MGMT 309 Exam IV Review

1. What is the path-goal theory?

Suggests that the primary function of a leader is to make valued or desired rewards available in the workplace and to clarify for the subordinate the kinds of behavior that will lead to goal accomplishment and valued rewards- this is, the leader should clarify the paths to goal attainment.

· Using power:

o Legitimate request: based on legitimate power. Subordinates must comply with the manager's request because of the organization giving the manager the right to make a request. o Instrumental compliance: based on reinforcement theory of motivation. Subordinates comply to get a reward the manager controls. o Coercion: self-explanatory. o Rational persuasion: Occurs when the manager can convince the subordinate that compliance is in the subordinate's best interests. o Personal identification: A manager who recognizes that they have referent power over a subordinate can shape the behavior of that subordinate by engaging in desired behaviors. o Inspirational appeal: A manager can induce a subordinate to induce a subordinate to do something consistent with a set of higher ideals or values. · Ill-advised use of power: o Information distortion: A manager may withhold or distort information to influence subordinates' behavior.

1. What is Herzberg's two-factor theory?

· A content perspective: suggests that people's satisfaction and dissatisfaction are influenced by two independent sets of factors- motivation factors and hygiene factors. o different kinds of factors—such as recognition or accomplishment—were cited as causing satisfaction and motivation. · Note that the factors influencing the satisfaction continuum—called motivation factors—are related specifically to the work content. The factors presumed to cause dissatisfaction—called hygiene factors—are related to the work environment. · Two stages in this process. o Managers must ensure hygiene factors are not deficient. o Stage 1: Pay and security must be appropriate, working conditions must be safe, technical supervision must be acceptable, and so on. § By providing hygiene factors at an appropriate level, managers do not necessarily stimulate motivation but merely ensure that employees are "not dissatisfied." Managers who usually just do this will get by. o Stage 2: Giving employees the opportunity to experience motivation factors- achievement and recognition. · Herberg highly recommended job enrichment. o Argues that jobs should be redesigned to give people higher levels of motivation factors. · Criticisms: o Initial interviews were subject to different explanations. o Was not representative of the general population.

1. What is an outcome valence?

· A part of the expectancy theory. o Each outcome of the expectancy theory has a valence- an index of how much a person values a particular outcome. § Positive valence: a person wants the outcome. § Negative valence: does not want the outcome. § Zero valence: a person is indifferent to the outcome. · For motivated behavior to occur, three conditions must be met. o Effort-to-performance expectancy must be greater than 0. o The performance-to-outcome expectancy must be greater than 0. o The sum of all valences must outcome must be greater than 0.

What is self-efficacy?

· A person's beliefs about his or her capabilities to perform a task. o High self-efficacy: people believe that they can perform well on a specific task. o Low self-efficacy: people tend to doubt their ability to perform a specific task. · Subtly related to locus of control. o Locus of control: the extent to which people believe that their behavior has a real effect on what happens to them.

1. What are the Ohio state studies?

· An extensive questionnaire suggested that there are two basic leader behaviors. o Initiating- structure behavior: the leader clearly defines the leader-subordinate role so that everyone knows what is expected, establishes formal lines of communication, and determines how tasks will be performed. o Consideration behavior: Leaders show concern for subordinates and try to establish a warm, friendly, and supportive climate. · There is one difference between the Ohio State studies and Michigan's. o Ohio State researchers did not interpret leader behavior as being one-dimensional; each behavior was assumed to be independent of the other. Presumably, then, a leader could exhibit varying levels of initiating structure and at the same time varying levels of consideration.

What is Machiavellianism?

· Behavior directed at gaining power and controlling the behavior of others. o Research suggests that Machiavellianism is a personality trait that varies from person to person. · More Machiavellian individuals tend to be rational and nonemotionally, may be willing to lie to attain their personal goals, may put little weight on loyalty and friendship, and may enjoy manipulating others' behavior. · Less Machiavellian individuals are more emotional, less willing to lie to succeed, value loyalty and friendship highly, and get little personal pleasure from manipulating others.

