MGMT 452 Midterm
Session 2: Other ways to convey warmth vs. strength
Impression Management: -Efforts by an actor to create, maintain, protect, or otherwise alter an image held by a target audience -Let's look at a few "tactics" in terms of warmth vs. strength Ingratiation: -Use of flattery and favor to attempt to appear likable (i.e. warm) --When aimed upward (at a higher-power person), this leads to higher ratings of likability Self-promotion: -Communicate abilities and accomplishments to attempt to appear competent (i.e., strong) --As a leader, it generally leads to lower ratings of likability, less influence if warmth (and the trust it generates) hasn't been established Exemplification: -Do more or better than is necessary to attempt to appear dedicated or superior (i.e., strong) Intimidation: -Threaten or harass to attempt to appear dangerous and powerful (i.e., strong) --Leads to lower ratings of likability for women --Leads to higher ratings of performance among men Supplication: Portray oneself as weak or dependent to obtain help (i.e., deliberately withhold strength)
Session 3: Podcast: Radiolab, "I Don't Have to Answer That" Video clips: What is narcissism?; Gary Hart scandal of 1987
In 1987, Gary Hart was a young charismatic Democrat, poised to win his party's nomination and possibly the presidency. Shaped the way we cover politics, and expanded our sense of what's appropriate when it comes to judging a candidate. Are leaders moral examples?
Session 9: Article: Picture This
Key points •Purpose is central to successful organizing •But it's been lost in recent years—economic performance is often the sole focus; strategy is largely about improving numbers How do leaders communicate purpose? •Vision statements•Long-term, high-level organizational goals What you're trying to achieve•Values statements•Prominent lists/descriptions of what's important to the organization (its priorities)•Why what you're trying to achieve matters How should leaders communicate purpose? •Craft messages containing... •A large amount of concrete, image-based language •A limited amount of conceptual, values-based language •Such messages convey a goal that both appears similar in followers' minds and means something similar as well •The result is a shared sense of purpose, thus better coordination, and thus better performance •Leader effectiveness is dependent on the actual language used by leaders to communicate about the purpose of the organization •Words matter!
Session 7: LMX theory
Key question: How does the quality of the dyadic relationship between the leader and a follower relate to key outcomes? Assumption •Prior theories overlook the importance of this interpersonal relationship •The relationship is a new domain to explore! •Let's treat the quality of the relationship as a variable and see how it relates to leadership andorganizational outcomes Relationship Phases: •Role taking-Leader describes what the follower is supposed to do •Role making-Leader allows follower more autonomy •High quality exchange (in-group) •Mutual trust, respect, obligation Who gets "in"? Competent, likable, similar in personality to leader Outcomes? •More OCBs •Better performance •Less likely to quit •In-group followers rate the leader as highly effective (especially in comparison to ratings by out-group followers)
Session 7: Transformational leadership
Key question: How do leaders motivate followers beyond role expectations? Assumption: •"Initiating structure" and "showing consideration" will only get you so far (i.e., compliance) Transformational leadership: •Leaders motivate followers by inspiring them to commit to a meaningful vision of the future •What's getting "transformed": Followers' values •The collective good (i.e., the group's goals and the achievement of those goals) becomes more important to followers than their own short-term self-interests
Session 1: The four contingencies of power
(Low) Substitutability Do subordinates have ways (other than via the authority figure) to get resources? If no, low substitutability. (High) Discretion Does the leader have freedom to make decisions/are they unrestrained by rules, procedures, etc.? If so, high discretion. (High) Centrality How many subordinates actually rely on the leader to accomplish their work? If many, high centrality. (High) Visibility Are subordinates aware of the leader? If so, high visibility.
Term Outline: Session 6
6—Servant/Humble/Authoritarian Leadership Servant leadership Humble leadership Authoritarian leadership Article: The Best Leaders Are Humble Leaders Article: The Rise of American Authoritarianism Group Activity: Let's Build a Car Video clips: Simon Sinek; Bob Chapman's Truly Human Leadership; The upside of authoritarian leaders
Session 9: How do you make new ideas a reality?
Bridging across diverse people and groups (i.e., process) •Bridge roles (leaders) •Align team goals with organizational priorities •Funnel critical information and resources into the team to ensure progress toward goals •Get the support of key allies outside the team/department •Enhance the external visibility and reputation of the team Engaging people in the change process (i.e., process) •Establish personal connections with the people you are hoping to lead
Session 7: Article: When the CEO's Personal Crusade Drives Decisions
CEO kid with disease, takeover
Session 3: Narcissistic CEOs and firm performance
Chatterjee & Hambrick, 2007 Clever & fun ways of measuring CEO narcissism (1) the prominence of the CEO's photograph in the company's annual report (2) the CEO's prominence in the company's press releases (3) the CEO's use of first-person singular pronouns in interviews (4) the CEO's compensation relative to the second-highest paid executive in the firm Findings: Narcissists are prone to making drastic strategic changes ("strategic dynamism and grandiosity"), including lots of (and large) acquisitions Narcissistic leaders get extremely high organizational performance (i.e., TSR and ROA far above the industry average), but also extreme fluctuation in performance (ROA)
Session 9: Where should you start?
