MGMT 3123

General Mental Ability (GMA)

(or cognitive abilities) are mental abilities -Reasoning ability sensing and solving problems using insight, rules, and logic. -Spatial ability visual and mental representation and manipulations of objects in space. -Perceptual ability perceive, understand, and recall patterns of information.

Procedural Justice Rules

1.) Constancy Rule Allocation procedures should be consistent across persons and time. 2.) Bias Suppression Rule Decisions must be based on accurate information. 3.) Accuracy Rule Decisions must be based on accurate information. 4.) Correctability Rule Opportunities must exist to enable decision to be reconciled 5.) Allocation process must represent the concerns of all stakeholders. 6.) Ethicality Rule Allocations must be based on prevailing moral and ethical standards.

Stereotypes Managerial challenges and recommendations

1.Educate people about stereotypes and how they influence behavior and decision making. 2.Create opportunities for diverse employees to meet and work with others. 3.Encourage all employees to increase their awareness.

Core self-evaluations (CSEs)

A broad personality trait comprised of four narrow and positive individual traits •Generalized self-efficacy •Self esteem •Locus of control •Emotional stability

Perception

A cognitive process that enables us to interpret and understand our surroundings Important as perceptions affect actions and decisions Perceptions are based on the characteristics of: •The perceiver •The target •The situation

Continuance commitment

A desire to remain a member of an organization because of an awareness of the costs associated with leaving it. You stay because you need to.

Normative commitment

A desire to remain a member of an organization due to a feeling of obligation. You stay because you ought to.

Affective commitment

A desire to remain a member of an organization due to an emotional attachment to, and involvement with, that organization. You stay because you want to.

Fundamental attribution error

A tendency to attribute another person's behavior to his or her personal characteristics, as opposed to situational factors

Affirmative Action

Affirmative Action policies require: a. Preferences given to ONLY equally qualified women and minorities, and b. ONLY when there is a history of racial or gender imbalance

Job Satisfaction

An affective or emotional response toward various facets of one's job In other words, it is the extent to which an individual likes his or her job Attitudes -Motivation -Job Involvement -Withdrawal Cognitions -Perceived Stress Behaviors -Job Performance -Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) -Counterproductive Work Behavior (CWB) -Turnover

Stereotype

An individual's set of beliefs about the characteristics or attributes of a group •May or may not be accurate •Can lead to poor decisions •Can create barriers for: -Women -Older individuals -People of color -People with disabilities Four steps 1.Categorization 2.Inferences 3.Expectations 4.Maintenance Accurate information and motivation are needed to reduce the use of stereotypes.

Standard Deviation

Average distance from the mean-S= Σ(x - x)2 / N - 1

Attribution Theory

Behaviors can be attributed either to internal factors within a person or external factors in the environment.

Building the Business Case for Managing Diversity

Business rationale for diversity •Managing diversity gives an organization the ability to grow and maintain a business in an increasingly competitive marketplace. •The access-and-legitimacy perspective is based on recognition that the organization's markets and constituencies are culturally diverse.

Common Sense Fallacy

Common sense can lead you astray because it is based on experience or logic -Overreliance on hindsight -Lack of rigor -Lack of objectivity "Everything is obvious once you know the answer" If not common sense-then what? -Critical thinking -Problem solving -Judgment and decision making -Active listening All 4 require DATA!

Psychological Withdrawal

Consists of actions that provide a mental escape from the work environment. ("warm-chair attrition") -Daydreaming when an employee appears to be working but is actually distracted by random thoughts or concerns. -Socializing verbal chatting about non-work topics that goes on in cubicles and offices or at the mailbox or vending machines. -Looking busy intentional desire on the part of the employee to look like he or she is working, even when not performing work tasks. -Moonlighting using work time and resources to complete something other than their job duties, such as assignments for another job. -Cyberloafing using Internet, e-mail, and instant messaging access for their personal enjoyment rather than work duties.

