midterm exam
A child is in his school arts and crafts class, and does not seem to understand that when you roll a ball of clay into a long clay snake that the amount of clay does not actually increase. Based on Piaget's stages of development, you can predict that this child is under the age of ______years. 12 5 9 10 7
7
what calim did william james make about consciousness in the book principles of psychology The experience of consciousness is shared by animals and humans. Consciousness cannot be reduced to its component parts. Consciousness can be studied by carefully studying brain anatomy and physiology. Consciousness is an illusion. Consciousness cannot be studied scientifically.
Consciousness cannot be reduced to its component parts
given that it is generally related to life experiences and accumulated knowledge, which kind of intelligence do you think would be more substantial in an older adult versus a young child Triarchic intelligence Generalized, or "g factor", intelligence Crystallized intelligence Specific, or "s factor", intelligence Fluid intelligence
Crystallized
James, Hall, and cattell were part of a group that embraced_______and was influenced by evolutionary theory. empiricism structuralism behaviorism eugenics functionalism
Functionalism
In which country was modern psychology developed? The United States China England Austria Germany
Germany
The saying the "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts" represents to philosophy of ______ psychology. Gestalt Behaviorist Modern Empirical Structuralist
Gestalt
Adolescents tend to associate with peers who are similar to themselves. What is the names for this characteristic? psychological control identity diffusion moratorium homophily differential susceptibility
Homophily
think back to the very first car you saw on the road today. what was driver wearing? if you're like most people, you don't have any idea what the answer is. Why? I'm experiencing a case of source misattribution. I am currently experiencing proactive interference of that memory. Autobiographical memories such as these are usually unavailable for voluntary retrieval. The clothes of that driver faded out of my working memory. I did not encode the information.
I did not encode the information
Brian is listening to his son, Abel, talk abut what he did in school today. Suddenly Brian has difficulty hearing the story because Abel's brother, who has a very similar voice, starts talking on the phone nearby. which phenomenon describes Brian's difficulty. priming masking fusion auditory shadowing tinniting
Masking
Markus is in a study examining the impact of vitamin C on vision. Some participants take 100mg. of vitamin C every day while others take placebo. Markus doesn't know which group he's in, but he is given eye exams measuring his vision each month. What is the dependent variable? The fact that a placebo pill is being used. The day on which the eye exams are administered. The number of participants in the study. The amount of vitamin C a participant takes. Participant's vision, in this case, Markus'.
Participant's vision, in this case, Markus'
the basic notion that the language used by a given group of people has a significant impact on how they think is called the _____ hypothesis, after its original founders
Sapir-Whorf
What was the role of women in research psychology in the US in the first half of the 1900s? Only Harvard-educated women were permitted to do research. Women could study psychology but could not work professionally. Some women participated, but faced many barriers. Women did more research than men. Women were prohibited from research until 1930.
Some women participated, but faced many barriers.
mathilda is studying the parts of the brain and their various functions. when she gets to the sense of hearing, she should probably realize that the primary auditory centers are located in the ____ lobes of her brain. corporeal frontal temporal parietal occipital
Temporal
What event, in 1879, established psychology as a science? The American Psychological Association (APA) was founded. The term psychology was first used in newspaper articles. Wundt added a laboratory experience to his experimental psychology lectures. The first PhD in psychology was granted. The first American psychology laboratory was established.
Wundt added a laboratory experience to his experimental psychology lectures.
what kind of research would be most useful in investigating whether saving for retirement improves with age? an analogue design a quasi-experimental design a correlational design a case study an experimental design
a correlational design
which of the following would serve as an appropriate operational definition of depression in a research study about mood disorders? The total score the participant gets on a depression behavioral rating scale that is completed by her parents. The way a participant's therapist rates his depression on a defined scale of 1 to 100. A participant's total score on a statistically valid depression inventory. The number of times in an average day a research participant says the word "sad". The extent to which a research participant reports that they "feel" depressed at the start of the study.