Envisioning new possibilities (i.e., the idea)•How? Think like a Martian •Brian David Johnson: Imagining the future
Session 5: Podcast: This American Life, "NUMMI 2015" (from 5:20 to 23:00 - this podcast is not embedded in the slides so you will need to do a Google search for it if you'd like to re-listen) Class Activity: LPC questionnaire (link in slides) Group Activity: Fremont, 1984 Video clips: A brief history of NUMMI
Even though NUMMI was in crisis they used Leadership tools, and it worked.
Session 9: Group Activity: Get-A-Vision Video clips: How? Think like a Martian; Brian David Johnson: Imagining the future; What about mission statements? (from the beginning up to 10:54); I Have A Dream (from 0:44 to 1:24)
First, a class exercise to get our brains going•Each group gets a few pictures•As a class, 10 min to figure out an interesting use for the pictures (e.g., tell a story, make a piece of art, etc.). You'll show me at the end what you've created. •Second, in your groups, imagine you are starting a small business•Think about your products/services•Spend 20 min writing a vision/values statement using the "Picture This" principles•Hand in your finished statement(s)
Session 7: Followership
Followership •The capacity of an individual to follow a leader •Kelley's five styles of followership:Alienated, Effective, Passive, Conformist, Pragmatic Survivor •Styles categorized according to two dimensions:Critical vs. dependent thinking & Passive vs. active behavior
Session 1: Article: Shut Up and Sit Down—Why The Leadership Industry Rules
My thoughts: Many of the criticisms of the leadership literature/"industry" are valid • It's not always clear what scholars/consultants/practitioners mean by the term • Therefore, it's unclear what to measure (typically via surveys) • As a result, there is a proliferation of leadership theories and constructs My approach in this class: •We won't dig into the academic controversies •Instead, I believe there is great practical value in learning about and exercising leadership qualities/behaviors •Because regardless of the controversies, we know that "acting like a leader"—and, also, seeing yourself as a leader—has tangible career implications
Session 8: Redefine Your Job: Doing the Wrong Things Well
Obstacle # 1•We don't like doing tasks we're not good at yet•We stick with what we're good at—even though it may not be helping us progress toward a better future goal•These tendencies lead to competency traps•Themore we do something, the better we become at it and, thus, the more we enjoy doing it. This mastery can be addicting. •We naturally think that the things we do well are valuable and important—so we spend more time on them Why don't we like doing tasks we're not good at yet?•Temporal discounting
Term Outline: Session 2
Power & Influence Part 2 Other ways to convey warmth vs. strength More about impressions: it's not just what we say, but how we say it How to act more powerful How to get more powerful Article: Power Play Article: Understanding New Power Article: How You Can Become More Powerful Group Activity: The Unhappy Employee Video clips: No "upspeak"!; Remember this? (from the beginning up to 1:40); Power posing!
Session 4: The behavioral approach
Pre-1950, the trait-based approach was dominant Ohio State Leadership Studies (1945) Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) Leader effectiveness is better explained by leader behaviors, two categories in particular: (1)Initiating structure: The extent to which a leader defines leader and group member roles, initiates actions, coordinates group activities, and sets performance standards (2)Showing consideration: The extent to which a leader exhibits concern for the welfare of the members of the group, shows respect to members, acts friendly and approachable
Session 5: Contingency theories of leadership
What is a "contingency"? -An event that may or may not happen depending on certain conditions -A "contingency" theory is therefore a conditional theory ---If X happens, then Y Contingency theories make use of both individual characteristics/attributes/traits and behaviors -A kind of hybrid between the trait-based and behavioral approaches Lots of contingency theories—what do they have in common? -There is no one best way to lead -The effectiveness of a particular leader depends on the situation at hand "Situation" requires some unpacking...
Session 6: Article: The Rise of American Authoritarianism
What is authoritarianism? •Not referring to leader behaviors or characteristics, but rather the psychological profile (i.e., a trait) of followers (Stenner, 2005) •A trait characterized by desire for order, hierarchy, conformity, and fear of outsiders, "Outsiders" = any social group that is perceived as a threat to one's values Key points •There is a certain subset of people who have latent authoritarianism •These tendencies can be triggered or "activated" by the perception of physical threats or by destabilizing social change, leading those individuals to desire policies and leaders that we might more colloquially call "authoritarian" •Hence, the rise of Donald Trump
Session 8: Act Like a Leader, Think Like a Leader
What is leadership? (p. 36) •"Guiding diverse parties toward a shared goal" •"Creating change in what we do and how we do it" •"Working outside established goals, procedures, and structures, and explaining to others why it's important to change—even when the reasons may be blatantly obvious" Key question of the book: How can we become leaders/how can we become better leaders?•Answer? By gaining "outsight" •A type of awareness and personal development that comes via OUTward action, not INner reflection—thus, OUTsight, not INsight. •We "don't unearth our true self; it emerges from what we do" •Change from the "outside in"
Session 9: Managing vs. leading
What's the difference? •Managing centers on efficiency—let's do what we are currently doing, but do it even quicker, more competently, etc. •What's leadership, then? The use of power and influence to direct the activities of followers toward the achievement of (collectively-held) goals (Session 1) •For Ibarra, leading is about devising a goal and creating change in the direction of that goal •Leadership success depends on the idea + process + you •Envisioning new possibilities (idea)•Bridging across diverse people and groups (process) •Engaging people in the change process (process) •Communicating effectively about purpose (process) •Embodying the change (you)
Session 4: How do these leadership styles affect the "climate" of the organization?
