Midterm Review (Ch. 1-5)
What are the cultural dimensions of health? How do they relate to the worldview of various groups?
-Americans are task-oriented and like to participate in their health care, while others put a lot of faith in the health care practitioner to make important decisions -Americans value privacy and confidentiality, while others expect the entire family to be educated and involved regarding healthcare decisions -Americans want direct communication with healthcare practitioners, while others expect a formal, polite practitioner
What are some examples of "new" foods that came with European settlement?
-Apples, apricots, carrots, lentils, peaches, and turnips (well accepted by Native Americans) -Rye and wheat (not well accepted) -Livestock: cattle, hogs, lambs, and sheep -Horses
What are the main aspects of Hindu dietary practice?
-Avoid foods believed to hamper the development of the body or mental abilities -Concepts of purity and pollution are important -Belief that water is pure and washes away pollution -Laws of Manu (it's not a sin to eat flesh, drink wine, and indulge in sex, but abstinence from these bears greater fruits) -Dietary restrictions vary among the castes -Many Hindus are vegetarian -The cow is sacred and not to be killed or eaten -Food prepared by certain groups of people (i.e. members of low casts like artists, musicians, and prostitutes) should be avoided -Food contaminated with sneezing, feet, etc. should be avoided -Alcohol is avoided -Garlic, turnips, onions, leeks, mushrooms, and red foods like tomatoes are avoided by some
What is the Hindu trinity (Trimurti)? What is each god responsible for?
-Corresponds to Brahman (the Supreme Being) -Parts: 1. Brahma: source of creation 2. Vishnu: preserver and protector of all good things 3. Shiva: destroyer and transformer
How does cost influence food choice? Give several examples.
-Depends on economic status of civilizations -If very low income, cost may be more important than taste -Over 14% of households in the US are food insecure -Some nutritional dietary improvements raise food costs up to 25%
What are the general aspects of Islam dietary practice? What are Halal and Haram?
-Eating is a matter of worship, and sharing of food is encouraged -Halal: that which is permissible *Allah alone has right to determine what food may be eaten and what's considered unnecessary -Haram: unlawful foods 1. Swine, four-footed animals that catch prey with their mouths, birds of prey with talons, and any byproducts of these animals 2. Improperly slaughtered animals including carrion (decaying flesh of dead animals) 3. Blood and blood products 4. Alcoholic beverages and intoxicating drugs *Exceptions: can eat/drink foods when they're taken by mistake, when they're forced by others, or when there's a fear of dying by hunger/disease -Ramadan: 9th month of Islamic calendar; month of fasting to commemorate the first revelation of the Koran to Muhammad
What are the main reasons for Jewish immigration in the US?
-In the early 19th century, Jews sought economic opportunities or refuge from persecution -Peak Jewish immigration from 1880-1920 (pogroms, or massacres, in Eastern Europe) -In the 1930s, Jews primarily immigrated to escape from Nazi Germany
What are the Jewish dietary laws, and how do they determine food choice? What are kosher foods?
-Kashrut- Jewish dietary laws -Kosher means "fit" -The Old Testament contains extensive prescriptions for the foods that can and cannot be eaten (mainly in Leviticus and Deuteronomy about meat, sacrifice, alcohol, and food) Laws govern: 1. Which animals are permitted for food and which are not 2. Method of slaughtering animals 3. Examination of the slaughtered animal 4. Forbidden parts of the permitted animal 5. The preparation of the meat 6. The law of meat and milk 7. Products of forbidden animals 8. Examination for insects and worms *Animal must be killed by shohet in special process called shehitah- slaughter is quick and painless *Animal must be examined for blemishes in the meat or organs that would render it trefah (unclean) *Blood, blood vessels, sciatic nerve, and heleb must be removed with kosher salt and water *Meat and dairy products may not be eaten together *Many Jews are lactose intolerant *Insects are not clean, but honey is acceptable
What are some examples of food adaptations for Native Americans?