a participants total score on a statistically valid depression inventory
Infants with ______ type of attachment are not concerned when their parents leave the room and may even shun them upon their return avoidant ambivalent secure permissive resistant
avoidant
an article headline claimed that drugs cause homelessness due to a positive relationship found between homeless populations and drugs use. some psychologists thought this might be flawed because they thought unemployment was influencing both drug use and homelessness. In this case, unemployment is an example of experimenter expectations a third variable problem placebo effect canonical correlation participant demand
a third variable problem
the smallest amount of stimulation needed for detection is known as the principle of inverse effectiveness sensory adaptation absolute threshold just noticeable difference signal detection
absolute threshold
As two people have a conversation, a set of utterances that communicates comprehension between them, which might include yeah sure or mm-hmm, is called an ____ pair acknowledgement adjacency affirmative interactive exchanging
adjacency
Hazan and Shaver argue that relationships in ___ are attachments adults social media contexts the 21st century children macaque monkeys
adults
what distinguishes an experiment from a quasi-experimental research design? An experiment utilizes a correlational coefficient and a quasi-experiment does not. A quasi-experiment utilizes a correlational coefficient and an experiment does not. A quasi-experiment involves random assignment and an experiment does not. An experiment involves random assignment and a quasi-experiment does not. A quasi-experiment is immune to the effects of confounds and an experiment is not.
an experiment involves random assignment and a quasi-experiment does not
psychologists often explore questions related to abstract concepts (e.g. satisfaction happiness spirituality) when conducting research but those concepts may be hard to quantify. what must be clearly stated at the beginning of the research of such a concept a list of dependent variables related to that concept a complete strategy of the statistics that will that will need to be calculated about that concept a list of independent variables related to that concept a proposal of who can and cannot participate in the study of that concept an operational definition of the concept
an operational definition of the concept
which is a more modern way of thinking about the impact of reinforces on the likelihood of repeating a specific, rewarded behavior People are capable of choosing behaviors based on their anticipated outcomes, but lower animals are unable to make such a choice. Animals will learn about the consequences of an action and will perform it based on how much they value those consequences. All stimuli have the same capacity to encourage behaviors, whether they are pleasant of unpleasant. It is believed that rewards cannot strengthen behaviors unless punishments have also been received in response to the same behaviors. A neutral stimulus can come to elicit a response that was previously associated with a different stimulus.
animals will learn about the consequences of an action and will perform it based on how much they value those consequences
According to Bowlby, infants have a ______ which continuously regulates the accessibility and attentiveness of their caregiver social monitoring system security motive system internal monitor system relationship drive system attachment behavioral system
attachment behavioral system
a caregiver who provides support, protection, and care to an infant is known as a primary attachment figure mothering archetype secure base relationship partner protector
attachment figure
constructing or adjusting utterances to suit what your listener already knows is called first-person perspective audience design psycholinguistic change third-person perspective reciprocal reception
audience design
when he is talking to his best friend, tom says, Damon and I are going out for dinner. when he is talking to a stranger, Tom says, My partner Damon and I are going out to dinner. Crafting what you say based on the knowledge of the person you are speaking to is called listener variation linguistic morphology audience design semantic adjudication whole-phrase adjustment
audience design
which of the following scenarios most aptly illustrates the concept of auditory scene analysis Being able to hear a single drop of water from a faucet over 50 feet away Being able to hear and focus on what your date is saying while you are having dinner in a crowded and noisy restaurant Recognizing the difference between the high pitched sound of your mother's voice and the lower pitched sound of your father's voice Being able to sleep through the sound of a terrible thunderstorm that starts in middle of the night Detecting the harmonics that are created when a choir sings in an auditorium
being able to hear and focus on what your date is saying while you are having dinner in a crowded and noisy restaurant
because we have two eyes in different locations, the image focused on each retina is from a slightly different angle. the phenomenon is known as ____ nociception multimodal processing olfaction somatosensation binocular disparity
binocular disparity
odorants and tastants are what type of stimuli vestibular receptors chemical nociceptors somatosensory
chemical
with regards to the validity of Piaget's theory of cognitive development, which criticism would be the most accurate Children's cognitive development seems to be more continuous that Piaget proposed. Piaget's comparison of the human mind to a computer was not supported by research. Piaget's research was only appropriate for the cognitive development of girls. Children do not master new cognitive skills nearly as early (young) as Piaget proposed. Piaget gave too much importance to cultural influences on cognitive development.