Which styles have the most positive overall impact on climate? Authoritative (.54) Affiliative (.46) Democratic (.43) Coaching (.42)
Session 4: Traits + behaviors
Why do behaviors matter "more" than traits? ---Traits affect outcomes by means of behaviors Which traits are the strongest correlates of "initiating structure" and "showing consideration"? Initiating structure? ---Conscientiousness (.26) Showing consideration? ---Extraversion (.29)
Session 7: An evolutionary perspective on followership
Why do people follow at all? •Why not try to be the leader? More resources to enjoy! •Followership is sometimes in our best interest! •"Followership emerged in response to specific ancestral problems that were best solved through collective effort coordinated by a leader-follower structure that enhanced individual and group survival" (Van Vugt et al., 2008) •We are particularly more likely to follow under conditions of uncertainty:Natural disasters, Intergroup conflict, Perceived outside threats (remember authoritarianism?) •Research suggests that leaderless groups work less effectively together when facing complex problems (Van Vugt & De Cremer, 1999) •However, leaders may be less necessary when problems are simple or routine
Session 7: Article: In Praise of Followers
enthusistaic, intelligent, self-reliant participation Box: x-axis: active, y-axis: independant thought middle-Survivors Lower Left: Sheep Lower Right: yes People Upper Left: Alientated Effective Followers Qualities of followers; self managed, commited, competent and focused, courage 1. Redefine leadership and followership 2. Hone Followership skills 3. Perfomrance eval and feedback 4. Org sturctures that promote followership
Session 10: Class Activity: Storytime! Video clips: The Iron Lady; Margaret Thatcher on socialism
practiced telling our sotry. Video demonstrated how to channel your "you"ness
Session 7: How do leaders motivate employees beyond expectations?
tcahrt: y is ineffectiveness-effective, x is passive-active: lower left to upper right: Lassie fiare-> transactinal passive-> transactional active management by exception-> transactional contingent reward -> transformational
Session 7: Some transformational/transactional research
transformational rates higher correlation of positive follower behaviors
Session 2: Article: How You Can Become More Powerful
• Dynamics of power play out in most all social interactions • Being placed in a position of power affects thoughts and behavior, hormone releases—having power allows people the freedom to be more optimistic, take bolder/riskier actions. • Hierarchy is the most common form of social organization • Body posture is often the primary representation of power—expansive, open, large (or perceived large) body size= more power
Session 6: Article: The Best Leaders Are Humble Leaders
• Humility is one of four basic criteria to make people feel included: Acts of humility, empowering followers to learn and develop, acts of courage, holding employees responsible for their actions • Make employees feel included: uniqueness and belonging • Benefits innovation and team citizenship • Share your mistakes as teachable moments, engage in dialogues not debates, embrace uncertainty, role model being a follower • Fishbowl style communciation
Session 2: Article: Power Play
• Make peace with your power. Power has benefits if used correctly. Between affiliation, achievement, and power-seekers, power-seeker are the most effective. • Power is the ability to get things done, works best with highly talented people, defuse tensions by focusing on data, not being sensitive to critiques • The Exercise of Power: mete out resources, shape behavior via punishment and rewards, advance on multiple fronts, make the first move, co-opt antagonists, remove rivals, don't draw unnecessary fire, use personal touch, persist, make important relationships work-no matter what, make the vision compelling • Why do you shy away from power: 1) the belief the world is a just place 2) the leadership literature 3) your delicate self-esteem
Session 8: Article: Power and Reduced Temporal Discounting
•Article: Joshi & Fast•The experience of power<->less temporal discounting •Power = asymmetric control over valued outcomes and resources•Power allows us to more easily visualize the future, because we can afford to not have to think about the here and now•Therefore, we can weigh future rewards more accurately•Power also gives us a sense of control over the future•Therefore, the future feels less uncertain•
Session 10: Communicating your personal "why"
•Key plot elements•A protagonist•A catalyst•Trials and tribulations•A turning point and resolution •Overall structural elements•Coherence•Continuity•Causality
Session 4: Video clips: Joe Torre, Part 1
Manager should be most satisified when you are getting the most out of someone else's ability. Managed Yankees. Relationship with players is most important, understand them, educating. Open up about vunerability.
Session 3: Spencer's counterargument to the trait model
Men are products of their societies Therefore, "great men" couldn't have been "great" without the influence of societal conditions, which would have been set in motion before such men were born
Session 8: Three steps to gaining "outsight"
1) Redefine your job•Change the scope of your job, away from operational demands in favor of more strategic concerns—your current tasks may be holding you back 2) Network across and out•Be a bridge between different departments in the organization—your current network may be holding you back 3) Be more playful with your sense of self •Reinvent your identity at work—your current self-concept may be holding you back
Session 6: Authoritarian leadership
Authoritarian leadership •A simple, plainspoken, powerful, and punitive form of leadership typified by certain types of leader behaviors Authoritarian leaders: • exert absolute authority and control over followers and demand unquestioned obedience •are quick to assert their personal dominance over followers and control followers' performance primarily via threats and intimidation and punishment •keep their distance from followers and maintain centralized power What about outcomes in organizations? •Positively correlated with ratings of abusiveness (.62) (Kiazad et al., 2010) •Negatively correlated with follower job performance (-.17) and citizenship behaviors (-.20) Are authoritarian leaders "bad" for organizations, then? •Not always! •The upside of authoritarian leaders•Under certain conditions (i.e., harsh economic environments), authoritarian leaders are very effective at driving firm performance, even better than transformational in that situation
Session 3: Narcissistic leaders
An inflated, grandiose self-image Strengths of narcissistic leaders: Great vision, Scores of followers Weaknesses of narcissistic leaders: Extremely sensitive to criticism (Emotionally-isolated—they ignore the advice/feelings of others; not comfortable with their own emotions, They want "yes men" instead of teamwork, They are poor listeners) Intense competitive drive (Lack of empathy—they are not troubled by laying-off employees, etc., because the goal is victory, Constantly on the lookout for threats—thus, they are extremely paranoid) Distaste for mentoring (They are unteachable, and they care little about mentoring others)
Session 4: Article: Leadership That Gets Results
Coercive leaders demand immediate compliance (useful in crisis mode). Authoritative leaders mobilize people toward a vision (works well in almost any business situation. But it is particularly effective when a business is adrift). Affiliative leaders create emotional bonds and harmony (good all-weather approach, but leaders should employ it particularly when trying to build team harmony, increase morale, improve communication, or repair broken trust.). Democratic leaders build consensus through participation (ideal when a leader is himself uncertain about the best direction to take and needs ideas and guidance from able employees). Pacesetting leaders expect excellence and self-direction (when all employees are self-motivated, highly competent, and need little direction). And coaching leaders develop people for the future (used least often, most effective when people on the receiving end are "up for it.). Six key factors that influence an organization's working environment: its flexibility- that is, how free employees feel to innovate unencumbered by red tape; their sense of responsibility to the organization; the level of standards that people set; the sense of accuracy about performance feedback and aptness of rewards; the clarity people have about mission and values; and finally, the level of commitment to a common purpose. the authoritative leadership style has the most positive effect on climate, but three others - affiliative, democratic, and coaching - follow close behind. That said, the research indicates that no style should be relied on exclusively, and all have at least short-term uses.
Session 2: Article: Understanding New Power
Common views "With technology, power has become democratized! We don't need the old institutions!" "No, power is becoming more concentrated! The old institutions are becoming stronger!" Neither view is correct on its own—both are true "Old power" Held by few; inaccessible; leader-driven; created by customers through consumption Buy our products/services and our power in society will grow! "New power" Made by many; participatory; peer-driven; created by customers in ways beyond consumption Many new preferences as a result of this expectation: Informal, networked approaches to decision-making, Collaboration, "DIO", Transparency Temporary affiliation with institutions
Session 3: The role of the Big Five personality traits
Conscientiousness Dependable, organized, reliable, ambitious, hardworking, persevering. Emergence (.33) and Effectiveness (.16) Agreeableness Kind, cooperative, sympathetic, helpful, courteous, warm. Emergence (.05) and Effectiveness (.21) Neuroticism (a.k.a. Emotional Stability) Nervous, moody, emotional, insecure, jealous, unstable. Emergence (-.24) and Effectiveness (-.22) Openness (to Experience) Curious, imaginative, creative, complex, refined, sophisticated. Emergence (.24 ) and Effectiveness (.24 ) Extraversion Talkative, sociable, passionate, assertive, bold, dominant. Emergence (.33) and Effectiveness (.24)
Term Outline: Session 5
Contingency Theories of Leadership Looking ahead Contingency theories of leadership What do we mean by "situation"? Fiedler's Contingency Model Hersey & Blanchard's Situational Model House's Path-Goal Leadership Model Organizational Context What if the objective is to change the organization? Article: The Tools of Cooperation & Change Podcast: This American Life, "NUMMI 2015" (from 5:20 to 23:00 - this podcast is not embedded in the slides so you will need to do a Google search for it if you'd like to re-listen) Class Activity: LPC questionnaire (link in slides) Group Activity: Fremont, 1984 Video clips: A brief history of NUMMI
Session 1: Why do Cialdini's principles work?
Control -The need to understand and predict (reciprocity, consistency, scarcity) Social Dependence -The need to rely on others for knowledge and support (authority) Identity -Our sense of who were are—develops through behavioral repetition, social comparison and via a sense of belonging (consistency, social proof) Social Conformance -The need to follow social norms (reciprocity, authority) Trust -The need to be vulnerable with others, to reduce transaction costs (reciprocity, liking)
Session 7: Some LMX research
High-quality LMX ->follower performance (.36)•But there are moderators! •Correlation is stronger when: •Role conflict is low •Role ambiguity is high •Intrinsic satisfaction/motivation is high, (i.e., you derive satisfaction from the doing of the task itself)
Session 8: Temporal discounting (cont.)
How can we fight against temporal discounting?•Commitment devices, visualizations of one's future self•Try to feel more powerful (remember "power posing"? Pfeffer's power behaviors?) In sum•Commitment devices, visualizations of one's future self, and feeling powerful will help you break out of competency traps
Session 6: Humble leadership
Humble leadership •Leader humility = a trait associated with certain behaviors •Humility generally involves how leaders tend to view themselves (more objectively), others (more appreciatively), and new information or ideas (more openly) •Strongly negatively correlated with narcissism (-.63) ] •Positively correlated with sex (i.e., female—.13), age (.17), conscientiousness (.18), team contribution (.33), individual performance (.35), and follower psychological empowerment (.41) Similarities to servant leadership? •Both go contrary to many ideas about leadership, particularly authoritarian views (i.e., you must project strength and power) •Project vulnerability instead! Differences? •Servant leadership—development of followers is end in itself; serving others is priority •Humble leadership—developing followers is means to an end (accomplishing goals); modeling teachability for followers is priority
Session 7: OK, but how do you get followers to "transform" themselves
Idealized influence: •Acting in ways that earn the admiration, trust, and respect of followers•Often by simply having charisma (i.e., "compelling charm" that draws people to you) Inspirational motivation: •Generating enthusiasm for a vision of the future• Intellectual stimulation: •Changing the way followers see the organization (and the world) Individualized consideration: Treating followers as unique individuals, coaching and mentoring them
Session 10: Article: What's Your Story?
Make a compelling story that uses causalitya nd continutiy, people understand stories
Session 4: Which behaviors matter most?
Judge et al., 2004, Derue et al., 2011, Burke et al., 2006 Showing consideration ---Follower motivation (.50), leader job performance (.25) Initiating structure ---Follower motivation (.40), leader job performance (.24) Average correlations (across these outcomes) "Showing consideration" (.38) "Initiating structure" (.32) Showing consideration" matters more in all three studies!
Session 10: Create slack in your schedule
Keep an "empty room" in your life •This will allow you to deal with unforeseen issues much more efficiently (i.e., without devoting excessive time and emotional energy to them)
Session 2: How to ACT more powerful
Key behaviors: Mete out resources Shape behavior through rewards and punishment Advance on multiple fronts Make the first move Co-opt antagonists Remove rivals—nicely, if possible Don't draw unnecessary fire Use the personal touch Persist Make important relationships work Make the vision compelling
Session 5: Fiedler's Contingency Model
Key question: How does leadership style interact with the situation to determine leader effectiveness? Leadership style -Determined using the "least-preferred coworker" (LPC) questionnaire -Think of the person you've had the hardest time working with -Rate them on a series of bipolar adjectives (1 = most negative; 8 = most positive) -Add up your score ---High score (64 or above) = "relationship-oriented" leadership style ------You care about and are sensitive to others' feelings ("relationship-motivated") ---Low score (57 or below) = "task-oriented" leadership style ------You place more emphasis on "getting things done" than on people's feelings ("task-motivated") Assumptions -All "least-preferred coworkers" are probably equally difficult to work with -We each have tendencies to be more or less charitable with how we describe people we don't get along with -If you describe your LPC in charitable terms, you're probably relationship-oriented Situational characteristics -Leader-member relations ---The extent to which a leader has the support, loyalty, and trust of the work group -Task structure ---The extent to which tasks are routine, unambiguous, and easily understood -Position power ----The extent to which the leader has formal authority over followers (i.e., legitimate, reward, coercive power)
Session 5: House's Path-Goal Leadership Model
Key question: What leader behaviors are most effective in helping employees achieve their goals, and when should they be used? Directive behaviors: Providing structure by setting goals, assigning tasks, showing employees how to complete tasks, and so forth Contingencies? -When follower has low ability, positively impacts follower job satisfaction -When task is ambiguous, positively impacts follower motivation Supportive behaviors: Expressing concern for subordinates and looking out for their best interests Contingency? When task is ambiguous (which can be stressful), positively impacts follower job satisfaction Participative behaviors: Giving employees a say in matters and decisions that affect them Contingency? Good when followers' support of a decision is required and they have requisite knowledge of issues; less useful when followers are uninformed Achievement-oriented behaviors: Motivating employees to perform at their highest level by setting challenging goals, expecting that they be met, and believing in employees' capabilities Contingency? Good for highly capable but unmotivated followers; may backfire if followers are already working at capacity
Session 7: Transactional leadership
Key question:How do leaders motivate followers beyond role expectations? Assumption: •Leadership is a social exchange process—both parties are trading resources Transactional leadership (carrot and stick) •Leaders motivate followers through rewards and punishments (a "transaction") •Contingent reward•If you do this, you get this reward •Active management-by-exception--I will proactively monitor you to prevent failures and correct you as needed •Passive management-by-exception--I won't correct you unless/until something goes wrong
Session 4: Application: Leading in teams
Key to leading teams: Facilitating teamwork processes: -Creating a context for success (the processes supplementary to the task itself) ---Developing goals and strategy ("transition processes"), monitoring progress ("action processes"), motivating team members, building members' confidence, keeping them calm, managing conflict ("interpersonal processes") ------Relationship conflict - personal conflict among team members (differing values, personalities) ------Task conflict - disagreement about what to do (for the task) and how to do it ------Relationship conflict tends to hurt team performance ------Task conflict tends to hurt team performance UNLESS: The team trusts one another; the conflict doesn't get personal; team goals are the focus
Session 3: Key outcomes: Leader emergence & effectiveness
Leader Emergence: -"Whether (or to what degree) an individual is viewed as a leader by others, who typically have only limited information about that individual's performance" (Judge et al., 2002) --In other words, whether or not you're viewed as "leader-like" -Attributes that positively influence this perception include emotional intelligence (Wolff et al., 2002), sex (men are more likely to be viewed as leaders), as well as gender role characteristics (i.e., masculinity) (Kent & Moss, 1994) Leader Effectiveness: -Can be defined either in terms of tasks (i.e., unit performance) or relationships (e.g., follower satisfaction) Most often defined in terms of tasks: --The leader's ability to actually influence her or his subordinates and thereby help the work unit achieve its goals -Attributes that positively influence effectiveness include intelligence and various personality characteristics (Derue et al., 2011) -HOWEVER, leader behaviors are better predictors of leader effectiveness than traits (Derue et al., 2011) Most often measured using surveys No standard set of questions!
