MICRO 2

Iron is extremely crucial for human metabolism. Iron is transported in plasma cells by this transport protein:

Transferrin, which is an iron binding compound

There are two types of Interferons- Type 1 (alpha and beta) and Type II (gamma)

Type 1 (alpha and beta) are present in early viral infections and type II (gamma) appears later in the course of viral infection.

Dermicidins

a class of antimicrobial peptides secreted by sweat glands

What is an axenic environment

a pure or sterile environment, free of all other organisms and viruses

dsRNA is typically

absent from cells. The Toll-like receptor, TLR3, binds to double-stranded RNA, a molecule that is common among viruses but generally absent in eukaryotic cells. The human genome is composed of dsDNA, and mRNA is an example of single-stranded RNA

Ingestion

after a phagocyte adheres to the microorganism, the pseudopods extend and surround the microbe, enclosing it. Pseudopods fuse to from a food vessicle called a phagosome.

TLRS act to

bind microbial proteins and polysaccharides

In the blood plasma,

blood clotting happens as a defense mechanism in plasma, which is a way to reduce blood loss and to prevent infection. When clotting factors are removed, serum is what is left with the plamsa

pyrogens

chemical that triggers hypothalamus thermostat to reset to a higher temperature, causing a fever.

The most numerous of the formed elements that are red blood cells, using iron to help carry oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood, are called

erythrocytes

Cells and cell fragments found in the plasma are refered to as

formed elements, which are categorized as erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets.

Histamine

inflammatory mediator, released by basophils, platelets and specialized cells when exposed to complement fragments C3a and C5a

Toll like Receptors (TLRS) are

integral membrane proteins provided by phagoctyic cells.They act as an early warning system, triggering body responses to microbial molecules, or PAMPS (Pathogen associated molecular patterns). TLRS bind to PAMPS, and this causes defensive responses to occur, including apotosis of infected cell (apoptosis), secretion of inflammatory mediators or interferons, and stimulates the chemical stimulants of the adaptive immune response. If TRL'S fail, the immune responses collapse, leaving the body open to attack of pathogens.

What does a differential amount of WBC's tell us

it can signal a disease. A high number of eosinophils= can indicate the presence of parasitic worm infections and allergies in the body. An increase in leukocytes /neutorphils= bacterial diseases. An increase in lymphocytes= indication of viral infections.

Iron binding proteins assist in the transportation and storing of iron, but they also...

keep iron away from the reaches of microorganisms

Gram negative cell walls contain

lipopolysaccharide

Defensive chemicals can assist phagocytic cells by either enhancing them or killing microorganims themselves and include

lysosomes, defensins, Toll like receptors, NOD proteins, interferons and complements.

Adherence

phagocytes attach to microorganims through the binding of complementary chemicals, such as glycoproteins, found on the membranes of cells. Opozination occurs (prepare to eat)

What are the fragments taken apart of the large cells, Megakaryoctes, and are involved in blood clotting called?

platelets

Margination

process by which leukocytes stick to the walls of blood vessels at the site of infection

Type II cells

produced by activated T cells and natural killer lymphocytes, activated days after infection. This stimulates the activity of macrophages. It regulates the immune system as in its activation of phagocytic activity.

Interferons are

protein molecules released by host cells to non-specifically inhibit the spread of viral infections. Interferons produced against one viral invader protect against the infection of other types of viruses as well. However, inteferons cause many symptoms, including malaise, muscle aches, fever and chills. They do not protect the cells that secrete them because these cells are already infected. They stimulate the activity of macrophages and NK cells to protect neighboring cells .

NOD proteins

receptors to microbial molecules, these are cytostolic proteins that bind to PAMPs, located inside of the cell rather than a part of the cytoplasmic membrane. NOD proteins trigger inflammation, apoptosis and other innate immune responses against bacterial pathogens. Mutations in NOD genes associated with some inflammatory bowel diseases, including Crohn's disease.

Prostaglandins and Leukotrienes

released as an inflammatory chemical by TLRS and NOD proteins, to patrol macrophages.

Type 1 cells

secreted within hours after infection by virally infected monocytes, macrophages and some lymphocytes. The binding of Type 1 cells to neighboring cytoplasmic membranes triggers the production of AVPS (antiviral proteins), which remains inactive in a cell until binded to a nucleic acid.

Complement

set of serum proteins designated numerically according to the order of discovery, and they react to one another in a series of reactions called a cascade. Complement activation results in inflammation and fever, Opsonization, and lysis of foreign cells.

How is it that phagocytes destroy invading pathogens and leave the bodys own healthy cells unharmed?