1. What are the stages of group development?

· Forming: is the first stage. The members of the group or team get acquainted and begin to test which interpersonal behaviors are acceptable and which are unacceptable to the other members. Members are dependent on other members for cues. Basic ground rules for the group or team are established, and a tentative group structure may emerge. · Storming: second stage, often slow to emerge. During this stage, there may be a lack of unity and uneven interaction patterns. At the same time, some members may become recognized as the leader or at least play a major role in shaping the group's agenda. · Norming: the third stage. Usually begins with a burst of activity. Each person begins to recognize and accept their role and to understand the roles of others. Members begin to accept one another and unity starts to form. There may also be regression to the previous stage. · Performing: final stage. Is also slow to develop. The team really begins to focus on the problem at hand. Members enact roles they have accepted, interaction occurs, and the efforts of the group are directed toward goal attainment. The structure of the group is no longer an issue.

1. What are the reasons why people join groups?

· Interpersonal interaction: people may choose to form informal or interest groups because they are attracted to one another. · Group activities: Individuals may be motivated to join a group because the activities of the group appeal to them. o i.e. jogging, bowling, poetry, fantasy football, etc. · Group goals: the goals of a group may motivate people to join. Workers join because they subscribe to its goal. o Ex. The Sierra Club, which is dedicated to environmental conservation, is an example of this kind of interest group. · Needs satisfaction: another reason for joining a group is to satisfy the need for affiliation. · Instrumental benefits: membership in a group is sometimes seen as instrumental in providing other benefits to the individual.

1. What is the LMX model?

· Leader-member exchange model: conceived by Geroge Green and Fred Dansereau, stresses the importance of variable relationships between leaders and each of their subordinates. o Each superior-subordinate pair is referred to as a "Vertical dyad". o "In group" a special relationship with a small number of trusted subordinates. § Subordinates may receive special privileges, autonomy, special duties, and more responsibility. o "out-group" receives less of the supervisor's time and attention.

1. What is ethical leadership?

· Most people have long assumed that top managers are ethical people. But in the wake of recent corporate scandals, faith in top managers has been shaken. Perhaps now more than ever, high standards of ethical conduct are being held up as a prerequisite for effective leadership. More specifically, top managers are being called on to maintain high ethical standards for their own conduct, to exhibit ethical behavior unfailingly, and to hold others in their organizations to the same standards. · The behaviors of top leaders are being scrutinized more than ever, and those responsible for hiring new leaders for a business are looking more and more closely at the background of those being considered. And the emerging pressures for stronger corporate governance models are likely to further increase commitment to selecting only those individuals with high ethical standards and to hold them more accountable than in the past for both their actions and the consequences of those actions.

1. What is affectivity?

· Positive affectivity: relatively upbeat and optimistic, have an overall sense of well-being, and usually see things in a positive light. · Negative affectivity: Usually downbeat and pessimistic, and usually sees things in a pessimistic way. · There can be fluctuation and short-term variation in affectivity even in the extreme type of individuals.

1. What are the various types of power?

· Power is the ability to affect the behavior of others. o Legitimate power: is the power granted through the organizational hierarchy; it is the power defined by the organization to be accorded to people occupying a particular position. § Manager and their subordinates. o Reward power: the power to give or withhold rewards. § A manager may control salary increases, bonuses, promotion recommendations, praise, recognition, and interesting job assignments. o Coercive power: the power to force compliance by means of psychological, emotional, or physical threat. § In most organizations today, coercion is limited to verbal reprimands, written reprimands, disciplinary layoffs, fines, demotion, and termination. Of course, some managers go further than that (abuse). o Referent power: is abstract. The personal power that accrues to someone based on identification, imitation, loyalty, or charisma. § Dick riders. § Usually intangible attributes that inspire loyalty and enthusiasm. o Expert power: derived from information of expertise.