Physical Withdrawal

Consists of actions that provide a physical escape, whether short term or long term, from the work environment. -Tardiness the tendency to arrive at work late (or leave work early). -Long breaks involve longer-than-normal lunches, soda breaks, coffee breaks, and so forth that provide a physical escape from work. -Missing meetings employees neglect important work functions while away from the office. -Absenteeism occurs when employees miss an entire day of work .-Quitting voluntarily leaving the organization.

Counterproductive Behavior

Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) are behaviors that harm other employees, the organization as a whole, or organizational stakeholders such as customers and shareholders.

Correlation

Degree of relationship between two variables -Used for prediction -Cannot be used to infer causation -Range from -1 to +1 -The closer to -1 or +1 the stronger the correlation -Negative r says that when one variable increases the other decreases -Positive r says that when one variable increases so does the other -Zero r indicates no relationship between the two variables Correlations DOES NOT EQUEAL Causation

Addressing Discrimination

Discrimination occurs when employment decisions about an individual are due to individual characteristics and attributes that are not related to the job. Affirmative Action •Interventions to correct imbalances, injustice, mistakes, or outright discrimination •Both voluntary and mandatory programs •Not based on quotas •Can lead to stigmas for those expected to benefit from AA programs Managing Diversity •Focuses on changing organizational culture and structure •Enable people to perform to potential •Relies on education, enforcement, and exposure

Range

Distance between highest and lowest score -(Range = High score - Low score) -Range = 17 - 5 = 12

The Four Layers of Diversity

Diversity: the multitude of individual differences and similarities that exist among people 1.Personality Surface-level 2.Internal characteristics apparent to others (unchangeable) Deep-level 3.External influences 4.Organizational dimensions

Personal Attitudes

Encompass our feelings or opinions about people, places, and objects Comprised of theses three components:1.Affective — Feelings2.Cognitive — Beliefs3.Behavioral — Intentions

Causal Inferences

Establishing that one variable really does cause another — requires establishing three things. -The two variables are correlated. -The presumed cause precedes the presumed effect in time. -No alternative explanation exists for the correlation.

Managerial Implications of Person Perception

Hiring •Implicit cognitions may lead to biased decisions. •Biased decisions are avoided by training, use of structured interviews, use of multiple interviewers. Leadership •Employees' evaluations of leader effectiveness are influenced by their schemata of good and poor leaders. Performance appraisals •Faulty perceptions about performance leads to inaccurate appraisals and erode morale. •Faulty perceptions are reduced by use of objective measures, training, use of HR analytics for capturing daily performance.

Frequency

How often numbers are present

Inter-Rater Reliability

Inter-Rater Reliability refers to the consistency or degree of agreement between two or more scores, judges, or raters. You could just have two judges rate one set of papers. Then you would just correlate their two

Central Tendency

Is a descriptive summary of a dataset through a single value that reflects the center of the data distribution. Mean, Median, Mode Central Tendency example scores = 5, 6, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 17 Mean - average: X = ∑X / N Mean = 72 / 8 = 9 Median - middle score (when placed in order)-use when outliers exaggerate the mean Median = 8.5 Mode - most often occurring score Mode = 6 In a normal distribution, Mean = Median = Mode

Dispersion

Is the extent to which a distribution is stretched or squeezed. Common examples of measures of statistical dispersion are the variance, standard deviation, and interquartile range (also called variability, scatter, or spread).

Job Enrichment

Is the process of using the five items in the job characteristics model to create more satisfaction

Perceived Organizational Support

It is the extent to which employees believe that the organization -Values their contributions -Genuinely cares about their well-being Associated with -Increased organizational commitment -Job satisfaction -Organizational citizenship behavior -Task performance -Lower turnover

Internal Consistency Reliability

It refers to the consistency with which the items on a test measures a single construct. Internal consistency reliability only requires one administration of the test, which makes it very convenient form of reliability. One type of internal consistency reliability is Split-half reliability, which involves splitting a teat into two equivalent halves and checking the consistency of the scores obtained from the two halves. The measure of internal consistency that we emphasize the chapter is coefficient alpha. (It is also sometimes called Cornbach's alpha.)

inductive Reasoning

Like a detective. "Just the facts" Observation Finding Pattern Theory A type of logic in which generalizations are based on a large number of specific observations.