Session 1: The value of leadership skills for your career
Leadership skills 62%,Management skills 62%, Interpersonal skills 53%, Innovation and creativity 45%, Resilience 43% NACE Survey: leadership tied for first with ability to work in a team
Session 10: What leaders really do (cont.)
Leadership success depends on the idea + process + you •Envisioning new possibilities (idea) •Bridging across diverse people and groups (process) •Engaging people in the change process (process) •Communicating effectively about purpose (process—vision/values/mission) *Embodying the change (you)
Session 1: What is leadership?
Leadership: The use of power and influence to direct the activities of followers toward the achievement of (collectively-held) goals Power: The ability to influence the behavior of others and resist unwanted influence in return Influence: Causing behavioral and/or attitudinal changes in others Possible responses to influence attempts Internalization (best): Target agrees with and becomes committed to the request (behavioral and attitudinal changes) Compliance: Target is willing to perform the request, but does so with indifference (behavioral change only) Resistance: Target is opposed to the request and attempts to avoid doing it (no change in behavior or attitude
Session 5: Hersey & Blanchard's Situational Model
Life cycle leadership theory (Hersey & Blanchard, 1969) Key question: How do leader behaviors interact with the situation to determine leader effectiveness? -The optimal combination of initiating structure and showing consideration depends on the readiness of the employees in the work unit -Readiness = the degree to which employees have the ability and the willingness to accomplish their specific tasks Evidence supports only low readiness situations
Session 2: Video clips: No "upspeak"!; Remember this? (from the beginning up to 1:40)
Listeners expect the most important information in a sentence to be given the highest relative pitch, so upspeak confuses them
Session 1: Power in action (org politics, political skill, persuasion)
Organizational politics: The use of power to affect decision-making in an organization, often in the direction of self-serving goals. (Leads to decreased job satisfaction among followers, increased anxiety and stress, increased turnover, and reduced performance HOWEVER, these negative outcomes can be avoided if you have political skill) Political skill: The ability to get things done through positive interpersonal relationships, typically operating outside of formally-prescribed organizational processes and procedures Such skill can mitigate the negative perceptions of self-interested behavior: (You anticipate others' concerns with your request and adjust accordingly , You don't press your point—your approach is far more subtle and causal, You often frame requests in a mutually-beneficial way) Persuasion: Using specific tactics to influence and change the beliefs, attitudes, intentions, motivations, and/or behaviors of others Most Effective: Rational Persuasion, Consultation, Inspirational Appeals, Collaboration Moderate: Ingratiation, Personal Appeals, Exchange, Apprising Least Effective: Pressure, Coalitions
Session 1: Where does power originate?
Organizational power: Legitimate power: Power that comes from the position itself. "Higher up" you are = more legitimate power. Reward power: Power that comes as a result of having control over resources (bonuses, pay, promotions). Remember positive reinforcement? Coercive power: Power that comes as a result of having control over punishments (firing, demotions, suspensions, decreases in pay). Fear-based Personal power: Expert power: Power that comes from a person's expertise, skill, or knowledge on which others depend Referent power: Power that comes as a result of employees' desire to identify and be associated with that person
Session 5: What do we mean by "situation"?
Various "situational" elements: Follower attributes ---E.g., their "development" or "readiness" level (Blanchard & Hersey) Social context ---E.g., position power of leader, degree of task structure, quality of leader-subordinate relations (Fiedler; Path-Goal) Organizational context ---University, military, government, business
Session 1: Cialdini's six principles of persuasion Why do these principles work?