1. What is the VROOM model?

· Predicts what kinds of situations call for different degrees of group participation. o Like the path-goal theory it also prescribes a leadership style appropriate to a given situation. o But only concerns itself with only a single aspect of leader behavior: subordinate participation in decision-making. · Basic Premises: o No one decision-making process is best for all situations. o Vroom suggests that managers use one of two different decision trees. o The manager must assess the situation in terms of several factors. § Decision significance. § Amount of time. § Situational. § Importance of commitment. · Developed elaborate expert system software to help managers. o Many firms use this model software. § Halliburton, Raytheon, Lennox, and Avis.

What is impression management?

· Subtle form of political behavior: a directed and intentional effort by someone to enhance his or her image in the eyes of others. · People engage in impression management for a variety of reasons. o Further their own careers. o Making themselves look good. o More likely to receive awards. o Given attractive job assignments. o Receive promotions. o Boot self-esteem. o Acquire more power and more control. · Variety of mechanisms used to control perception. o Users of impression management will pay close attention to Appearance, Language, manners, and body posture. o Likely to try to associate themselves with high-profile projects led by highly successful managers. · Is common and not inherently inappropriate. But, some can resort to dishonest and unethical means for impression management.

1. What is equity theory?

· Suggest that people are motivated to seek social equity in the rewards they receive for performance. o Equity is an individual's belief that the treatment he or she is receiving is fair relative to the treatment received by others. · The theory suggests that people view their outcomes and inputs as a ratio and then compare it to someone else's ratio. o People want to keep their ratio equal to other's ratios. § If one feels under-rewarded they may try to reduce the inequity by reducing their inputs by exerting less effort, increase their outcome by asking for a raise, distort the original ratios by rationalizing, try to get the other person to change their outcome, or inputs, leave the situation, or change the object of comparison. § Some may feel over-rewarded and may try to reduce inequity as well.

1. What is expectancy theory?

· Suggests that motivation depends on two things- how much we want something and how likely we think we are to get it. · Four basic assumptions o First, assumes that behavior is determined by a combination of forces in the individual and in the environment. o Second, it assumes that people make decisions about their own behavior in organizations. o Third, it assumes that different people have different types of needs, desires, and goals. o Fourth, it assumes that people make choices from among alternative plans of behavior, based on their perceptions of the extent to which a given behavior will lead to desired outcomes. · Porter-Lawler Extension. o Porter and Lawler suggested that there may indeed be a relationship between satisfaction and performance but that it goes in the opposite direction—that is, high performance may lead to high satisfaction.

1. What are the types of roles that play out in groups?

· Task specialist role: concentrating on getting the group's task accomplished. · Socioemotional role: providing social and emotional support to others on the team. · Role ambiguity: when the sent role is unclear. o In work settings, role ambiguity can stem from poor job descriptions, vague instructions from a supervisor, or unclear cues from coworkers. The result is likely to be a subordinate who does not know what to do. Role ambiguity can be a significant problem for both the individual who must contend with it and the organization that expects the employee to perform. · Role conflict: occurs when the messages and cues composing the sent role are clear but contradictory or mutually exclusive. o Interrole conflict: conflict between roles. May occur when the person gets conflicting demands from different sources within the context of the same role. o Intrasender conflict: occurs when a single source sends clear but contradictory messages. o Person-role conflict: results from a discrepancy between the role requirements and the individual's personal values, attitudes, and needs. · Role overload: occurs when expectations for the role exceed the person's capabilities. o In a functional group or team, the manager can take steps to avoid role ambiguity, conflict, and overload. Having clear and reasonable expectations and sending clear and straightforward cues go a long way toward eliminating role ambiguity. Consistent expectations that take into account the employee's other roles and personal value system may minimize role conflict. Role overload can be avoided simply by recognizing the individual's capabilities and limits. o In friendship and interest groups, role structures are likely to be less formal; hence, the possibility of role ambiguity, conflict, or overload may not be so great.