Locus of Control

Locus of Control describes how much personal responsibility someone takes for their behavior and its consequences. "You fail all the time but you are not a failure until you start blaming someone else"- Bum Phillips

Managerial Applications and Implications

Managerial tendency to attribute behavior to internal causes may lead managers to take inappropriate actions. An employee's attributions for his or her own performance have dramatic effects on subsequent motivation, performance, and personal attitudes.

Critical Psychological States

Meaningfulness of work- reflects the degree to which work tasks are viewed as something that "counts" in the employee's system of philosophies and beliefs. Responsibility for outcomes- captures the degree to which employees feel that they are key drivers of the quality of the unit's work. Knowledge of results- reflects the extent to which employees know how well (or how poorly) they are doing.

Objective Data

Measure what is actually present (i.e., there is no interpretation)

Subjective Data

Measures that require some individual judgment

Models Job Satisfaction

Need fulfillment Understand and meet employees' needs. Met expectations Meet expectations of employees about what they will receive from job. Value attainment Structure the job and its rewards to match employee values. Equity Monitor employee' perceptions of fairness and interact with them so they feel fairly treated. Disposition/genetic components Hire employees with an appropriate disposition.

Organizational Behavior

OB is understanding and managing people in the workplace. What disciplines influence organizational behavior? -Social psychology -Cognitive psychology -I/O psychology -Economics -Sociology -Statistics -Political science

Self-serving bias

One's tendency to take more personal responsibility for success than for failure

Workplace Attitudes

Organizational commitment, employee engagement, perceived organizational support, job satisfaction Some workplace attitudes are more potent than others. The following four are especially powerful: Organizational Commitment Employee Engagement Perceived Organizational Support Job Satisfaction

Managing Diversity

Organizations use a variety of generic approaches to addressing diversity issues. •Include or exclude •Deny •Assimilate •Suppress •Isolate •Tolerate •Build relationships •Foster mutual adaptation Only fostering mutual adaptation endorses the philosophy behind managing diversity.

Ability

Refers to the relatively stable capabilities people have to perform a set of activities. -Ability is relatively stable. -Abilities are a function of both genes and the environment.

Focus of commitment

Refers to the various people, places, and things that can inspire a desire to remain a member of an organization.

Organizational Citizenship Behaviors

Represents discretionary individual behaviors that are: -Typically not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system -And can, in the aggregate, promote effective functioning of the organization For the Individual -Improved job satisfaction -Improved performance ratings -Reduced intention to quit -Lower absenteeism -Lower turnover For the Organization -Higher productivity/efficiency -Lower costs -Improved customer satisfaction -Higher unit-level satisfaction -Lower turnover

Job Satisfaction & Job Performance

Research tells us that job satisfaction and performance -Are moderately related -Indirectly influence each other -Better to consider the relationship at the business unit level versus at the individual level

The Path to Action

See and Hear Tell a Story Feel Act You hear about an action, tell yourself a story, which makes you feel an emotion and then act on that emotion

Questionnaires & Surveys

Self-reports to obtain data on attitudes/behaviors conducted by phone, mail, interviews, electronically Benefits: -Can collect a large quantity of data -Measures variables that cannot otherwise be measured - perceptions, attitudes Disadvantages: Accuracy of reporting -Representativeness of sample -Return rate Control: Low Realism: High

Physical Abilities

Strength is the degree to which the body is capable of exerting force. -Static strength refers to the ability to lift, push, or pull very heavy objects using the hands, arms, legs, shoulder, or back. -Explosive strength happens when the person exerts short bursts of energy to move him- or herself or an object. -Dynamic strength refers to the ability to exert force for a prolonged period of time without becoming overly fatigued and giving out. Stamina refers to the ability of a person's lungs and circulatory system to work efficiently while he or she is engaging in prolonged physical activity. Flexibility refers to the ability to bend, stretch, twist, or reach.