-Many Native Americans that are living on reservations eat primarily what is available to them there -This may include commodity food items, a small store, or a garden if they choose to grow one -Over the years, many traditional foods were lost and substitutions were made EXAMPLES: -Beef -Fry Bread: 19th century Navajo tradition prepared from flour, lard, and salt supplied by US government -Milk and dairy products: dried milk or commodity evaporated milk is now used -Meat/fish/poultry/eggs: game is rarely eaten now, but meat is still valued -Cereal/grains: wheat has replaced corn; and cakes, cookies, and pastries are popular -Sweeteners: low in traditional diet, but now sugar is prevalent- candies, jams, and jellies are popular -Fruits and vegetables: canned fruits and potato chips are popular -Fried foods are popular *HIGH INCIDENCE OF ALCOHOLISM!
What were the main phases of Native American settlement in North America?
-Native Americans crossed the Bering Strait approximately 20,000 - 50,000 years ago -Many different tribes developed (Cherokees, Cheyennes, Chumash, Seminoles, Iroquois, Navajo, Hopis, etc.) -Many Native Americans were driven to live on reservations starting in the 1830s -During WWII, many Native Americans left their reservation and joined the army or became employed in war-related industry *California has the high number of American Indians, followed by Oklahoma and Arizona *Large Native American populations in Los Angeles, New York, Phoenix, Anchorage, Albuquerque, Tuscon, Oklahoma City
What impact did European colonization have on the life of Native Americans? (including on hunting and livestock)
-Original British colonists may not have survived without Native American supplies and cooking methods -Native Americans introduced whites to indigenous foods and shared methods of cultivation and food preparation -European introduction of firearms, metal, horses, and infectious diseases greatly changed how natives lived -Disease and massacre led to demise of at least 25% of the Native American population -Native Americans have suffered due to relocation to less fertile land
What are some of the intercultural challenges in communication?
-People rely on what their culture has taught them to expect regarding interactions with other people -Social roles are used to determine communication behavior -However, as relationships between people grow, communication formalities change -Interpersonal relationships between two individuals are primarily based on the following: 1. Personal communication preferences 2. Group interactions commonly depend on cultural or social norms -Stereotyping occurs if a person misjudges another individual's degree of association with any particular cultural or social group
What are dietary guidelines? What are some of their implementations?
-Vary from country to country, but are derived from the same basis in nutrition science -Often visualized in food pyramids, plates, or circles -Emphasize balance, variety, and moderation -(Usually) 5 groups for health and growth -Indicate serving ranges
What are the 4 Noble Truths of Buddhism?
1. Dukkha (noble truth of suffering) 2. Samudaya (noble truth of the cause of suffering) 3. Nirodha (noble truth of the cessation of suffering) 4. Magga (noble truth to the path leading to the cessation of suffering)
What are the 3 intercultural commonalities on health habits?
1. Good diet 2. Sufficient rest 3. Cleanliness
What is the US household spending on food by % compared to that of other countries?
6.6% of household expenditures, compared to countries like Egypt and Pakistan that spend over 40% on food *US spends relatively little of household income on food compared to other countries!
What are acculturation, enculturation, and assimilation?
Acculturation: The transition from traditional practices to new cultural practices *Includes changes in beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors Enculturation: The process when culture is passed down from generation to generation through language acquisition and socialization Assimilation: When people from one cultural group shed their ethnic identity and fully merge into the majority culture
What are the advantages and potential issues with processed foods?
Advantages: -Increased food security -Higher diversity of available foods -Increased food safety -Longer shelf life -Easier transportation -Easier digestion -Convenience -More energy efficient than home cooking Potential Issues: -Can be nutritionally unbalanced (too high in salt, sugar, and saturated fats while too low in fiber) -Too energy dense -Degradation of nutrients -Risk of specific food additives -Loss of food culture, cooking skills -Promote unhealthy eating patterns *Only 40% of families report cooking at least once a day
What is the "American assumption"? What are the personal responsibilities in the prevention of disease?
American Assumption: If a person is sick, they will seek out treatment. If they comply with that treatment, they will be cured. Personal Responsibilities: -Get immunizations -Eat healthy -Exercise -Get regular checkups -Brush your teeth -Don't smoke and don't drink -Get enough sleep
What ethnic group has the highest rate of diabetes in the US?
American Indians/Alaska Natives
What is the American Paradox? How does it impact US food habits?
Americans love the idea of new foods and have driven the rapid expansion of the market for new and ethnic foods... yet we are somewhat cautious and suspicious of new foods as well -Cultural restaurants are rapidly growing (ex. sushi, Mexican, Italian, Thai) -In response to the American paradox, ethnic food is often "Americanized"
How do American cultural values compare to cultural values of other cultures?
Americans: -Values emphasize individuality and control, personal accountability, and self-help -Are monochronistic (prefer to concentrate on one issue/task at a time in a sequential order) -Believe they're directly responsible for their own health -Are task-oriented and like to participate in their health care -Value privacy and confidentiality Other cultures: -Put a lot of faith in the health care practitioner to make important decisions -Expect the entire family to be educated and involved regarding healthcare decisions
What is an Indian reservation? How did they come about, and what is their impact on food availability and diet?
An area of land managed by a Native American tribe under the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs -Many Native Americans were driven to live on reservations starting in the 1830s -Tribes were often removed far away from European-populated regions -Often on tracts on land that are poor in quality/less fertile -Limited food sources
What is a food desert, and how does it impact food availability?
An area where you are greater than 10 miles away from a grocery store/food source -Greatly limits food availibility
What are animals that are permitted vs. forbidden under Jewish dietary practice?
Animals That Are Permitted: -Mammals must have cloven foot AND chew the cud (ruminating animals) -Ex. Cattle, deer, goats, oxen, sheep -Clean birds must have crop, gizzard, extra talon -Ex. chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys Animals That Are NOT Permitted: -Mammals that don't have cloven foot and chew the cud -Ex. Swine, carnivorous animals, rabbits -Unclean birds: birds of prey *Forbidden parts of a permitted animal: blood and heleb (fat that is not intermingled with the flesh)
When did Native Americans cross the Bering Strait?
Approximately 20,000 - 50,000 years ago
Why are food habits often the last to change among cultural practices?
Because food has a very strong association with cultural identity -Also because food is made/eaten in the privacy of one's own home *Sweets, fast foods, and meats are accepted first
What are some of the benefits and disadvantages of stereotyping? How accurate are stereotypes?
Benefits of Stereotyping: -Can increase familiarity with cultural communication behaviors -Can help you remain aware of personal cues and move toward an interpersonal relationship Disadvantages of Stereotyping: -Stereotyping can become a self-fulfilling prophecy -Assuming that an individual adheres to all of the characteristics of their group can lead to miscommunication and offensiveness *ONLY 1/3 OF STEREOTYPES ARE TRUE!!
What is biomedicine? What is the biomedical worldview?
Biomedicine: The study of the human body in health and disease Biomedical Worldview: -It's the cultural subdivision of the American majority worldview -It supports the American concept of mastery over nature -Is based on the attitude that health can be quantified (ex. blood pressure, blood and urine tests) -Individuals have the responsibility to make choices to promote health and prevent disease *Rooted in the natural sciences, it focuses on the development of medical technologies
What are some skills for intercultural counseling, and how can you be aware of personal cultural bias?
CRASH C- consider culture in all patient-practitioner interactions R- show respect and avoid gratuitous familiarity and affection A- assess/affirm intercultural differences due to language skills, acculturation, and other factors, recognizing each individual as an expert on his or her health beliefs and practices S- Be sensitive to issues that may be offensive or may interfere with trust H- demonstrate humility, apologizing quickly and accepting responsibility for any communication mishap More Skills: -Information transfer-ability to convey verbal and nonverbal messages -Relationship development and maintenance -Must obtain client cooperation
How and why does Christian practice differ from Jewish dietary practice?
Christian dietary practice is much less restrictive than Jewish dietary practice because in the New Testament, Jesus essentially abolishes the food laws from the Old Testament *There are varying interpretations of this in the various Christian denominations *Food sacrificed to pagan idols should still not be eaten
What is the concept of conversational context? What are the values of low and high context cultures?
Conversational Context: The affective and physical cues a speaker uses to indicate meaning, such as tone of voice, facial expression, posture, and gestures Low-Context Communication: -Precise, simple, and clear communication -Verbal communication is more important than nonverbal communication and the relationship between the speakers -Context is deemphasized -Self-realization is important -Communication with group helps individuals establish themselves and build confidence High-Context Communication: -Sophisticated, nuanced, and layered -Most of the meaning is found in the context, not the words -Individual is defined by group association -People desire to fit in the group, not to be individuals
What are the differences between core foods, secondary foods, and peripheral foods?