1. What is self-esteem?

· The extent to which a person believes that they are a worthwhile person and deserving individual. o High self-esteem individual is more likely to seek high-status jobs, be more confident in her ability to achieve higher levels of performance, and derive greater intrinsic satisfaction from her accomplishments. o Low self-esteem individuals may be more content to remain in a lower-level job, be less confident of their ability, and focus more on extrinsic rewards. · Through different studies self-esteem is important across the world and many cultures.

1. What is effort to performance?

· The individual perception of the probability that the effort will lead to high performance. · Expectancy on a scale of 0.0 to 1.0 o High efforts lead to high performance 1.0 o There is also a mid-range. o Effort and performance in unrelated close to 0.0

1. What is performance to outcome?

· The individual's perception that performance will lead to a specific outcome. · On a scale of 0.0 to 1.0. o I.e. high performance will lead to a pay raise- expectancy is high 1.0. o May lead to a pay raise is mid-level expectancy. o Low expectancy is that there is no relationship- close to 0.0.

1. What are the various types of groups?

· Three types of groups. o Functional: a permanent group created by the organization to accomplish a number of organizational purposes with an unspecified time horizon. § I.e. advertising department at Target, the management at Florida Atlantic University, and the nursing staff at the Mayo Clinic. o Informal/interest: created by its own members for purposes that may or may not be relevant to organizational goals. Also, has an unspecified time horizon. § Can be a powerful force a manager cannot ignore for good or bad. o Task groups: created by the organization to accomplish a relatively narrow range of purposes within a stated or implied time horizon. § Most committees and task forces are task groups. § The organization specifies group membership and assigns a relatively narrow set of goals, such as developing a new product or evaluating a proposed grievance procedure. o Team: a special form of task groups that are widespread in most organizations today. In the sense used here, a team is a group of workers that functions as a unit, often with little or no supervision, to carry out work-related tasks, functions, and activities. § Virtual teams: comprised of people from remote worksites who work together online. § Problem-solving team: Most popular type of team; comprises knowledge workers who gather to solve a specific problem and then disband. § Management team: Consists mainly of managers from various functions like sales and production; coordinates work among other teams. § Work team: an increasingly popular type of team; work teams are responsible for the daily work of the organization; when empowered, they are self-managed teams. § Quality circle: declining in popularity, quality circles, comprising workers and supervisors, meet intermittently to discuss workplace problems.

1. What are the various decision-making styles?

· VROOM model. o Decide: The manager makes the decision alone and then announces or "sells" it to the group. o Consult: (individually). The manager presents the situation to group members individually, obtains their suggestions, and then makes the decision. o Consult: (group). The manager presents the situation to group members at a meeting, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision. o Facilitate: The manager presents the situation to the group at a meeting, defines the problem and its boundaries, and then facilitates group member discussion as they make the decision. o Delegate: The manager presents the situation to the group at a meeting, defines the problem and its boundaries, and then facilitates group member discussion as they make the decision.

1. What is cognitive dissonance?

· When an individual has conflicting attitudes. · Generally, an individual wants to stay consistent with the three components of attitudes. o Affective component: reflects emotions and feelings a person has toward a situation. o Cognitive component: derived from the knowledge one has about the situation. o Intentional component: Reflects how one expects to behave in or toward the situation.

1. What is job satisfaction?

· is an attitude that reflects the extent to which an individual is gratified by or fulfilled in his or her work. o Satisfied employees tend to be less absent, make positive contributions, and be inclined to stay with the organization. o Dissatisfied employees may be absent more often, experience stress that disrupts coworkers, and may be continually looking for another job. · Personal factors, needs and aspirations, group and organizational factors, working conditions, work-related policies, and compensation all affect job satisfaction. · However, high job satisfaction does not necessarily lead to higher performance.