Content Validity

Subjective assessment of how closely a test's content matches what you are trying to measure. For example, your test on this material needs to be pulled from content about OB and the material in the chapters we cover. If that is the case, then the test is said to be content valid.

Causal Attributions

Suspected or inferred causes of behavior Important because attributions affects our perceptions of cause and our choice of action

Personality

The combination of stable physical, behavioral, and mental characteristics that give individuals their unique identities. Comprised of 5 dimensions -Extroversion -Agreeableness -Conscientiousness -Emotional Stability -Openness to experience

Organizational Commitment

The extent to which an employee identifies with an organization and is committed to its goals. And it leads to -Greater employee retention -Greater motivation in pursuit of organizational goals Increasing Employee Commitment Hire those whose personal values most align with those of the organization. Guard against managerial breaches of psychological contracts Build the level of trust.

Employee Engagement

The extent to which employees give it their all to their work roles. And includes the feeling of -Urgency -Being Focused -Intensity -Enthusiasm What Contributes to Employee Engagement? A mix of Organizational Level Factors, Person Factors, and Environmental Characteristics Increases in Employee Engagement has been linked to -Increased Customer Loyalty and Satisfaction -Increased Employee Performance -Increased Employee Well-being -Greater Financial Performance

Self-Efficacy

The more you believe in your ability to succeed, the more likely it is that you will Is a belief about your chances of successfully accomplishing a specific task.

External Locus of Control

The perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate. Things happen to me. I blame others for failures. I can't control the future. Bad luck or good luck In the workplace More anxious Earn less, receive smaller raises Less motivated by incentives

Internal Locus of Control

The perception that you control your own fate I make things happen. I can determine my future. I accept personal responsibility for failures. In the workplace Higher motivation Higher expectations Exert more effort when given difficult tasks

Criterion-related Validity

The process by which one demonstrates a statistically significant relationship between scores on a predictor measure and scores on a criterion measure. Criterion: The outcome we are interested in predicted

Cognitive Dissonance

The state of having inconsistent thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes, especially as relating to behavioral decisions and attitude change. We can reduce it by Changing an attitude or behavior or both Belittling the importance of the inconsistent behavior Finding consonant elements that outweigh dissonant ones

Reliability

Think of Reliability as 'Consistency' -Does the measure consistently provide the same data or answer

Validity

Think of Validity as 'Accuracy' -Does the measure allow you to measure or predict what you intend to measure or predict In OB, there are two primary forms of validity you need to be aware of: 1. Content 2. Criterion

Test-Rest Reliability

This refers to the consistency of test scores over time. It is measured by correlating the test scores obtained at one point in time with the test scores obtained at a later point in time for a group of people. A primary issue is identifying the appropriate time interval between two testing occasions. The longer the time interval between the two testing occasions, the lower the reliability coeffect tends to be

Equivalent Forms Reliability

This refers to the constituency of test scores obtained on two equivalent forms of a test designed to measure the same thing. It is measured by correlating the scores obtained by giving two forms of the same test to a group of people. The success of this method hinges on the equivalence of the two forms of the test.

Turnover

Turnover is harmful when high-performing employees voluntarily leave the organization. To reduce voluntary turnover ―Hire people who "fit" with the organization's culture. ―Spend time fostering employee engagement. ―Provide effective onboarding. ―Recognize and reward high-performing employees.

Emotional Stability

What Is Emotional Stability? People High in Emotional Stability Tend To Be: Relaxed Secure Unworried Less likely to experience negative emotions under pressure Higher job performance More organizational citizenship behaviors Few counter-productive work behaviors

The Fundamental Attribution Error

When considering the "Why" behind a particular action, people almost always assume poor motive. Rarely do people consider ability or external forces. We jump to a conclusion. We believe that people are doing what they are doing because they enjoy it. We jump because: -We see people's actions - we don't always know the circumstances. We assume it's in their nature. -We don't assume that it could have been due to the influence of others or the situation. The Solution Understand that others are *not* acting in selfish ways and that it is your story about their actions that is causing the problem.

Obtaining Data

Where do you obtain data to make decisions? Data and evidence are everywhere! Questionnaires/Survey- Interviews - Observations - Company Records - Professional Associations - Private Firms - Colleges & Universities

Deductive Reasoning

Will your theory predict? Theory Observations Confirmed The process of applying a general statement to specific facts or situations

How can OB influence your life?

With Personal Attributes and Interpersonal Skills Personal Attributes -Attitude -Personality -Teamwork -Leadership Interpersonal Skills -Active listening -Positive attitudes -Effective communication

Application: The Wonderlic

Wonderlic Personnel Test is a 12-minute test of general mental ability that consists of 50 questions. -Offers recommendations for minimum passing scores for different job families.

Proactive Personality

You're someone who is relatively unconstrained by situational forces and who affects environmental change. You're someone who identifies opportunities and acts on them The many benefits -Increased job performance -Higher job satisfaction -Higher affective commitment -Entrepreneurial

HEXACO model

[H] Honesty/Humility [E] Emotional Stability [X] eXtraversion [A] Agreeableness [C] Consciences [O] Openness to experience Honesty/ Humility- the tendency to view one's self and others authentically, being ethical, modest, adaptive, and generally uninterested in lavish wealth and luxuries, nor feeling special entitlement to elevated social status.

Emotions

are complex, relatively brief responses aimed at a particular person, information, experience, or event. -Emotions can change our psychological and physiological states. -There are both positive and negative emotions plus past versus future emotions. Managing Emotions at Work Anger -People are angry about what happened or did not happen in the past. -Anger is a "backward-looking" or retrospective emotion. Fear -People are afraid of things that might happen in the future. -Fear is a "forward-looking" or prospective emotion. Knowing this, managers can guide their own actions as to how they communicate with employees knowing their reactions to events. But, organizations have emotion display norms, or rules that dictate which types of emotions are expected and appropriate for their members to show.

Psychomotor abilities

generally refer to the capacity to manipulate and control objects.

Self-esteem

is a general belief about your self-worth. •It is relatively stable across your lifetime but it can be improved. •Best to apply yourself to areas or goals that are important to you. Why? In those areas your motivation will likely be highest and presumably you'll work the hardest

Oral comprehension

is the ability to understand spoken words and sentences.

Coordination

is the quality of physical movement. -Gross body coordination refers to the ability to synchronize the movements of the body, arms, and legs to do something while the whole body is in motion. -Gross body equilibrium involves the ability to maintain the balance of the body in unstable contexts or when the person has to change directions.

Sensory abilities

refer to capabilities associated with vision and hearing. -Near and far vision is the ability to see things up close and at a distance or in low light contexts (night vision). -Visual color discrimination and depth perception is the ability to perceive colors and judge relative distances between things accurately. -Hearing sensitivity is the capability to hear and discriminate sounds that vary in terms of loudness and pitch. -Auditory attention is being able to focus on a single sound in the presence of many other sounds. -Speech recognition is the ability to identify and understand the speech of another person.

Quantitative ability

refers to two types of mathematical capabilities. -Number facility is the capability to do simple math operations (adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing). -Mathematical reasoning refers to the ability to choose and apply formulas to solve problems that involve numbers.

Verbal ability

refers to various capabilities associated with understanding and expressing oral and written communication. Verbal ability, continued -Written comprehension is the ability to understand written words and sentences. -Oral expression refers to the ability to communicate ideas by speaking. -Written expression refers to the ability to communicate ideas in writing.

Barriers and Challenges to Managing Diversity

•Inaccurate stereotypes and prejudice •Ethnocentrism Poor career planning •Negative diversity climate •Unsupportive and hostile environment •Lack of political savvy of diverse employees •Difficulty in balancing career and family issues •Fears of reverse discrimination •Diversity not seen as an organizational priority •Outdated appraisal and reward systems •Resistance to change