-Some phagocytes have cytoplasmic membrane receptors for various microbial surface components lacking on the body's cells, such as cell wall components or flagellar proteins. -Opsonins, such as a complement and antibody provide a signal to the phagocyte

There are 6 steps to phagocytosis:

1) Chemotaxis, 2)Adherence, 3)Ingestion, 4)Maturation, 5)Killing and 6)Elimination.

Which of the following is an example of phagocytosis

A eukaryotic cell engulfs a foreign particle

What is a way to remember phagocytosis

the eating of the cell. This process is used by phagocytes, which are defense cells of the body, and use this process to get rid of pathogens that have evaded the body's first line of defense. Phagocytosis is a complex process that is still not completely understood.

This Granulocyte releases inflammatory chemicals

Basophils

Killing

Caused by reactive oxygen, low pH levels and enzymes. Most pathogens are dead within thirty minutes. In the end, a phagolysosome is considered a residual body.

These proteins are considered opsonins, which increase the number and kinds of binding sites on a microbes surface

Complement proteins and antibodies

What is also found in the plasma, besides electrolytes, water, proteins such as iron, dissolved gases, and nutrients?

Complement proteins and antibodies

Chemotaxis

the movement of a cell either towards a chemical stimulus (positive chemotaxis) or away from a chemical stimulus (negative stimulus). Positive chemotaxis uses pseudopods to crawl toward microorganisms at the site of infection.

These cells are not white blood cells but they are a special group of phagocytes, that are multi branched cells found throughout the body, but are particularly found in the skin and mucous membrane.

Dendritic cells, which await microbial invaders, phagocytize the pathogen, and inform cells of the adaptive immunity that there is a microbial invasion.

This function, involved in defending the body against parasitic worms and are present in large numbers during allergic reactions, is a job for this Granulocyte:

Eosinophils

Which of the following is not targeted by a Toll-like receptor?

Eukaryotic flagellar protein. TLR4 targets lipid A. TLR7 and TLR8 target single-stranded viral RNA. TLR2 targets lipoteichoic acid. The Toll-like receptors do not bind to eukaryotic flagellar proteins.

Excess iron would then be stored in the liver bound to another protein called:

Ferritin

What two categories are leukocytes placed under, regarding their appearance in stained blood smears under a light microscope?

Granulocytes and Agranulocytes

Some pathogens skip, or bypass, the whole tug of war controversy and will secrete what protein, which punches holes in the cytoplasmic membranes of red blood cells, releasing hemoglobin.

Hemolysin

If a complement is non specific, and can form on any cell membrane, how do the body's own cells withstand the action of the complement?

Inactivation of the complement. Proteins of many cells bind and break down activated complement proteins.

In response to Sidesphores, the human body would produce this:

Lactoferrin, which would then retake the iron that has been stolen.

Agranulocytes are displayed as uniformed under a light microscope and are catergoried as two Leukocytes:

Lymohocytes and Monocytes

This Agranulocyte is the smallest leukocyte and the nuclei completely fills the cell

Lymphocyte , which are found mostly in adaptive immunity, but the Natural Killer cells are used for innate immunity.

All three Granulocytes, labeled as Leukocytes, can undergo the process of Diapedesis, which is when...

the white blood cell can exit the blood to attack invading microbes in the tissues by squeezing between the cells lining capillaries.

These Agranulocytes are large and have slightly lobed nuclei. They also leave the blood and mature as macrophages, which are phagocytic cells and their function is to devour the foreign object.

Monocytes

Neutrophils and Eosinophils can do something that Basophils cannot...

Neutrophils and Eosinophils can phagocytize pathogens and Basophils cannot

Opozination happens during the adherence part of phagocytosis, and this happens:

Opozination is the coating of pathogens by proteins called opsonins, making them more vulnerable to phagocytes.

Elimination

Phagocytes remove whatever remains by exocytosis, which is basically the opposite of ingestion.

When bacteria lack iron, they secrete their own iron binding proteins called

Sidesphores, which steal iron from the body.

What formed element is directly involved with defending the body from foreign invaders, or microorganisms?

white blood cells, or leukocytes

The complement is activated in three ways:

The classical pathway: antibodies activate The alternative pathway: pathogens activate The lectin pathway: microbial polysaccharides bind to activating molecules The three pathways merge. The product of each reaction becomes an enzyme that catalyzes the next reaction many times over. Each part of the cascade effect effects our body very much.

Maturation

The phagosome binds to a lysosome (which contributes to the addition of digestive chemicals) to produce a phagolysosome. The phagolysosome contains antimicrobial properties, such as toxic forms of oxygen, which help in the destruction of the microbe, along with additional enzymes.

Granulocytes include Basophils, Neutrophils and Eosinophils. They are noticeable by their appearances via the dyes.

Their granules in the cells cytoplasm are large and stain different colors. Basophils stain blue, Eosinophils stain red and Neutrophils stain lilac.