MHR 300: Chapter 5: Motivating Behavior
What are the 6 ways we try to reduce inequity?
1. change our own inputs (put in less effort or more effort to alter our ratio to inputs and outcomes) 2. change our own outcomes (demand a raise or steal to "get more" from the company) or change our perceptions of the value of our current outcomes 3. alter our perceptions of ourselves and our behavior (we may decide that we contribute less but receive more than we originally thought) 4. alter our perception of the comparison other's inputs or outcomes 5. change the object of comparison (we may compare ourselves to someone in a similar position instead of a management position) 6. we may leave the situation
How can managers identify desired behaviors and reinforce them?
1. define the problem (what can be improved) 2. identify and define specific behaviors to change 3. record and track the occurrence of target behavior 4. analyze the current negative consequences of the undesired behavior and arrange for more positive consequences to follow the desired behavior 5. evaluate whether the behavior has improved and by how much
What are the 4 types of partial reinforcement schedules?
1. fixed ratio: desired behavior that is quickly reinforced after a specified number of correct responses and has fast extinction 2. fixed interval: desired behavior is reinforced after a certain amount of time has passed (high performance near the end of the interval but lower performance right after reinforcement) 3. variable ratio: desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of behaviors (high, steady rate of responding with desired behaviors and behavior are hard to extinguish) 4. variable interval: desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed (behavior doesn't affect the availability of reinforcement)
In order for us to social learn, what conditions must be met to produce an appropriate environment?
1. the behavior being watched and imitated must be simple 2. observed and limited behavior that is concrete and not intellectual 3. must have physical ability to imitate the observed behavior
What is the need for achievement?
desire to accomplish a goal or task more effectively than in the past - high-need achievers tend to set moderately difficult goals and make moderately risky decisions that assume all personal responsibility for getting things done and preoccupy themselves with work and want immediate feedback on their performance
What is the need for power?
desire to control one's environment, including financial, material, informational and human resources - people's need for power can vary
What does the two-factor theory of motivation suggest?
employees can either be satisfied or not satisfied, and dissatisfied or not dissatisfied at the same time
Motivation and Job Performance
job performance is based on three factors: 1. motivation (the employee wanting to do the job) 2. ability (employee having the skills and means to do the job) 3. environment (employee having the materials and resources and info to do the job) - motivation is the hardest factor to manage since managers have to figure out what motivates the employee to work hard
What type of jobs would those with a high need for affiliation prefer?
jobs with interpersonal contact like sales or teaching
How has research supported the expectancy theory? How has it not?
research confirmed that expectancy theory was right that people won't engage in motivated behavior unless they value the expected rewards, believe their efforts will lead to performance, and desired rewards - lacks validity - procedures for looking at the relationship were less scientific - more exclusive to the US
What is the most difficult need to satisfy?
self-actualization (need to become the best you can be) is the hardest to satisfy and can be achieved through working towards it
What has research suggested is the fastest way to get someone to learn? What is a better way instead of it?
suggested continuous reinforcement of behavior every time it happens may not really be effective since the desired behavior will decrease as soon as the reward is stopped - variable reinforcement would be more effective since reinforcement would happen every few times, meaning rewards could happen anytime, keeping motivation of behavior up always
How does the ERG theory differ from Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
suggests we can experience multiple kinds of needs at one time that may motivate us at the same - includes a satisfaction-progression component that is similar to how Maslow suggests people move onto the next level of need after satisfying one, but also includes a frustration-aggression component that suggests when people are irritated by trying to satisfy higher level needs, they eventually go back to the previous level
What is behavior modification?
the application of reinforcement theory to influence the behaviors of people in organizational settings - involves the use of different kinds of reinforcement when employees are observed behaving in desired or undesired ways
What is a valence?
the attractiveness or unattractiveness of an outcome - pay raises or promotions might be positive valences while stress and fatigue can be negative valences
What is extinction?
the removal of other reinforcement (positive or negative) following the occurrence of the behavior to be destroyed to decrease the chances of it being repeated
What is positive reinforcement?
the use of rewards to increase the likelihood that a desired behavior will be repeated - ex: good tips from satisfied customers at Chili's are positive reinforcement for restaurant servers
What are need-based theories?
theories that assume we are mainly motivated by need deficiencies - starting point for modern thought on motivation - most known need-based theories are ERG theory and hierarchy of needs
What is reinforcement theory?
theory associated with the work of B. F. Skinner that suggests that behavior is a function of its consequences and future behavioral choices are affected by the consequences of earlier behaviors - when a behavior results in pleasant consequences, we will repeat it and if it doesn't, we won't repeat it
How can managers identify motivated employees who fit the job?
they can hire people with individual characteristics that line up with the job that will lead to high motivation
How do we form equity perceptions?
through a 4 step process where we look at how we are being treated by the organization, forma perception of how a comparison other (someone else) is being treated by the organization, compare their circumstances to ours and use this as the basis for forming an impression of equity or inequity - depending on our perception of the situation, we may leave the situation as it is (maintain it) or try to reduce the inequity or be more motivated
What is the contemporary learning theory?
views learning as a cognitive process where people reflect on their experiences and pst ones as a basis for their present behavior, where the experiences are knowledge/cognitions - people use the knowledge from past experiences and experiences to make choices about their behavior, recognize the consequences of their choices, and evaluate those consequences and add those to prior learning which will affect future choices
How is motivated behavior related to needs?
we are motivated by satisfied needs (the need to maintain our home mortgage) and unmet needs (future log cabin or new car)
How does part of the equity process relate to the psychological contract?
we assess our psychological contract (inputs to the organization like experience, effort, loyalty and education and outcomes that we receive from the organization like pay, recognition, and social relationships) and compare it to our perceptions of the comparison other's inputs and outcomes - if we think that the other's persons outcomes don't match their inputs, then we perceive that as inequity
What is social learning?
when people observe the behavior of others and the consequences of those behaviors, and alter their own behavior as a result - we also learn behaviors and attitude in response to what others expect of us
What is partial reinforcement?
when the desired behavior is reinforced only part of the time
What is one of the most important determinants of motviation?
whether you believe in yourself or not
What are important expectancy theory guidelines to follow as a manager?
1. determine the primary outcomes each employee wants 2. decide what kinds and levels of performance are needed to meet goals 3. make sure desired levels of performance are possible 4. link desired outcomes and performance 5. analyze the situation for conflicting expectancy 6. make sure rewards are large enough 7. make sure overall system is equitable for everyone
What 3 messages does equity theory provide managers?
1. everyone in the organization needs to understand the basis for rewards 2. people tend to take a multifaceted view of their rewards 3. people base their actions on their perceptions of reality
What are the 3 components of task-specific self-efficacy?
1. magnitude (belief about how hard a task is to complete) 2. strength (belief about how confident the person is that the job can be done) 3. generality (belief about the degree to which similar tasks can be done)
What is learning?
a somewhat permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential that results from direct or indirect experience - critical since employees learn what behavior is rewarded and what isn't
What is the Porter-Lawler model?
a variation of the expectancy theory developed by Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler that argues if rewards are adequate, then high levels of performance may lead to satisfaction
What is classical conditioning?
a historical approach to learning developed by Ivan Pavlov in his experiments with dogs that suggests learning happens through a conditioned response to an unconditional stimulus - too simplistic since it relies on simple cause-and-effect relationships between one stimulus and one response - ignores people who consciously choose one course of actions or behaviors instead of others
What is expectancy theory (VIE theory)?
a motivation theory applied by Victor Vroom that suggests motivation depends on how much we want something and how likely we think we are to get it, and tries to determine how people choose among diff behaviors
What is ERG theory?
a motivation theory developed by psychologist Clayton Alderfer that extends to Maslow's hierarchy of needs due to the fact that E, R, and G stand for existence needs (like physiological needs and security needs from hierarchy of needs), relatedness needs (belongingness and esteem needs), and growth needs (like self-esteem and self-actualization needs)
What is the acquired needs framework?
a need-based motivation perspective that was developed by David McClelland that focuses on the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power, which are learned through cultural, societal, and family influences
What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
a need-based theory developed by psychologist Abraham Maslow in the 1940s that assumes there are sets of needs we desire to satisfy, which are categorized into 3 sets of needs at the bottom of the hierarchy called deficiency needs (they must be satisfied for the person to be comfortable) and 2 top sets of growth needs that focus on personal growth - each level of needs must be satisfied before the next becomes important but if lower-level needs become deficient again, you go back to that level
What is the two-factor theory?
a need-based theory of motivation that was developed by Frederick Herzberg in the 1950s through a series of 200 interviews of accountants and engineers concerning times they felt motivated and satisfied and when they felt unmotivated and dissatisfied, where he argued that there are two dimensions involved in motivation with a dimension being based on satisfaction or no satisfaction affected by motivation factors (achievement, recognition, work, responsibility, advancement and growth) and a dimension based on dissatisfaction or no dissatisfaction affected by hygiene factors (supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relationships, pay and job security)
What is task-specific self-efficacy?
a person's belief in their ability to do what is required to complete a certain task - has 3 components that can influence a person's effort and persistence in the face of challenges while doing tasks
What is the traditional approach of motivation?
an approach on motivation developed by Frederick Taylor (creator of scientific management) that describes how employees are motivated by pay and pay is more important to them than the nature of their work, which led him to believe managers knew more about the jobs than workers and advocate for an incentive pay system - too narrow of a view since it didn't consider other motivational factors
What is the human resources approach to motivation?
an approach that emerged in the 1950s that assumes people want to contribute and can make real contributions that benefit the organization and themselves, which involves management encouraging participation and creating a workplace where available human resources are used - guides modern thinking where employees work in teams to solve problems and contribute to the organization
What is the human relations approach to motivation?
an approach to motivation that replaced scientific management in the 30s and assumed employees have strong social needs where they want to feel important or useful, which are more important than pay - was meant to enhance motivation by giving workers some self-direction and control but wasn't real participation
What is an outcome?
anything that might result from performance - a pay raise, promotion, fatigue, or stress
What is negative reinforcement?
based on the removal of current or future unpleasant consequences to increase that chance that someone will repeat a behavior (removing something undesirable can be motivating) - ex: if you take an aspirin and it takes away the headache you had (the undesirable consequence), it will make you more likely to repeat that behavior
How can managers use the two-factor theory in the workplace?
get rid of situations that cause dissatisfaction by addressing hygiene factors (working conditions, pay and job security, interpersonal relationships,) to achieve a state of no dissatisfaction and then after no dissatisfaction is reached, use motivation factors (work itself, responsibility, recognition, achievement or growth) to make people feel satisfied and motivated
How does the expectancy theory of motivation work?
has 3 components (effort-to-performance expectancy, performance-to-outcome expectancy, and outcomes) with each having an associated valence - all three components interact with effort, the environment, and the ability to determine an individual's performance
Why is motivation important?
helps job performance but lack of motivation can be difficult, creating low job performance and hurting the company
How can managers with a high need for power be successful?
if they seek power to help the organization be better, have a low need for affiliation, and can control their desire for power when it could possibly harm the organization
Why is expectancy hard to apply in the workplace?
managers would have to know what rewards each employee wants and how valuable they are to each person and fix relationships to create motivation
What is the need for affiliation?
need for human companionship - people with a high need for affiliation tend to want reassurance and approval from others, while genuinely being concerned about the feelings of others when acting and thinking as they think others want them to
What is a need?
something someone requires or wants
What is continuous reinforcement?
when desired behavior is reinforced each time it happens
Why are organizational rewards and reward systems the most important implication of equity theory?
"formal" organizational rewards like pay and task assignments are observed easier than "informal" rewards (intrinsic satisfaction, feelings of accomplishment) so they are important to a person's perceptions of equity
How can organizations meet the physiological, belongingness, security and esteem needs?
- can meet the physiological needs (easiest to meet) by providing wages, clean restrooms and working conditions - can meet belongingness needs by encouraging interaction and group identity - can meet security needs through insurance and retirement system, job continuity (no layoffs) - can meet esteem needs through job title, recognition, choice offices
What are the limits of the hierarchy of needs?
- doesn't apply well to other countries - the five needs are not always present - the actual hierarchy of needs doesn't conform to maslow's model - need structures are unstable
In order for reinforcement to work, what must happen?
- people need to know why they are receiving a reward and it must be given as quickly as possible - reward must be something desirable to the individual
What are the five sets of needs in Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
- physiological needs (most basic needs like air, sex, and food on the bottom) - security needs (2nd level things that offer safety and security like adequate housing or retirement options) - belongingness needs (3rd level where needs are mainly social like friendship and work friends) - esteem needs (4th level needs that include need to be respected by others and have our own self-respect/image - self-actualization needs (top level of the hierarchy that involves the person becoming their full potential)
Why are early historical perspectives on motivation of interest to managers?
- provides a foundation for modern thinking about motivation, based on common sense and intuition - allows managers to look at the strengths and weaknesses and gain insight into employee motivation
What are some of the criticisms of the two-factor theory?
- the sample population of accountants and engineers doesn't represent the general population - doesn't account for individual differences - varies across cultures - the methodology used to do the research is questionable
What is performance-to-outcome expectancy?
a person's perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain outcomes, with each outcome having its own expectancy
What is effort-to-performance expectancy?
a person's perception of the probability that their effort with lead to better performance - this expectancy is strong with an absolute certainty probability of 1.0 when we believe our effort will lead to higher performance and when we don't, our expectancy is low with a 0 probability
What is a process-based perspective?
a perspective that focuses on why and how people behave to satisfy their needs
What does the expectancy framework suggest regarding motivated behavior?
before motivated behavior occurs, the individual's effort-to-performance expectancy and performance-to-outcome expectancy must be above zero, and the sum of all valences can be negative as long as the positives outweigh the negatives
What is equity?
belief we are being treated fairly in comparison to others - inequity is the belief we are being treated unfairly compared to others
How can managers improve an employee's task-specific self-efficacy?
coaching, encouraging, and discussing how an employee's skills and effort led to success
How do individual differences play into motivation?
cultural differences, personalities, and individual characteristics can drive us to put more effort into certain goals than others
What has research shown regarding equity theory?
focuses on one ratio (between hourly and piece-rate) and stronger support for responses to underpayment than overpayment
What is the contribution of Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
general framework for categorizing needs
The Porter-Lawler model
includes abilities, traits, and role perceptions where effort is a function of the value of potential reward for the employee (its valence) and the perceived effort reward probability (can expect only) and effort combines with abilities, traits, and role perceptions to determine actual performance - performance can result in either intrinsic (achievement or sense of accomplishment) or extrinsic rewards (pay or promotions) and the person compares their rewards to form an impressions of how equitable they are, where satisfaction with rewards influences the value of anticipated rewards and actual performance following effort influences future perceived effort-to-reward probabilities
What type of jobs would high-need achievers work in?
jobs like sales (immediate feedback from customers) and unlikely to be in top management positions since they do better individually than with groups
What is the equity theory of motivation?
people desire to be treated with what they perceive as equity and avoid inequity - involves people comparing their situations to that of other people and is the most highly developed social comparison approaches and applies to work motivation in organizations
How does the motivational framework explain how motivational processes occur?
people who have a need deficiency find ways to satisfy that need, which results in a choice of goal-directed behaviors and performing one of them to satisfy the need, and will lead to experiencing rewards or punishment as a result of that choice - at the end, the person reviews and examines how the outcome addressed their need
What are the 4 kinds of reinforcement?
positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction
How can rewards impact ethical behavior choices?
rewards do not always lead to ethical behavior since the reward can overshadow the intrinsic value of the ethical behavior
What is punishment?
the application of negative outcomes to decrease the likelihood of a behavior - ex: reducing work hours of low-performing employees or rules/policies like formal disciplinary activities
What is motivation?
the set of forces that make people engage in behavior instead of another
What have managers realized regarding the nature of motivation as opposed to what they used to believe about motivation?
workplace factors that motivate behavior can help the employee and organization instead of only helping motivate organization for the benefit of the organization