children's cognitive development seems to be more continuous that Piaget proposed
The ______is a spiral-shaped, fluid-filled structure that contains the basilar membrane. round window utricle oval window cochlea stapes
cochlea
_____ memory refers to the kind of memory that people in a group share Flashbulb Automatic Combined Eidetic Collective
collective
On monday morning chad asks jason, Did you see that amazing game yesterday? chad assumes that jason known which game he is talking about. this assumption of shared information is called ____ in language deep structure latent content manifest content surface structure common ground
common ground
In pavlovian conditioning a fundamental premise is that the only thing that a conditioned stimulus can cause is a conditioned response. unconditioned response. higher-order response. discriminative response. neutral stimulus.
conditioned response
Maritza is in a study testing if almond milk slows the development of brittle bones. She's in the study for 3 months but doesn't know that her milk allergy is causing her body to block nutrients, so it doesn't help her. Maritza's allergy is an example of a(n): participant demand independent variable invalid experiment confound dependent variable
confound
which of the following personality traits has been found to predict important life outcomes, such as job success, health, and longevity athleticism conscientiousness religiosity assertiveness intelligence
conscientiousness
Henry is learning how to swing a baseball bat properly, and his little league coach works with him for 15 minutes before every team practice, three times every week. These repeated learning experiences lead to ____, in which it becomes more automatic dendritic spreading neuronal malleability long-term potentiation consolidation neuroplasticity
consolidation
which kind of research allows us to passively observe exactly two variables to determine a relationship between them without drawing cause and effect conclusions case studies experimental research quasi-experimental research correlational research naturalistic observation
correlational research
In an experiment, the condition that is being manipulated or change by the researcher is called the ____ variable confounding dependent extraneous independent observed
dependent
Annie conducts a correlational research study and calculates that the variables in question have a correlation coefficient of -.81. in this statistic, the negative sign gives us information about the _____ of the relationship between the two variables direction variance magnitude validity causation
direction
what kind of change patterns might be described as a series of starts and stops leapfrog development continuous development discontinuous development qualitative development quantitative development
discontinuous development
Nia had an avoidant relationship with her mother as a child. as an adult, how will she most likely act in her romantic relationships submissive and meek domineering and aggressive distrustful and distant codependent and needy fulfilling and warm
distrustful and distant
which of the following questions might you expect to see on a measure of one's global subjective well-being Do you have any children? Do you feel that your life is as good as it can be? What sort of exercises, if any, do you do? How frequently? What is your favorite kind of food to eat when you dine out? Do you think that the current presidential administration is doing a good job?
do you feel that your life is as good as it can be?
Which pathway of visual processing identifies an object's location? dorsal ventral lateral auditory cortical somatosensory
dorsal
the tympanic membrane, also known as the ___, is the last structure of the outer ear incus ossicle eardrum concha stapes
eardrum
according to the research of Langlois and colleagues 1995 and van den Boom & Hoeksma 1994 infants who are ___ tend to get more affectionate care from their parents. this has been found to contribute to their later cognitive development. female smaller in size the result of an unintentional pregnancy easygoing and attractive born premature or 'very premature'
easygoing and attractive
Dr. Magill is conducting research on whether giving monkeys ice cold water in the morning will cause them to be less aggressive during the day. He has several graduate students observing the monkeys and he regularly comments to the students that ice water is "definitely making a difference." As a result, the graduate students are less likely to rate minor aggressive incidents as true aggression. The research in this example has been compromised by unclear operational definitions confounds experimenter expectations the placebo effect demand characteristics
experimenter expectations
after their relationship ends, Mary is reminded of Sylvia constantly. Over time, however, she stops associating everything she sees with her ex-girlfriend. This demonstrates a discriminative stimulus generalization stimulus control extinction social modeling
extinction
Davina has made great strides in her understanding of her science classes. Being able to reason more like an adult, Davina is in which of Piaget's developmental stages? formal operational reasoning the DABDA stage the trust vs. mistrust stage the latency stage preconventional reasoning
formal operational reasoning
Declines in ____ have been well-established by research and help explain age differences in a variety of cognitive abilities crystallized intelligence social networks hearing and vision volitional motivation pain threshold
hearing and vision
how did Wundt study consciousness His students gave self-reports of their reactions to stimuli. He tested the behavior of drunken and sober subjects. He compared human behavior to chimpanzee behavior. He studied people's dreams and the symbols that they contained. He conducted brain scans.