Core foods: Eaten daily (ex. rice, wheat) Secondary foods: Eaten regularly but not daily (ex. chips and salsa, beans and rice) Peripheral foods: food eaten sporadically (based on individual preference)
What is the food item Native Americans use for multiple therapeutic purposes?
Corn! -Also used agave, yucca, pumpkin, elderberry, chili, and maple
What are culture, social identity, and ethnicity? How are they related?
Culture: The values, beliefs, attitudes, and practices accepted by members of a group or community *Is learned, not inherited, and is passed from generation to generation in a process called enculturation (language acquisition and socialization) Social Identity: A person's sense of who they are based on membership to a group Ethnicity: A social identity associated with shared behavior patterns, food habits, dress, language, family structure, and religious affiliation *Often from a common heritage (ex. region, climate, religion, history) *Diversity between ethnic groups (ex. social class, education, age groups, and acculturation to the majority culture)
What are the cultural aspects of the concept of uncertainty avoidance?
Cultures with High Levels of Uncertainty Avoidance: -Exhibit high levels of discomfort with what is unknown and different -Behavior that deviates from the norm makes members anxious -Ex. Chile, Costa Rica, Mexico, Peru, France, Japan, Korea Culture with Lower Levels of Uncertainty Avoidance: -Curiosity about the unknown and that which is different -Dissension within a group is accepted -Ex. Hong Kong, Canada, India, UK, US
What are disease, illness, and sickness?
Disease: Abnormalities or malfunctioning of body organs and systems *Also a pathological process identified by a measurable deviation from the biological norm Illness: A person's perceptions of and reactions to a physical or psychological condition *Usually caused by disease, but may also exist without identifiable disease *Is usually associated with pain, discomfort, and emotional distress Sickness: Public aspects of the entire illness-disease process *Identifying and having confirmed the illness *Social acceptance of role as sick person *Based on the understanding that sickness is a non-permanent condition and that recovery should occur
Where did substantial numbers of Roman Catholics emigrate from when they came to the US in the 1800s?
Emigrated from Germany, Poland, Italy, and Ireland
How do the low employment of Native Americans, low level of schooling, and relative property compare to those of the US?
Employment: -Many found jobs during and after WWII, but only 65% are employed professionally -They have a large employment gap with the overall US population -Some have been very successful with ranching, rodeo, and casino *Poverty rate was nearly 26% in 2012 (US average: 13.5%) Schooling: -67% graduated from high school vs 80% for overall US Property: -Few Native American neighborhoods develop in cities -Migration is mostly on an individual basis
How have the food habits and the nutritional status of Native Americans changed in the 20th century?
Food Habits: -Traditional foods make up only 25% of some Native American diets -Younger generations are not always learning how to cook traditional foods and eat them less often -Traditional foods are often reserved for special occasions and not prepared regularly -Many people now eat 3 meals a day -Many use more fats and salts with old recipes, and fried foods are very popular Nutritional Status: -Malnutrition in 1940 and 1950 -Today, lower socioeconomic status and higher unemployment contribute to inadequate diets -Transitioned from the conditions associated with underconsumption to those linked to overconsumption -Life expectancy is, on average, 4.2 years less than for average US population -Mothers are younger, less likely to be married, and around 1/3 don't receive prenatal care during 1st trimester -Baby bottle tooth decay affects more than 1/2 of children (due to extended use of a bottle with formula, milk, juice, or soda) *Native Americans are now experiencing obesity, Type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease *Obesity rates are 37% among American Indians *Type 2 diabetes rates are 2-4x the national average *Kidney disease: 20x higher than the general population *HEART DISEASE IS THE LEADING CAUSE OF DEATH
What is the role of food in Native American culture and etiquette?
Food and Celebrations: -Celebrations included those for good harvest, New Years, hunts, and Green Corn Festival -Green Corn Festival gave thanks for a plentiful summer harvest and included dancing, prayer, feast, and chanting Culture and Etiquette: -There were frequent food shortages, so food was valued as sacred and considered a gift -Prayer and celebration were common after a successful hunt or harvest -Sometimes tribes cooked communally *MANY NATIVE AMERICANS DON'T BELIEVE IN SELLING FOOD! Gender Roles: -Men: hunting, tending cattle -Women: food gathering, preparation, and storage -Men sometimes ate before the women -Sharing food was very important
What is the connection between religion and food habits?
Food, because it sustains life, is an important part of religious symbols, rites, and customs -Dietary practices vary enormously, even among members of the same faith -Religious food prescriptions are usually written in some form, yet they are among the most variable of culturally based food habits
What is food? How does food relate to human behavior and culture?
Food: Any substance that provides the nutrients necessary to maintain life and growth when ingested -Humans eat, animals feed Food Culture: The ways in which humans use food, including everything from how it is selected, obtained, and distributed to who prepares it, serves it, and eats it
What types of food have been increasingly consumed for the past 40+ years?
Foods with added sugar/sweeteners, added fats and oils, and flour and cereal products
What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs? How does it apply to foods?
Hierarchy: 1. Self-realization (personal preference) 2. Self-esteem (status, gifts, and food sharing) 3. Belonging (etiquette, identity) 4. Safety and security (food storage, future needs) 5. Physiological/biological survival needs (must be met first)
What is the iceberg analogy?
Iceberg analogy describes how a person's cultural heritage can impact communication *People are comfortable conversing with people similar to themselves -Top of iceberg: race, gender, age, nationality -Underneath water: acculturation/assimilation, socioeconomic status, occupation, health condition, religion, sexual preference, group membership, educational background, political orientation
How might nonverbal communication reinforce or contradict verbal communication?
If nonverbal communication matches the message of the verbal communication, then the message is reinforced If nonverbal communication differs from the message of the verbal communication, then the message is contradicted
How are power, authority, and status viewed in low and high context cultures?
In Low-Context Cultures: -Power is attributed to a role or job a person fulfills -People are seen as equals -Common for people to ask for directions, instructions, or explanation before completing a task -Will desire full explanation of situations, tasks, and assignments In High-Context Cultures: -Authority figures are different from others and are not equals -Not acceptable to question authority -Rely on authority to have all the answers
What are the main premises of Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism?
Judaism: -Started in 7th century BCE -Diaspora started with destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE -2 sects developed: Ashkenazi (Central and Eastern Europe, US) and Sephardim (Spain, Southern Europe, Middle East) -The cornerstone is the Hebrew Bible (aka the Torah of Book of Moses; first 5 books of Bible; gives the 10 Commandments) -Types of Jews: Orthodox, conservative, reformed Christianity: -Belief in the Trinity; the death, descent into Hell, resurrection, and ascension of Christ; Christ's second coming; and the Day of Judgment -Sacraments: baptism, communion (Catholicism: confession, confirmation, marriage, Holy Orders, and Anointing of the Sick) Islam: -Based on the premise that there's only one god (Allah) and that Muhammad (founder) is his messenger -Sacred writings are found in the Koran -Prophets include Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad -No priests -Two main branches: Sunni and Shia Islam (schism started with death of Muhammad and dispute over his successor) -Second-largest religious group in the world -5 Pillars of Islam: 1. Faith 2. Prayer 3. Almsgiving (offering to the poor) 4. Fasting (wipes out previous sins) 5. Pilgrimage to Mecca Hinduism: -"The world's oldest religion" -Goal is to make humans one with the Supreme Being (aka Brahman) -Requires transforming human consciousness into new realm that sees individual parts of the universe as deriving their true significance from unit of spirit (this cannot be done in one lifetime) -Belief in reincarnation and karma -Brahman is responsible for creation, protection, and destruction of the world, and corresponds to Trimurti (Hindu trinity) -Principles: Purity, self-control, detachment, truth, nonviolence -CASTE SYSTEM: unotouchables vs. others vs. gods Buddhism: -Founded by Siddharta Gautama (aka the Buddha, or Enlightened One) -Grew out of revolt against orthodox Hinduism -Middle way between asceticism and self-indulgence -No caste system, believing that all people are equal -Has 4 Noble Truths -People who perfect Buddha's teachings achieve nirvana
What are the fastest growing ethnic groups in the US, and how do they impact the US population and cultural makeup?
Latin Americans and Asians -40% of Americans are nonwhite -More variety in food and culture
How would the various regions around the world be classified in terms of high vs. low context cultures?
Low Context: US, Netherlands, Canada, Australia, Germany In the Middle: Finland, