually to the sternum by costal cartilage. pairs 8-12 are called false ribs bc they do not connect directly to the sternum. pairs 8-10 have costal cartilages that connect to the costal cartilage of rib pair 7. pairs 11 & 12, are floating ribs bc they have no connection to the sternum

Induction is the process whereby

one structure or tissue influences the development of another structure or tissue

in a skeletal muscle fiber, a triad is composed of

one transverse tubule and two terminal cisternae.

How many motor end plates does a typical skeletal muscle fiber contain?

only one

Ovulation

oocytes is the release of the secondary oocyte from a vesicular follicle

Valves assist in the movement of blood bc they only

open one way, so blood is pushed thru them but can't flow back. This prevents pooling of the blood in the limbs & backflow of blood in the veins. In addition to the venous valves, many deep veins pass bw skeletal muscle groups. As the skeletal muscles contract, they help pump the blood toward the heart.

In decussation, an axon crosses over to the

opposite side of the CNS somewhere along its length. Thus, sensory information from the right side of the body is processed by the left side of the brain, and vice versa

extrinsic muscles of the tongue

originate on head & neck structures & insert on the tongue (1) The left & right genioglossus muscles originate on the mandible and protract when you stick out your tongue. (2) The left and right styloglossus muscles originate on the styloid processes of the temporal bone These muscles elevate and retract the tongue (pull the tongue back into the mouth). (3) The left and right hyoglossus muscles originate at the hyoid bone and depress and flatten the tongue. (4) The left and right palatoglossus muscles originate on the soft palate and elevate the posterior portion of the tongue

Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium lines the

oropharynx because this epithelium is strong enough to withstand the abrasion of swallowed food

Between the ages of 13 and 15 years, the ilium, ischium, and pubis fuse to form the

os coxae of the pelvic girdle The three bones that form the os coxae all contribute a portion to the acetabulum. Thus, the acetabulum represents region where these bones have fused.

Trophoblast

outer layer of the blastocyst that attaches to the wall of the uterus at implantation

Epicardium

outermost heart layer & known as the visceral layer of serous pericardium Internal surface of the heart & the external surfaces of the heart valves are covered by a thin endothelium called the endocardium

The first cervical vertebra, the atlas, lacks a spinous process and a vertebral body. It has depressed,

oval superior articular facets that articulate w the occipital condyles of the occipital bone (atlanto-occipital joint) & permit nodding the head "yes." The 2nd cervical vertebra, the axis, has a prominent odontoid process (the fused body of the atlas). It rests in the articular facet of the atlas & is held in place by a transverse ligament. The movement at this joint (the atlanto-axial joint) permits shaking the head "no."

Lymphatic nodules are

oval-shaped clusters of lymphatic cells & some extracellular ct matrix that are not completely surrounded by a ct capsule. The germinal center (pale color) of a lymphatic nodule, contains proliferating B lymphocytes & macrophages. T-lymphocytes are located outside the germinal center. Individually, a lymphatic nodule is small. Sometimes lymphatic nodules group together, forming larger structures such as mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT) or tonsils

Golgi apparatus

packages, and sorts

The subcutaneous layer fxn

pads and protects the body and body parts, acts as an energy reservoir in the form of stored adipose connective tissue, and provides thermal insulation

Most of the hard palate is formed by

palatine processes of the maxillae. The posterior portion of the hard palate is formed by the horizontal plate of each palatine bone

Which of the following layers contains areolar connective tissue and dermal papillae?

papillary layer

Among the patterns of fascicle arrangements ______muscles can move their tendons farther but ______muscles of the same size are stronger

parallel; pennate

The ethmoid, fronta, maxillary, and sphenoid bones of the skull contain the

paranasal sinuses

Accommodation controlled by

parasympathetic division of the ANS Stimulation of the ciliary muscle causes it to contract. Ciliary muscle contracts, the entire ciliary body moves anteriorly & thus closer to the lens itself. This reduces the tension in the suspensory ligaments & releases some of their "pull" on the lens, so the lens can become more spherical

Chief cells produce

parathyroid hormone(PTH). Fxn of oxyphils is unknown

Somites develop from

paraxial mesoderm

parietal & visceral layers of the heart

parietal layer of serous pericardium is a serous membrane that lines the inner surface of the fibrous pericardium, which supports the heart in the mediastinum. visceral laver of serous pericardium (epicardium) is a serous membrane that covers the outside of the heart. Together, both layers produce serous fluid in the pericardial cavity to ↓ friction as the heart moves during beating

The large, fan-shaped muscle that closes the mouth is attached to the ___ bone & the ___of the mandible.

parietal; coronoid process

The cribriform foramina in the ethmoid bone provide

passageways for the olfactory nerves from the nasal cavity into the cranial cavity on their way to the brain.

The bony portion of the nasal septum is formed by the

perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone and vomer.

All processes of moving materials across the membrane

passive or active transport

Osmosis

passive transport by which water diffuses from one side of the selectively permeable membrane to the other side of the membrane

Esophageal tunics differ from the default tunic pattern in that

pattern mucosa has a stratified squamous epithelium and the muscularis is composed of a mixture of skeletal and smooth muscle

Together, the ___form most of the border of the pelvic inlet.

pectineal and arcuate lines

Pelvic diaphragm muscles form

pelvic floor & support the pelvic viscera. Muscles include the coccygeus, the external anal sphincter, & the levator ani (iliococcygeus, pubococcygeus, & puborectalis)

The axial skeleton includes all but which of the following components? skull vertebral column pelvic girdle thoracic cage

pelvic girdle

Acrosome cap facilitates

penetration of the corona radiata at fertilization

Arrangement of tendons & fascicles in a ______muscle resembles the structure of a feather

pennate

3 chemical classes of hormones

peptide hormones, steroid hormones, & biogenic

The uterine wall is composed of

perimetrium, myometrium, and endometrium. outer perimetrium is a serous membrane that becomes continuous w the broad ligament. myometrium is the thick middle tunic formed from 3 intertwining layers of smooth muscle. innermost tunic is the endometrium, a mucosal membrane composed of a simple columnar epithelium and an underlying lamina propria filled w compound tubular glands that enlarge during the uterine (menstrual) cycle

The ______is the surface anatomic region corresponding to the ______bounded by the coccyx, ischial tuberosities, and inferior border of the pubic symphysis

perineum; pelvic outlet

Inferior most serous membrane

peritoneum

Muscles used as food enters the pharynx,

pharyngeal constrictors (superior, middle, & inferior) contract to initiate swallowing & force the bolus into the esophagus

Retinal cell layers

photoreceptors, bipolar cells, & ganglionic cells Photoreceptors include the visual receptor cells called rods & cones, which detect incoming light. Rods & cones converge to synapse on the bipolar cells BiPolar cells Neuronal convergence continues as bipolar neurons transmit information about stimulated rods & cones to ganglionic neurons. Ganglionic Axons of the ganglionic neurons form the optic nerve, conducts visual information to the brain

Electrical synapses permit direct

physical contact between presynaptic and postsynaptic cells. They are connected by a gap junction, which allows ion flow between the cells. In a chemical synapse, the most common type in humans, a neurotransmitter passes between the presynaptic and postsynaptic cells

CT Connective tissue functions

physical protection, support & structural framework, binding of structures, storage, transport, & immune protection

Connective tissue functions include

physical protection, support and structural framework, binding of structures, storage, transport, and immune protection

glial cells fxn

physically protect and isolate the neurons, provide an organized supporting framework for all the nervous tissue, and contribute some immune protection to neurons

Types of Endocytosis

pinocytosis & phagocytosis

Infundibulum connects

pituitary gland to the hypothalamus.

Hypothalamus directly influences release of

pituitary hormones

Cavities that surround organs but technically do not really contain them

pleural, pericardial, & peritoneal

The cervical plexuses are located deep

plexuses are located deep on each side of the neck immediately lateral to cervical vertebrae Ci-C4 Branches of the cervical plexuses innervate the anterior neck muscles as well as the skin of the neck and portions of the head and shoulders

Autonomic respiratory centers in the pons

pneumotaxic and apneustic centers

In each meiotic division of oogenesis, one of the daughter cells receives most of the cytoplasm while the other forms a

polar body

The alar plates develop into the

posterior horns of the gray matter as well as the posterior part of the gray commissure

Pineal gland location

posterior region of the epithalamus

Epithalamus forms the

posterior roof of the diencephalon and covers the third ventricle. The posterior region of the epithalamus houses the pineal gland. It secretes melatonin, a hormone that helps regulate circadian rhythms

Posterior root ganglion is attached to

posterior root and each posterior root ganglion is located medial to the pedicles of the adjacent vertebrae. The cell bodies of the sensory neurons in the posterior root are located in a posterior root ganglion

Trigone is a posteroinferior triangular area of the

posteroinferior urinary bladder wall It is formed by imaginary lines connecting the 2 posterior ureteral openings & the anterior urethral opening. Bc the trigone remains immovable during shape changes as the urinary bladder fills & evacuates, it funnels urine into the urethra as the bladder wall contracts to evacuate the stored urine

Implantation marks the end of the ___stage of development .

pre- embryonic

Tissues

precise organizations of similar cells that perform specialized functions

Lines of cleavage indicate the

predominant direction of the underlying bundles of collagen fibers. They are medically important because surgical incisions should be made parallel to these lines to promote faster healing and less scarring.

Human chorionic gonadotropin ( hCG ) from the syncytiotrophoblast serves to

prevent menstruation that would end the pregnancy allow early detection of pregnancy in modern diagnostic tests

Muscle fiber is at rest, tropomyosin

prevents the interactions bw thin and thick filaments. Tropomyosin is a double-helical protein that covers the active sites for myosin on the individual actin molecules, thus preventing the actin-myosin interaction necessary for contraction of a muscle

Bronchial tree structures, from largest to smallest,

primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, smaller bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles

Implantation of the blastocyst involves all of the following except

prior development for at least two weeks within the uterine lumen

Supination is to lateral rotation as_______is to medial rotation .

pronation

Which special movement crosses the radius and ulna so that the palm faces posteriorly?

pronation

Phases of mitosis

prophase- > metaphase- > anaphase- > telophase

3 parts of the male urethra, from its origin to its point of exit from the body, are the

prostatic urethra, the membranous urethra, and the spongy urethra

RER functions

protein synthesis, storage, & transport

corpus callosum fxn

provides the main means by which communication occurs between the cerebral hemispheres. Commissural fiber tracts extend between the hemispheres through the corpus callosum

Pulmonary circuit & systemic of the

pulmonary circuit chambers on the Rt side of the heart(Rt atrium & ventricle) , pulmonary arteries & veins, It carries blood to & from the lungs. systemic circuit consists of the chambers on the Lt side of the heart (Lt atrium & ventricle), along w all the other named blood vessels. It carries blood to all the organs and tissues of the body

Septal cells secrete

pulmonary surfactant onto the alveolar surface. This material helps reduce surface tension to prevent the collapse of the small air sacs

An example of a withdrawal reflex is

quickly pulling the arm away after touching something hot.

The main supporting ligaments of the elbow joint are the

radial (lateral) collateral ligament, which stabilizes the lateral surface of the joint, and the ulnar (medial) collateral ligament, which stabilizes the medial surface of the joint. In addition, the anular ligament holds the head of the radius in place

In terms of relative lateromedial position , the ___of the forearm corresponds to the ___leg.

radius; fibula

Atrophy

reduction in muscle size, tone, and power

Atrophy is a

reduction in muscle size, tone, and power that occurs when a skeletal muscle experiences markedly reduced stimulation. The muscle becomes flaccid, and its fibers decrease in size and become weaker. Causes of muscle atrophy include any situation or condition that causes a muscle to be used little or not at all, such as paralysis or wearing a cast.,

Pulmonary ventilation

refers to the movement of air into and out of the respiratory tract, and is also known as breathing

The anterior sternoclavicular ligament, the posterior sternoclavicular ligament, the costoclavicular ligament, and the interclavicular ligament all limit the

relative movement of the clavicle

Proteins synthesized by free ribosomes

remain wi the cell & fxn for cellular activities

Muscle tone

resting tension in a skeletal muscle. Random stimulation of motor units maintains this resting tension

Although you are not likely to see them, many fixed macrophages and fibroblasts reside in connective tissue.

reticular

The triangle of auscultation is formed by the

rhomboid major, trapezius, and latissimus dorsi muscles. Whern an individual flexes the back, this triangle becomes larger and respiratory sounds may be easily heard through a stethoscope rather than being muffled by the muscles

Nucleoli makes

ribosomal RNA and proteins

Which ribs articulate with only one thoracic vertebra each?

ribs 1 and 10-12

The articulation between the left and right parietal bones is the

sagittal suture

Cell membrane of a muscle fiber

sarcolemma

The plasma membrane of a skeletal muscle fiber is called the

sarcolemma.

Fxnal contractile units of a skeletal muscle fiber

sarcomeres

What actually shortens when a muscle fiber contracts?

sarcomeres, H zones, & I bands

Levator elevates the

scapula

The bony enclosure that houses the pituitary gland is the

sella turcica

Cardinal system of veins

series of paired veins Anterior cardinal veins develop into the veins of the head & neck & veins superior to the heart

The patella is the largest and most consistently present ___bone, but two tiny ones also occur regularly at the head of the first metatarsal in the foot.

sesamoid

In a converging circuit, a single postsynaptic neuron receives input from

several presynaptic neurons. In a parallel-after-discharge circuit, several neurons or neuronal pools process the same information at one time A single presynaptic neuron stimulates different groups of neurons, each of which passes the nerve impulse along a pathway that ultimately synapses with a common postsynaptic cell

If cells destined to become paraxial mesoderm were destroyed

severe abnormalities in the development of most of the embryo's musculature dermis, cartilage, & connective tissue would occur

Puberty is the time in an adolescent's life when external

sex characteristics become more prominent and the reproductive organs become fully functional

Distension of the bladder due to filling activates

stretch receptors in the bladder, which signal the micturition center and stimulate the micturition reflex

Smooth muscle is composed of

short muscle fibers that have a fusiform shape and a single, centrally located nucleus. Although smooth muscle fibers have both thick and thin filaments, they are not precisely aligned, so no striations or sarcomeres are visible. Dense bodies are small concentrations of protein scattered throughout the sarcoplasm of the smooth muscle fiber and on the inner face of the sarcolemma. Thin filaments are attached to dense bodies by elements of the cytoskeleton

During the contraction of a muscle fiber, myofibrils

shorten.

Joint permits that permits greatest range of motion

shoulder

RBC placed in a hypertonic medium will

shrink

A microscopic slide, you see a sheet of tissue one cell thick, lining an open space. The tissue most likely is

simple epithelium

Telophase

single-stranded chromosomes arrive at each pole of the cell; the mitotic spindle breaks up; and new nucleoli appear

Anaphase

sister chromatids are pulled apart & begin to move toward opposite sides of the cell.

NMJ neuromuscular junction is the

site where the membrane of a motor neuron fiber & the sarcolemma of the skeletal muscle fiber meet. Ends of the nerve fibers are synaptic terminals. Ea synaptic terminal overlies a region of the skeletal muscle fiber membrane called the motor end plate. Chemical communication bw the synaptic terminal of the neuron & the motor end plate of the skeletal muscle fiber occurs at the neuromuscular junction

3 types of muscle tissue

skeletal, cardiac, and smooth

The surgeon must cut through which parts to reach the cerebral cortex

skin, external periosteum, occipital bone of the cranium, the dura mater (1st the periosteal layer & then the meningeal layer), arachnoid, the pia mater, and a glial cell

terms of abilty to produce ATP, cardiac muscle fibers are most like

slow skeletal muscle fibers

Dendrites are usually

small & branching, they may be quite numerous. Most neurons have only a single axon, and it may be very long

Will pass thru a cell membrane most easily

small nonpolar molecules

We do not have voluntary control over

smooth muscle

ANS innervates

smooth muscle fibers, cardiac muscle fibers, & glands

ACh receptor sites are not occupied

sodium channels remain closed

After the primitive streak forms

some cells immediately move thru it, & the *Notochord* forms from the *Mesoderm* called *Chordamesoderm*. The *Notochord* induces the information of the nervous system.

Unlike oogonia, ___always divide first by mitosis before undergoing meiosis

spermatogonia

Which cranial bone articulates with every other cranial bone?

sphenoid

In the posterior midline of the vertebral arch, the ___projects posteriorly from the right left laminae.

spinous process

2 forms of bone tissue

spongy bone & compact bone

Abduction at the digits of the hand would involve

spreading the fingers.

New epidermal cells come from

stem cells in the stratum basale; new dermal cells come from mesenchymal cells

The pectoral girdle articulates with the axial skeleton only at the

sternal end of the dlavide

Of the following joints, which are partitioned into two parts by an articular disc, creating two separate synovial cavities (essentialy, two joints in one)?

sternoclavicular and temporomandibular

Vitamin D (cholecalciferol) is synthesized from a

sterol by some epidermal cells when exposed to ultraviolet radiation.

The left costal margin covers the

stomach and the spleen. The right costal margin covers the liver and the gallbladder

Gallbladder

stores & concentrates excess bile produced by the liver. Bile is a yellow-green fluid produced by hepatocytes; its primary digestive fxn is to aid in the emulsification of fat

The layer of the epidermis in which cells begin the process of keratinization is the

stratum granulosum.

Perivascular feet of astrocytes completely ensheathe capillary walls to

strictly control the substances from the blood that reach neurons in the brain

Intercalated discs

strong gap junctions bw neighboring cardiac muscle cells. They permit the rapid transport of an electrical stimulus (muscle impulse) thru many cardiac muscle cells at once, allowing the entire muscle wall to contract as a unit.

Gross or macroscopic anatomy

study of the structure & relation- ships of lg body parts that are visible wo a microscope

The two prominent bumps you can palpate on the sides of your wrist are the

styloid processes of the radius and ulna.

Both upper & lower limbs are supplied by a main arterial vessel

subclavian artery for the upper limb femoral artery for the lower limb The artery bifurcates at the elbow or knee. Arterial and venous arches are found in both the hand and the foot. Finally, both the upper limb and the lower limb have a superficial and deep network of veins

Rotator cuff muscles

subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, & teres minor

Basal plates lie anterior to the

sulcus limitans. The basal plates develop into the anterior and lateral horns of the gray matter, and thus they give rise to motor structures in the gray matter. They also form the anterior part of the gray commissure

Iliac crest forms the

superior border of each buttock The gluteal cleft separates the buttocks into two prominences. The inferior border of the gluteus maximus forms the fold of each buttock

Tectum in the midbrain contains

superior colliculi (visual reflex center) and the inferior colliculi (auditory reflex center)

The trochlear nerve supplies the

superior oblique muscles, which move the eyeball inferiorly and laterally

The pelvic inlet is the

superior opening enclosed by the pelvic brim. The pelvic outlet is the inferior opening bounded by the coccyx, the ischial tuberosities, and the inferior border of the pubic symphysis

The false pelvis lies

superior to the pelvic brim. It is enclosed by the ala of the iliac bones. It forms the inferior region of the abdominal cavity and houses abdominal organs

Calf anatomical name

sural

5 types of epithelial cells in the stomach are

surface mucous cells, mucous neck cells, parietal cells, chief cells, and enteroendocrine cells

Muscles of facial expression originate on the

surface of the skull

The "muscular system" includes muscies in which of these locations?

surrounding the orbit

The denticulate ligaments help

suspend and anchor the spinal cord within the middle of the vertebral canal, thus preventing potential lateral displacement of the spinal cord.

There are three types of synarthroses:

suture (fibrous joint between skull bones), a gomphosis (fibrous joint between tooth and jaw), and a synchondrosis (cartilaginous joint where a pad of a hyaline cartilage connects the bones)

The word root xiphos most nearly means

sword

Cartilage always connects two bones within a ______but a single length of cartilage may form a ______ at one end and a different kind of joint at the other

symphysis; synchondrosis

Expanded tip of an axon at a NMJ

synaptic knob

3 functional classes of joints

synarthroses, amphiarthroses, diarthroses

Suture and gomphosis are to synarthrosis as______ is to amphlarthrosis

syndesmosis

The muscle that assists the prime mover is called the

synergist.

An epiphyseal line is most similar to a

synostosis

Bursae are fibrous, saclike structures that are lined by a synovial membrane and contain

synovial fluid

Synovial fluid is produced by the

synovial membrane, which is the inner layer of the articular capsule

Which of these joints permits dorsiflexion and plantar flexion?

talocrural

Of all the tarsals, the only one that articulates

talus

Cells that respond to a specific hormone are called

target cells

Each of the following selections names only planar synovial joints except

tarsometatarsal and carpometacarpal joints

Rate of diffusion is affected by

temperature, size of molecules, steepness of the concentration gradient

The mand ble articulates with the ___bone

temporal

Which of the following sets includes only synovial joints that contain fibrocartilage within their articular capsule

temporomandibular, glenohumeral, and knee

The bundle of dense regular connective tissue that attaches a skeletal muscle to bone is called a(n)

tendon.

The retinacula hold

tendons close to the bone and prevent them from "bowstringing" outward

Ciliary muscles in the ciliary body contract to change the

tension in the suspensory ligaments. When the ciliary muscles relax, the ciliary body moves posteriorly, away from the lens, and so the tension on the suspensory ligaments increases. Constant tension applied to the suspensory ligaments causes the lens to flatten so that we can focus on distant objects. The process of making the lens more spherical in order to view close-up objects is called accommodation. It is controlled by the parasympathetic division of the ANS. Stimulation of the ciliary muscle by parasympathetic axons causes the muscle to contract. When the ciliary muscle contracts, the entire ciliary body moves anteriorly and thus moves closer to the lens itself. This process allows for reduction in the tension of the suspensory ligaments and a release of some of their "pull" on the lens, so the lens can become more spherical

In the axial skeleton, centers of ossification are readily observable by which week of development?

tenth

Synarthrosis is the

term that describes an immovable oint.

Ganglia in the parasympathetic division are called

terminal ganglia or intramural ganglia Terminal ganglia are located near the organ being innervated Intramural ganglia are wi the wall of the target organ

Cremaster muscle & cremasteric fascia surround

testes & spermatic cord. When the testes are exposed to ↑ temperatures, the skin of the scrotal sac becomes thin as a result of dartos relaxation. At the same time, the cremaster muscle relaxes to permit the testes to move inferiorly away from the body

An overdose of cholinesterase inhibitors could produce effects most similar to those of

tetanus

Interneurons are housed entirely within

the CNS They process, store, and retrieve information, and "decide" how the body responds to stimuli

After cytokinesis, cell enters

the G1 phase

Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles that arise from

the Golgi apparatus

What happens in the most severe form of shoulder separation?

the acromioclavicular joint is completely dislocated and a ligament is torn

Spindle axis

the actual structure that homologues bind to

In a monosynaptic reflex,

the afferent sensory axons synapse directly on the motor neurons, whose axons project to the effector. Interneurons do not function in this type of reflex. More complex neural pathways are observed in polysynaptic reflexes, which have a number of synapses involving interneurons within the reflex arc

Astrocytes are the most numerous and largest glial cells in the CNS. They help form

the blood-brain barrier, regulate tissue fluid composition, strengthen and reinforce the nervous tissue in the CNS, replace damaged neurons, and assist with neuronal development.

In the inner ear are spaces called the

the bony labyrinth Wi the bony labyrinth are membrane-lined, fluid filled tubes & spaces, called the membranous labyrinth. Receptors for equilibrium & hearing are housed, along w supporting cells, wi a sensory epithelium lining part of the membranous labvrintlh

Metaphase

the chromosomes line up along the equatorial plate; the mitotic spindle is completely formed

Pectoral girdle & the pelvic girdle consist of

the clavicle and the scapula. Each pectoral girdle supports one upper limb and provides attachment sites for many muscles that move the limb. The pelvic girdle is composed of right and left ossa coxae only, whereas the pelvis consists of the ossa coxae, the sacrum, and the coccyx. The pelvis protects and supports the viscera in the inferior part of the ventral body cavity

Major cavities of the skull are

the cranial cavity, orbits, oral cavity, nasal cavity, and paranasal sinuses

The rate of nerve impulse conduction is influenced by

the diameter of the axon and the presence (or absence) of a myelin sheath

When sugar is mixed w water, equilibrium is reached when

the dissolved sugar molecules are evenly distributed throughout the solution

Which of the following must occur bw the 1st phase of fertlization & zygote formation

the egg completes melosis I

Which body structures develop from ectoderm?

the epidermis, epidermal derivatives, and nervous system tissue

Menarche

the first menstrual cycle, is the culmination female sexual development during puberty. On average, the onset of menarche occurs at age 11-12

Anterior compartment of the arm contains

the forearm flexors (biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis) Anterior compartment contains the coracobrachialis, & flexes the arm. Posterior compartment of the arm contains the forearm extensors (anconeus & triceps brachii)

Infundibulum

the free, funnel-shaped, lateral margin of the uterine tube. It has numerous fingerlike folds called fimbriae that enclose the ovary only at ovulation. The ampulla is the dilated region of the uterine tube medial to the infundibulum. The isthmus, extending medially from the ampulla toward the lateral wall of the uterus, constitutes about two-thirds of the uterine tube. The interstitial segment extends medially from the isthmus and pierces the wall of the uterus

The seven bones that form the orbit are

the frontal & sphenoid bones form the roof of the orbit; the maxilla & palatine bones form the floor of the orbit; the lacrimal & ethmoid bones form the medial wall of the orbit; the zygomatic, sphenoid, & frontal bones that form the lateral wall of the orbit & sphenoid also forms the posterior wall of the orbit.

The muscles that extend the thigh

the gluteus maximus, biceps femoris, semimembranosus, and semitendinosus

Tensor fasciae latae acts synergistically w

the gluteus medius & gluteus minimus

Autorhythmic means that

the heart itself (not external nerves) is responsible for initiating the heartbeat

Muscles and ligaments form the only connections between

the hyoid bone and other skeletal structures

The primary ligaments that support the hip joint are

the iliofemoral ligament, ischiofemoral ligament, and pubofemoral ligament. The ligament of the femoral head (ligamentum teres) provides minimal support.

Soft keratin is flexible, and it occurs in

the loosely arranged cells in the medulla of the hair. Flattened cells closer to the surface form the hard cortex and contain hard keratin

Colloid is a viscous, protein-rich fluid housed wi

the lumen of the thyroid follicle

Hyaline cartilage & Fibrocartilage location & function

the nose, trachea, larynx (voice box), costal cartilage (the cartilage attached to the ribs), particular ends of long bones, and the fetal skeleton. Fxns to support soft tissue; forms most of the fetal skeleton & thus functions model for future bone growth resists compression and is a good shock absorber. It is found in the intervertebral discs, the pubic symphysis, and the menisci of the knee joint. Elastic cartilage is extremely resilient and flexible. It is found within the epiglottis and in the external ear

For any given muscle, the total force exerted by a contraction depends on

the number of activated motor units

The parietal, temporal, and sphenoid bones, and the first cervical vertebra (the atlas) articulate with

the occipital bone

The GI tract includes

the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine

Within the shaft of the penis are 3 cylinders of erectile tissue

the paired corpora cavernosa & single corpus spongiosum

The costal groove along the inferior border of the internal surface of a rib marks

the path of nerves and blood vessels

Melanocytes produce

the pigment melanin, which surrounds the nucleus and absorbs UV light before it can harm nuclear DNA

Embryogenesis refers to the same period of time as the

the prenatal period the gestation period & pregnancy

If the sense of touch is impaired,

the primary somatosensory cortex of the parietal lobe may be damaged

Prophase

the replicated DNA in chromatin supercoils into chromosomes (duplicated chromosome is composed of 2 sister chromatids) the nucleolus breaks down & disappears; microtubules form from centrioles that move to opposite sides of the cell; & the nuclear envelope disappears.

Negative feedback loop

the result of a process acts back at an earlier step in the process to slow down or turn off the process

Most of the stability at the glenohumeral joint is provided by the

the rotator cuff muscles (infraspinatus, subscapularis, supraspinatus, and teres minor) and their associated tendons

3 regions of the axial skeleton

the skull, the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage

Bone, muscle, cartilage, dermis, & body connective tissues are derived from

the somites

The iliac crests are at the same level as

the spinous process of the L4 vertebra

Tilting of the head due to either acceleration or deceleration causes

the statoconic membrane to shift its position on the macula surface, resulting in distortion of the stereocilia. Bending of the stereocilia results in the sending of impulses to the brain indicating that the head has tilted

The most plausible explanation for the smoker's cough that develops when the tracheal epithelium changes from pseudostratified columnar to stratified squamous that

the stratified squamous epithelium has no cilia to remove accumulating mucus

Glial cells are

the supporting cells in nervous tissue

The area between the pre-synaptic nerve cell and the post- synaptic muscle cell is termed

the synaptic cleft.

The lunula has a whitish appearance because

the underlying stratum basale is thick enough to prevent any coloration from showing through from the underlying vascular tissue

Talocrural (ankle) joint joint articulates w

tibia, fibula, and talus

Muscles responsible for foot inversion

tibialis anterior & tibialis posterior

Sperm do not reach the secondary oocyte if

they leak from the vagina, are destroyed by the acidity of the vaginal environment, are unable to swim, lose direction as they move thru the uterus, or undergo the acrosome reaction before reaching the secondary oocyte

When myoepithelial cells contract,

they squeeze the gland and help discharge its secretions

The hamstring muscles extend the

thigh and flex the leg.

Muscle fiber contracts, it slides toward the center of each sarcomere

thin filaments of actin

Embryo is especially susceptible to teratogens because

this is the period when organogenesis occurs.

Which vertebrae articulate with the ribs?

thoracic

The muscle of respiration that separates the

thoracic and abdominal cavities is the diaphragm. The structure to which all diaphragm muscle fibers converge is the central tendon

The primary, or accommodation, curves of the vertebral column are the curves

thoracic and sacral

Dimensional changes of the thoracic cavity

thoracic cavity becomes larger when you inhale and smaller when you exhale. Vertical dimensionsl changes, Diaphragm contracts during inhalation, & relaxes and is brought back to its original position during exhalation. Lateral dimensional changes, during inhalation when the ribs are elevated. External intercostals elevate the ribs in general, while the scalenes elevate rib 1 & 2 specifically during inhalation. During normal exhalation, the ribs are brought back to original position by relaxation of the external intercostals & scalenes. However, the internal intercostals depress the ribs during forced exhalation. anterior-posterior dimensional change occurs due to anterior movement of the inferior portion of the sternum during inhalation. During exhalation, the inferior portion of the sternum moves posteriorly and returns to its original position

Most ___vertebrae have a long spinous process that is angled inferiorly

thoracik

An AP enters a neuron

thru the T - tubules

All of the following develop from endoderm

thymus parathyroid glands most of the Iiver epithelial lining of the respiratory & GI tracts galibladder, pancreas, & thyroid gland

The deltoid ligament binds the

tibia to the foot on the medial side; it prevents overeversion of the foot. The multipart lateral ligament binds the fibula to the foot on the lateral side; it prevents overinversion of the foot. The lateral ligament is not as strong as the deltoid ligament, and is more prone to sprains and tears

Cellular differentiation causes a decrease in

totipotency

The annulus fibrosus is a

tough outer layer of fibrocartilage that covers each intervertebral disc and contains collagen fibers that attach the disc to the bodies of adjacent vertebrae. The nucleus pulposus is the soft, gelatinous core of the disk. It is composed of water, with some scattered reticular and elastic fibers The nucleus pulposus functions as a shock absorber and provides resilience to the intervertebral disc.

Epithelial cells whose apical surfaces are covered with microvilli are most kikely

transportation specialists located in the digestive or urinary tract sites of absorption and secretion

Fxns of the lymphatic system

transporting excess interstitial fluid back to the bloodstream transporting dietary lipids storing & assisting in lymphocyte development initiating an immune response

The trochlear notch of the ulna articulates with the

trochlea of the humerus

Which structure forms the proximomedial articular surface of the elbow joint?

trochleia

First 7 pairs of ribs are called

true ribs. At the anterior body wall, the true ribs connect individually to the sternum by separate cartilaginous extensions, the costal cartilages. Ribs 8-12 are called false ribs because they do not attach directly to the sternum

Uterine tube consists of

tube consists of a mucosa, a muscularis, and a serosa. The mucosa is formed fronm ciliated columnar epithelium and layer of connective tissue

Vessel layers

tunica intima the innermost layer. It has an endothelium & a thin laver of areolar ct. tunica media is the middle layer of the vessel wall. It has circularly arranged layers of smooth muscle cells tunica externa is the outermost laver, It has ct including elastic & collagen fibers

The pectoral girdle consists of

two components: the clavicle and the scapula

When does the cranium normally stop growing?

upon closure of the sutures

A tissue section containing successive layers of smooth muscle, connective tissue, and transitional epithelium could be from the wall of the

urinary bladder

Located in the Hypogastric area

urinary bladder location in the abdominopelvic region

Structures formed by the cloaca

urinary bladder, urethra, rectum, and anal canal

9. Friction ridges help

us grasp objects, and they increase friction so that items do not slip from our hands and our feet do not slip on the floor

Uterine artery, supplies

uterus & vagina, only found in females

Term is synonymous in humans but not in 4-legged animals

ventral, anterior

lymph flow from smallest to largest passage

vessels smallest in diameter are the lymphatic capillaries lymphatic capillaries, merge to form lymphatic vessels, form lymphatic trunks Lymphatic trunks drain into lymphatic ducts (the largest vessels in the body)

The visual association area processes

visual information and uses this information to identify things we see

An AP arriving at the presynaptic terminal causes

voltage-gated calcium ion channels to open, and calcium ons to diffuse into the cell

The inferior part of the nasal septum is formed by the

vomer

Components of saliva

water, electrolytes (excess salts such as sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate), immunoglobulin A (a class of secreted antibodies that inhibit bacterial growth), lingual lipase (a fat-digesting enzyme), lysozyme (an antibacterial enzyme), mucus, and salivary amylase (initiates chemical digestion of carbohydrates in the mouth)

Plasma is composed of

water, proteins, and other solutes (electrolytes, nutrients, respiratory gases, and waste products)

Which of the following would most likely contribute to pes planus, or flat feet?

weak ligaments connecting the metatarsals and calcaneus

The posterior, lateral, and anterior funiculi are in the

white matter of the spinal cord

The female pelvis typically has which of the following characteristics?

wide subpubic angle, greater than 100 degrees

In a convergent muscle, the fibers are

widespread over a broad area and joined at a common attachment site.

The last of the sternal components to ossify, & the one most likely to damage the, heart or liver if broken, is the

xiphoid process

Which set includes only bones of the face? ethmoid, maxilla, & inferior nasal concha zygomatic bone, mandible, & parietal bone palatine bone, maxilla, & occipital bone zygomatic bone, vomer, & palatine bone

zygomatic bone, vomer, and palatine bone

Effects of parasympathetic stimulation include

↑ secretion of digestive system glands ↑ motility (smooth muscle contraction /movement) digestive tract organs, stimulation of defecation, & coordination of urination, ↓ HR, pupil constriction, & erection of the penis or clitoris

Microvilli

↑ the outer surface area of the plasma membrane

Sequential contraction of the pharyngeal constrictors functions to

↓ the diameter of the pharvnx beginning at its superior end & moving toward its inferior end, thus forcing swallowed material toward the esophagus

Mitosis vs Meiosis

⛑Mitosis produces 2 daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. ⛑Meiosis produces 4 daughter cells that are genetically different from the parent cell. ⛑Mitosis produces diploid daughter cells (having 23 pairs of chromosomes), whereas Meiosis produces haploid daughter cells (having 23 chromosomes only). ⛑ In meiosis, a process called crossing over occurs, whereby genetic material is exchanged bw homologous chromosomes. Crossing over does not occur in mitosis

Perspiration or sweat

🌡Protein-free filtrate of blood plasma. Composed of water, w the remainder consisting of electrolytes metabolites, & waste products. 🌡Presence on the skin surface aids in thermoregulation & the loss of excess water & electrolytes. 🌡Sweat provides protection by diluting harmful chemicals. 🌡Insensible perspiration, process by which some interstitial fluids penetrate the epidermis & evaporate at the skin surface

Basal lamina contains

💉collagen fibers, protein & carbohydrate macromolecules that are secreted by the cells of the epithelium. 💉Cells in CT underlying the epithelium secrete the Reticular Amina, which contains protein fibers, protein, carbohydrate macromolecules. 💉These laminae form the basement membrane, which strengthens the attachment & forms a molecular barrier bw the epithelium & the CT lavers