his students gave self-reports of their reactions to stimuli
which of the following is an example of an empirical question that could be tested using systematic observation? Should the laws of a country be changed to legalize the possession and use of drugs? How does race impact voting trends in a political election? Which religion's belief system is the most moral and ethical? Which kind of animal makes the best pet? Is technology good or bad for members of a society?
how does race impact voting trends in a political election
Katrina has noticed that her mother seems less able to focus on answering a specific question while simultaneously suppressing attention to less relevant information. this skill, called ___ normally declines as people age cognitive compartmentalization paradoxical plasticity contradictory inhibition attentional malleability inhibitory functioning
inhibitory functioning
Adults with a ______ attachment pattern are more likely to experience a breakup of their relationship unfulfilled controlling dependent insecure dismissive
insecure
Donald is inconsistent in responding to his baby's needs. Sometimes, he is too busy to help at all. What type of attachment is the child likely to have? dismissive independent distant strange insecure
insecure
if you are driving down a street in your neighborhood and an ambulance turns on its siren to your left, that sound stimulus will reach your left ear just a brief moment before it reaches your right ear. this phenomenon, called _____ time difference, helps us locate the source of a sound in space intracochlear multifocal auropotential bilateral interaural
interaural
the ____ is a measure of how different the intensity of a stimulus has to be before an individual can tell it has changed multimodal sensation just noticeable difference top-down processing opponent-process method absolute threshold
just noticeable difference
the words and expressions that we use, our very vocabulary for communication, comprise the ___ of our language syntax morphemes lexicon grammar phonemes
lexicon
______ theories of development emphasize the effects of life events and social roles. Life span theories of development tend to place greater emphasis on processes that occur within each individual Generational Qualitative Lifetime Life course Quantitative
life course
One of the primary types of research in developmental psychology is the ______ study, in which the same people are observed at multiple points in time. analogue cross-sectional longitudinal sequential field
longitudinal
which term accurately describes the shape of the malleus ring stirrup mallet coil shell
mallet
when tyler was a child, he got separated from his mother in a department store, but she found him after 2 minutes and all was well. Now, as an adult, he mis-remembers the event as having been a ten minutes separation, during which time store security intervened. this may be an example of the ____ effect memory trace misinformation consolidation false negative source misattribution
misinformation
when we use two or more senses simultaneously to perceive stimuli, we are using our inverse effectiveness binocular disparity anosmia opponent-processes multimodal perception
multimodal perception
a child is more likely to be willing to explore her environment when her attachment figure is male and young nearby and accessible adventurous and prepared avoidant and distant encouraging and helpful
nearby and accessible
what is the word for our ability to sense pain inverse property superadditive effect somatotopy nociception multimodal perception
nociception
Nature refers to biological endowment, including the genes a person receives from his or her parents, while ______refers to the environmental influences that impact a person's development. genotype growth nurture maturation phenotype
nurture
behaviorism considers ____ to be the proper subject matter of psychology gender differences observable behavior self-reported behavior the study of the brain and nervous system internal thoughts and feelings
observable behavior
which two senses respond to chemical stimuli audition and gustation vision and audition touch and olfaction olfaction and gustation vision and touch
olfaction and gustation (smell and taste)
which of the following statements accurately presents a major difference between operant and Pavlovian conditioning Operant addresses voluntary behaviors while Pavlovian addresses reflexive responses. Pavlovian addresses voluntary behaviors while Operant addresses reflexive responses. Pavlovian involves others engage in behaviors while Operant requires an individual to actually perform the actions herself. Pavlovian requires a direct observation of behaviors while Operant must be inferred from non-visible actors. Operant involves others engage in behaviors while Pavlovian requires an individual to actually perform the actions herself.
operant addresses voluntary behaviors while Pavlovian addresses reflexive responses
Julio stares at a yellow piece of paper for 30 seconds, and then he quickly looks at a white wall. the blue afterimage he sees supports which theory of color vision? inverse effectiveness theory differential threshold theory multisensory integration theory trichromatic theory opponent-processes theory
opponent-processes theory
Sound waves have entered Natalie's ear and traveled through to her auditory nerve. What process that will now take place in which she identifies what the sound is perception transduction visualization audition sensation
perception
when faced with a challenging task, secure children are most likely to do what? find an easier task quit watch a caregiver solve it ask for help persist
persist
Harry Harlow's research revealed that young macaque monkeys were comforted by
physical contact with soft cloth
Gregory and Peter are both violinists who play with their city's orchestra. as they are warming up for a concert, Peters says to Gregory: I think you're A is a bit flat. Peter is suggesting that the ___ of Gregory's violin needs to be adjusted. amplitude purity intensity pitch timbre
pitch
both human neuroimaging studies as well as signle-unit physiology studies have provided some evidence that a ____ exists in the human brain, though questions about this structure are still under debate timbre pitch center amplitude auditory location volume
pitch center
Adam, who is 4 years old, watches his mother pour a half full glass of juice into a taller, thinner glass. Adam's eyes go wide as he says, "Mommy, you made more juice, like magic!" Adam is clearly in Piaget's ______stage and is failing to understand the concept of conservation. preoperational formal operational reasoning concrete operational reasoning sensorimotor operational reasoning postformal operational reasoning
preoperational
evolutionary theorists have suggested that human beings may have a natural aversion to bitter tastes because many lethal poisons have a bitter flavor. this natural ability to learn an association for biological reasons is called preparedness stimulus discrimination blocking a learned aversion instinctive drift
preparedness
in which part of the brain do we perceive touch, temperature, and pain primary somatosensory cortex olfactory epithelium homunculus optic nerve ventral pathway
primary somatosensory cortex
_____ occurs when thinking about one concept causes you to think about other related concepts Priming Phonic deconstruction Lacing Acquisition Linguistic relativity
priming
Piaget's stage theory of cognitive development suggests that a child's thinking is fundamentally different, more advanced, in each stage than it was on the previous stage. this demonstrates the concept of ____ change quantitative discontinuous qualitative continuous genotypical
qualitative
Brendon is taking a multiple-choice test in his psychology course. Brendon has to compare each of five possible answers to information he has previously learned, and then identify the correct response. What kind of task is this? transitory serial recognition recall parallel
recognition
Yvonne is a secure infant. what behavior does her primary caregiver most likely display displaying only positive emotions keeping the child nearby at all times responding to the child's needs letting the child learn to do things on her own having older children as model
responding to the child's needs
What photoreceptors, located around the fovea of the retina, are sensitive to low levels of light? cones rods cochlea cornea optic nerve
rods
Wyatt, a 12 month old baby, was upset when his mother left. when she returned, he crawled over to her and happily hugged her. he is displaying a ____ attachment to his mother anxious-resistant avoidant dismissive permissive secure
secure
an adult with a secure attachment pattern is most likely to end up with a romantic partner with a _____ attachment pattern avoidant independent secure anxious resistant
secure
Shauntelle comes home from school one day, excited that she's learned the first five presidents of the united states of america, and shares that list with her mother. this kind of general information about facts is an example of ____ memory short-term semantic implicit echoic procedural
semantic
what is the name of the physical processing of environmental stimuli by the sense organs? audition olfaction sensation visualization perception
sensation
the correct order of Piaget's proposed stages of cognitive development is
sensorimotor, preoperational reasoning, concrete operational reasoning, formal operational reasoning
Joel was annoyed by the strong perfume his coworker was wearing. After some time, Joel didn't even notice the smell anymore. Joel has experienced sensory adaptation multimodal perception bottom-up processing binocular disparity anosmia
sensory adaptation
The tympanic membrane separates the outer ear from the inner ear. separates the inner ear from the cochlea. separates the outer ear from the pinna. separates the outer ear from the middle ear. separates the outer ear from the concha
separates the outer ear from the middle ear
Andrew is telling his friend Laverne about sailing this past weekend and Laverne immediately begins to imagine the boat and waves. she is using a ___ to understand andrew's experience priming cue mental set situation model mnemonic device dispositional attribution
situation model
adolescence is marked by physical, cognitive, and ____ changes academic industrial professional social athletic
social
Ramona is thinking about breaking up with Thoma and shares this with her best friend. In a matter of hours, Thomas hears that his girlfriend is planning to end their relationship. this information has traveled through a rumor circle activation cluster social network peer traverse affective clust
social network
Mary is gathering data for her dissertation research, and has decided to use the internet to reach a large number of potential participants with a minimum of cost. She creates a list of questions and puts it on a website, and then sends the link out to many people in the hopes that they will go to her site. This inexpensive and rather efficient research design is called an experiment quasi-experiment survey correlational design longitudinal study
survey
the rules for how we arrange words and expressions together to communicate in a meaningful and understandable way are called the ___ of language deep structure phonemes morphemes phonics syntax
syntax
which of the following represents the biggest problem associated with the use of a correlational design in psychology research? these designs often require the participants to undergo painful procedures, and this is unethical the designs involve the calculation of very complicated statistics that are hard for most people to understand the designs usually take many years and are expensive the designs require responses from many research participants to be useful the designs do not allow one to determine causality
the design do not allow one to determine causality
Empiricism is: the study of how one person influences another the practice of selective breeding to promote desired traits the idea that all knowledge comes from experience a school of psychology that focused on the utility of consciousness the understanding of the self through reflection and meditation
the idea that all knowledge comes from experience
Ivan Pavlov advanced behaviorism by showing that behavior could be explained without reference to ______ and was instead controlled by events in the environment. the mind learning the organism's biology psychology classical conditioning
the mind
which structure in the ear is made up of three rows of tiny hair cells called stereocilia, that sense vibrations in the inner ear? the auditory nerve the saccule the tympanic membrane the semicircular canal the organ of corti
the organ of corti
which part of the brain important in planning and flexible problem solving continues to develop throughout adolescence the diencephalon the prefrontal cortex the somatosensory cortex the corpus callosum the hypothalamus
the prefrontal cortex
During which stage of Piaget's model of cognitive development are children believed to begin to become more capable of symbolic thinking the sensorimotor stage the concrete operational reasoning stage the preoperational reasoning stage the postformal operational reasoning stage the formal operational reasoning stage
the preoperational reasoning stage
During which stage of Piaget's model of cognitive development are children believed to begin to become more capable to symbolic thinking the sensorimotor stage the concrete operational reasoning stage he preoperational reasoning stage the postformal operational reasoning stage the formal operational reasoning stage
the preoperational reasoning stage
which of the following is the most direct physical correlate of a sound's volume or loudnesss The sound's intensity, or pressure, near the eardrum The sound's frequency, near the cochlea The number of sound waves that are received in the photoreceptors The sound's wavelength, outside of the pinna The sound's timbre, in the ossicles
the sound's intensity, or pressure, near the eardrum
which term is probably the best synonym for the word cognition as it is used in a discussion of cognitive development motor reflexes sensation personality perception thinking
thinking
different musical instruments give a different quality of sound. A trumpet for example may be described as tinny while a cello might be described as producing a rich sound. these sound qualities refer to the _____ of the instrument amplitude intensity frequency pitch timbre
timbre
when we process new stimuli based on our past experiences, we are using ___ processing top-down threshold sensory differential receptor
top-down
during sensation, our sense organs engage in ____, the process of converting the physcial stimulus into an electrical one the brain can understand somatosensation visualization perception transduction gustation
transduction
which of the following is a primary function of the malleus, incus, and stapes expanding and contracting when "struck" by sound waves transmitting vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the oval window enhancing sound waves that are over 20,000 hz in frequency blocking certain sound stimuli to protect the auditory receptors from damage caused by sounds that are too loud swaying gently up and down to create innervation of auditory neurons
transmitting vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the oval window
the ____ theory of color vision proposes that the retina contains three types of cones that respond preferentially to red, green, and blue visual cortical dark adaptation opponent-process trichromatic multimodal
trichromatic
what is the process by which the presence of one low-frequency sound makes another high-frequency sound more difficult to hear, particularly at high sound intensities upward spread of masking asymmetrical priming binaural shadowing tonotopic suppression cochlear inhibition
upward spread of masking
Professor Zithrow is explaining fluid intelligence as her class covers cognitive changes associated with aging. which of the following tasks would she be least likely to discuss on this topic? vocabulary tests logical reasoning remembering lists reaction time spatial ability
vocabulary tests
what is participant demand When an experimenter compels a person to participate in their research using threats or force. When an independent variable in changed during an experiment, leading to a disruption in the dependent variable. When a research participant threatens to discontinue their work on a project unless they get increased prizes of payment. When a researcher forgets to include the use of a control group in an experimental study. When a research participant behaves in a way that she/he thinks the experiment wants them to behave.
when a researcher participant behaves in a way that he/he thinks the experiment wants them to behave