Reciprocity People generally repay actions in kind The logic of free samples! It need not be a material—it could something intangible (like consideration) Garner 2005 sticky-note experiment Social Proof/Consensus We tend to view actions as more acceptable to the degree that we see others performing them in same or similar situations Cialdini experiment with hotel towels Commitment/Consistency Once we make a choice, we're more likely to remain consistent with that choice Greenwald experiment with voting behavior How do you get people to make a new choice then? Find ways to stress connections between past behavior and new behavior Liking We tend to say "yes" to people who... We like, Are attractive, Are similar to ourselves (homophily), Give us compliments Garner 2005 experiment with names Authority People defer to people they believe are experts or authority figures Remember the Milgram studies? Scarcity People are more likely to say "yes" if they sense it is a rare, limited opportunity We want what we can't have! Huge public uproar over sweeter "new" Coca-Cola in 1985, even though in taste-tests people preferred it!
Term Outline: Session 10
Redefine Your Job: Make Your Job a Platform What leaders really do (cont.) Embodying the change Making your job a platform Communicating your personal "why" Create slack in your schedule Article: What's Your Story? Class Activity: Storytime! Video clips: The Iron Lady; Margaret Thatcher on socialism
Term Outline: Session 9
Redefine Your Job: What Leaders Really Do Managing vs. leading Where should you start? How do you make new ideas a reality? Article: Picture This Group Activity: Get-A-Vision Video clips: How? Think like a Martian; Brian David Johnson: Imagining the future; What about mission statements? (from the beginning up to 10:54); I Have A Dream (from 0:44 to 1:24)
Session 6: Servant leadership
Servant leadership •An approach that involves putting the needs of others—including employees, customers, and community—ahead of one's own •Leader behaviors include listening, showing empathy, promoting healing
Session 3: What about the leader's morals?
Should leaders be moral examples and/or moral teachers? Ethical leadership: The demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision-making (Brown et al., 2005) But is a leader's personal integrity relevant to their effectiveness? If we like the leader, we decouple their moral failings from their competence (Bhattacharjee, Berman, & Reed, 2013)
Session 6: Group Activity: Let's Build a CarVideo clips: Simon Sinek; Bob Chapman's Truly Human Leadership; The upside of authoritarian leaders
Sit down, be humble
Session 4: Leadership "styles": Another way of discussing behaviors
Six leadership styles: Coercive-Demands immediate compliance ("Do what I tell you") Authoritative -Mobilizes people toward a vision ("Come with me") Affiliative-Creates harmony and builds emotional bonds ("People come first") Democratic-Forges consensus through participation ("What do you think?") Pacesetting-Sets high standards for performance ("Do as I do, now") Coaching-Develops people for the future ("Try this" Organizational climate --Similar to culture, "climate" refers to the working environment -Six dimensions: Flexibility, responsibility, standards, rewards, clarity, commitment Leadership styles->organizational climate->organizational performance
Session 2: How to GET more powerful
We can get more powerful (i.e., get others to see us as more powerful) by first feeling more powerful via expansive postures We pose expansively -> we feel powerful (elevated testosterone, reduced cortisol) ->we act powerfully -> others perceive us as powerful Why do such poses work? They mimic large body size, which we seem to be hard-wired to respond to as an indicator of power
Session 4: Other labels
Task-oriented leader behaviors (i.e., "initiating structure") -Focus on the work and its successful completion ---Schedules of reinforcement ---Contingencies of reinforcement ---Role-clarification Relational-oriented leader behaviors (i.e., "showing consideration") -Focus on successful interactions w/ subordinates ---Ensuring their well-being ---Generating positive energy ---Motivating them and empowering them
Term Outline: Session 1
What is Leadership; Power & Influence Part 1 The value of leadership skills for your career What is leadership? Where does power originate? The four contingencies of power Power in action (org politics, political skill, persuasion) Cialdini's six principles of persuasion Why do these principles work? Beyond Cialdini: Others aspects of influence Article: Shut Up and Sit Down—Why The Leadership Industry Rules Video clips: Cialdini's six principles of persuasion
Term Outline: Session 8
The "Outsight" Principle & Redefine Your Job: Doing the Wrong Things Well Act Like a Leader, Think Like a Leader The "Outsight" Principle: How to Act and Think Like a Leader Three steps to gaining "outsight" Redefine Your Job: Doing the Wrong Things Well Temporal discounting (cont.) Article: Power and Reduced Temporal Discounting Video clips: Managerial jobs are changing; Daniel Goldstein: The battle between your present and future self (from the beginning up to 13:46)
Session 5: Article: The Tools of Cooperation & Change
The Agreement Matrix--Leaders who want to move their organizations in a new direction must first understand the degree to which employees agree on two dimensions: what they want out of working at the company and cause and effect, or how to achieve whatthey want. Lower Left Quadrant: Balkan Penn, Power Tools. Lower Right: Companies employing independant contractors. Management Tools. Upper Left: Microsoft in 1995, Leadership Tools. Upper Right: Apple, Culture Tools
Term Outline: Session 4
The Behavioral Approach Other labels Which behaviors matter most? Traits + behaviors Leadership "styles": Another way of discussing behaviors How do these leadership styles affect the "climate" of the organization? Application: Leading in teams Article: Leadership That Gets Results Video clips: Joe Torre, Part 1
Term Outline: Session 3
The Trait-Based Approach The trait-based approach Spencer's counterargument Key outcomes: Leader emergence & effectiveness The role of the Big Five personality traits Personality traits and leadership Narcissistic leaders Narcissistic CEOs and firm performance What about the leader's morals? Article: Narcissistic Leaders: The Incredible Pros, the Inevitable Cons Podcast: Radiolab, "I Don't Have to Answer That" Video clips: What is narcissism?; Gary Hart scandal of 1987
Session 3: The trait-based approach
The first systematic approach to studying leadership. What are the personal attributes that matter most? Assumption: people have innate qualities that make them good leaders This line of thinking goes all the way back to the historian Thomas Carlyle's "great man" theory (1840s) Leaders are born, not made These extraordinary individuals stand apart from other people and thus assume power History is a record of the achievements of such "great men" Still, through the early 1900s, early leadership scholars focused exclusively on the role of leaders' personal attributes In 1948, Ralph Stogdill (of Ohio State) challenged this view: The effectiveness of a leader's personal attributes depends on the situation (a precursor to contingency theories) Thus, a leader in one situation may not be a leader in another Traits are not the full story! In the past 20 years, however, traits have been revisited Even if they're not the full story, they have certainly always been part of the story
Session 10: Making your job a platform
We've seen that successful leaders do the following •Envision new possibilities (idea)•Bridge across diverse people and groups (process)•Engage people in the change process (process) •Communicate effectively about purpose (process—vision/values/mission) •Embody the change (you) We discussed some ideas about how to do the above behaviors •New ideas? Think "like a Martian" (Session 9) •Engage people? Display warmth (Session 1) •Communicate effectively? Craft concrete vision statements with a small number of values (Session 9) OK, that's all fine - but what small steps can we take today?•You need to make your job a "platform" for doing and learning new things•The point being to eventually change the scope of your job to include strategic concerns and thereby "think like a leader" Five steps to "making your job a platform" 1) Develop your situation sensors•Develop a "nose" for trends (remember Brian David Johnson?) 2) Get involved in projects outside your area•The Personal Leadership Project, Part 2 3) Participate in extracurricular activities•The Personal Leadership Project, Parts 1 and 2 4) Communicate your personal why 5) Create slack in your schedule
Session 2: More about impressions: it's not just what we say, but how we say it
The way we speak creates an impression 38% of an audience's response to you is a response to your vocal tonality Leaders speak clearly—and thus convey credibility
Session 1: Beyond Cialdini: Others aspects of influence
To influence others, is it better to project strength or warmth (Cuddy, Kohut, & Neffinger, 2013)? Strength = competence, credentials, independence are prioritized and conveyed Warmth = compassion, personal interest (e.g., smiling, nodding, listening intently) By first displaying warmth, and then blending in demonstrations of strength, leaders can exert greater influence Why? Warmth facilitates trust—which is critical for getting initial buy-in In sum, using Cialdini's principles + first establishing warmth = maximum influence
Term Outline: Session 7
Transformational/Transactional/LMX/Followership Transformational leadership Transactional leadership How do leaders motivate employees beyond expectations? Some transformational/transactional research LMX theory Some LMX research Followership An evolutionary perspective on followership Article: In Praise of Followers Article: When the CEO's Personal Crusade Drives Decisions Group Activity: Analyzing a Leader Video clips: What is charisma?; Braveheart!; Steve Jobs at NeXT (from 13:00 to 19:56)
Session 5: What if the objective is to change the organization?
Use the Agreement Matrix and correlated tools,.
Session 2: Group Activity: The Unhappy Employee
Using what you now know about power and influence, pretend that your are my supervisor and devise a strategy to convince me to stay
Session 8: The "Outsight" Principle: How to Act and Think Like a Leader
Why does this book exist? •Most leadership books...•Here are some leadership theories and self-assessments—use this knowledge to become a leader•Most leadership development...•Reflect on who you are and what you value—then you'll know how to act as a leader•Introspection can be useful, but it reinforcesour current beliefs about ourselves•What we need, instead, is something to completely change the way we see ourselves•The answer is deceptively simple •ACT DIFFERENTLY (i.e., MORE LEADER-LIKE)•Self-perception theory (Bem, 1967)•Behavior drives attitudes•Ibarra: Behavior drives identities, too! What kinds of actions are we talking about?•Proposing new ideas•Making contributions outside of your area of expertise•Connecting people and resources to a valued goal•Not only will you start seeing yourself as a leader, but...•Other people will begin seeing you as a leader, too—you develop a reputation•You will then be "leadership material"•You may be given more responsibility•You may be promoted How can we start living by this principle? Get out of your comfort zone!•Plunge yourself into new activities•Interact with different kinds of people than you're used to•Experiment with unfamiliar ways of getting things done•Plunge, Interact, Experiment: Personal Leadership Project, Part 2!•In the real world, leadership is often a DIY project•Many leadership opportunities don't come with a new job title•You will have to figure out how to "step up" and seize these opportunities
Session 10: Embodying the change
You may be envisioning new possibilities (idea), and you may be doing bridge roles, engaging people, and communicating effectively about purpose (process), but.. •The you part always trumps the idea and is the filter through which people evaluate the process •What "you" are we talking about?•Your demographic characteristics•Your personality•Your knowledge/abilities/skills •Your passions•Your convictions
