MGMT principles of management Chapter 13 Motivation
Companies are now beginning to apply
"gamification"—meaning levels, points, time limits, and friendly competition—to organizational tasks like training, data entry, sales leads, car pooling, etc.
job performance
(Motivation) x (Ability) x (Situational constraints)
Inequity can take two forms
, underreward and overreward
Motivation
= Valence (x) Expectancy (x) Instrumentality
Underreward
In other words, you are getting fewer outcomes relative to your inputs than the referent you compare yourself with is getting.
Changing the referent
In this case, people compare themselves with someone other than the referent they had been using for previous O/I ratio comparisons
overreward
In this case, you are getting more outcomes relative to your inputs than your referent is
there are two basic kinds of needs categories.
Lower-order needs and higher-order needs
three well-known needs theories
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs; Alderfer's ERG Theory and McClelland's Learned Needs Theory
Alderfer's ERG Theory collapses
Maslow's five needs into three: existence (safety and physiological needs), relatedness (belongingness), and growth (esteem and self-actualization).
there are four types of intermittent reinforcement schedules
Two of these are based on time and are called interval reinforcement schedules; the other two, known as ratio schedules, are based on behaviors.
Intrinsic rewards
a natural reward associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake
Extrinsic rewards
a reward that is tangible, visible to others, and given to employees contingent on the performance of specific tasks or behaviors
intermittent reinforcement schedules
a schedule in which consequences are delivered after a specified or average time has elapsed or after a specified or average number of behaviors has occurred
continuous reinforcement schedules
a schedule that requires a consequence to be administered following every instance of a behavior
Examples of intrinsic rewards include
a sense of accomplishment or achievement, a feeling of responsibility, the chance to learn something new or interact with others, or simply the fun that comes from performing an interesting, challenging, and engaging task.
goal
a target, objective, or result that someone tries to accomplish
Equity theory
a theory that states that people will be motivated when they perceive that they are being treated fairly
it is important to remember that ability and situational constraints
affect job performance as well.
variable ratio reinforcement schedules
an intermittent schedule in which consequences are delivered following a different number of behaviors, sometimes more and sometimes less, that vary around a specified average number of behaviors
fixed ratio reinforcement schedules
an intermittent schedule in which consequences are delivered following a specific number of behaviors
fixed interval reinforcement schedules
an intermittent schedule in which consequences follow a behavior only after a fixed time has elapsed
variable interval reinforcement schedules
an intermittent schedule in which the time between a behavior and the following consequences varies around a specified average
Initiation, direction, and persistence
are at the heart of motivation.
higher-order needs
are concerned with relationships (belongingness, relatedness, and affiliation), challenges and accomplishments (esteem, self-actualization, growth, and achievement), and influence (power).
Lower-order needs
are concerned with safety and with physiological and existence requirements
situational constraints
are factors beyond the control of individual employees, such as tools, policies, and resources that have an effect on job performance.
The basic components of goal-setting theory
are goal specificity, goal difficulty, goal acceptance, and performance feedback
Extrinsic rewards
are tangible and visible to others and are given to employees contingent on the performance of specific tasks or behaviors.
Intrinsic rewards
are the natural rewards associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake. For example, aside from the external rewards management offers for doing something well, employees often find the activities or tasks they perform interesting and enjoyable.
The three factors that affect those choices
are valence, expectancy, and instrumentality
Evaluate means
assessing the extent to which the intervention actually changed workers' behavior
Reinforcement contingencies
cause-and-effect relationships between the performance of specific behaviors and specific consequences
Intervene means
changing the organization by using positive and negative reinforcement to increase the frequency of these critical behaviors.
There are two categories of reinforcement schedules:
continuous and intermittent
Measure means
determining the baseline frequencies of these behaviors
two kinds of rewards
extrinsic and intrinsic
Expectancy theory holds that
for people to be highly motivated, all three variables—valence, expectancy, and instrumentality—must be high
there are five steps to motivating workers with reinforcement theory:
identify, measure, analyze, intervene, and evaluate critical performance-related behaviors
The basic model of motivation
in which effort leads to job performance
Performance feedback
information about the quality or quantity of past performance that indicates whether progress is being made toward the accomplishment of a goal
Negative reinforcement
is also called avoidance learning because workers perform a behavior to avoid a negative consequence
Changing the referent
is another way of restoring equity
Persistence of effort .
is concerned with the choices that people make about how long they will put forth effort in their jobs before reducing or eliminating those efforts
Motivation
is effort, the degree to which someone works hard to do the job well.
Ability
is the degree to which workers possess the knowledge, skills, and talent needed to do a job well.
one way for managers to meet employees' higher-order needs
is to create opportunities for employees to experience intrinsic rewards by providing challenging work, encouraging employees to take greater responsibility for their work, and giving employees the freedom to pursue tasks and projects they find naturally interesting.
Another method of restoring equity
is to rationalize or distort inputs or outcomes
Another method of restoring equity
is to rationalize or distort inputs or outcomes. Instead of decreasing inputs or increasing outcomes, employees restore equity by making mental or emotional adjustments in their O/I ratios or the O/I ratios of their referents.
equity theory
makes us aware that an employee's sense of fairness is based on subjective perceptions
According to Maslow,
needs are arranged in a hierarchy from low (physiological) to high (self-actualization). Within this hierarchy, people are motivated by their lowest unsatisfied need. As each need is met, they work their way up the hierarchy from physiological to self-actualization needs.
McClelland says that
needs are learned, not innate.
overreward
occurs when a referent's O/I ratio is worse than your O/I ratio.
empowerment is a feeling .
of intrinsic motivation in which workers perceive their work to have meaning and perceive themselves to be competent, to have an impact, and to be capable of self-determination
Equity theory focuses
on distributive justice
There are four kinds of reinforcement contingencies:
positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction
satisfy lower-order needs first this means
providing the equipment, training, and knowledge to create a safe workplace free of physical risks, paying employees well enough to provide financial security, and offering a benefits package that will protect employees and their families through good medical coverage and health and disability insurance.
Reinforcement has two parts:
reinforcement contingencies and schedules of reinforcement
Extinction
reinforcement in which a positive consequence is no longer allowed to follow a previously reinforced behavior, thus weakening the behavior
Positive reinforcement
reinforcement that strengthens behavior by following behaviors with desirable consequences
Negative reinforcement
reinforcement that strengthens behavior by withholding an unpleasant consequence when employees perform a specific behavior
punishment
reinforcement that weakens behavior by following behaviors with undesirable consequences
schedule of reinforcement
rules that specify which behaviors will be reinforced, which consequences will follow those behaviors, and the schedule by which those consequences will be delivered
By contrast, Alderfer
says that people can be motivated by more than one need at a time. Furthermore, he suggests that people are just as likely to move down the needs hierarchy as up, particularly when they are unable to achieve satisfaction at the next higher need level.
Equity theory
says that people will be motivated at work when they perceive that they are being treated fairly.
Identify means
singling out critical, observable, performance-related behaviors
Analyze means
studying the causes and consequences of these behaviors
Recall that intrinsic rewards
such as accomplishment, achievement, learning something new, and interacting with others are the natural rewards associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake.
different needs theories
suggest different needs categories
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
suggests that people are motivated by physiological (food and water), safety (physical and economic), belongingness (friendship, love, social interaction), esteem (achievement and recognition), and self-actualization (realizing your full potential) needs.
McClelland's Learned Needs Theory
suggests that people are motivated by the need for affiliation (to be liked and accepted), the need for achievement (to accomplish challenging goals), or the need for power (to influence others).
We always try to hire people who yearn to be master craftspeople,
that is, designers who want to be great designers, not managers of designers; developers who want to master the art of programming, not management."
McClelland argues
that the degree to which particular needs motivate varies tremendously from person to person, with some people being motivated primarily by achievement and others by power or affiliation.
Valence
the attractiveness or desirability of a reward or outcome
Goal difficulty
the extent to which a goal is hard or challenging to accomplish
Goal specificity
the extent to which goals are detailed, exact, and unambiguous
Goal acceptance
the extent to which people consciously understand and agree to goals
In particular, equity theory stresses
the importance of perceptions. So, regardless of the actual level of rewards people receive, they must also perceive that, relative to others, they are being treated fairly.
distributive justice
the perceived degree to which outcomes and rewards are fairly distributed or allocated
procedural justice
the perceived fairness of the process used to make reward allocation decisions
Expectancy
the perceived relationship between effort and performance
Instrumentality
the perceived relationship between performance and rewards
Needs
the physical or psychological requirements that must be met to ensure survival and well-being
reinforcement
the process of changing behavior by changing the consequences that follow behavior
Motivation
the set of forces that initiates, directs, and makes people persist in their efforts to accomplish a goal
Reinforcement theory
the theory that behavior is a function of its consequences, that behaviors followed by positive consequences will occur more frequently, and that behaviors followed by negative consequences, or not followed by positive consequences, will occur less frequently
Goal-setting theory
the theory that people will be motivated to the extent to which they accept specific, challenging goals and receive feedback that indicates their progress toward goal achievement
Expectancy theory
the theory that people will be motivated to the extent to which they believe that their efforts will lead to good performance, that good performance will be rewarded, and that they will be offered attractive rewards
Underreward occurs
when a referent's O/I ratio is better than your O/I ratio.
Studies generally show that higher-order needs
will not motivate people as long as lower-order needs remain unsatisfied
(FLSA)
Fair Labor Standards Act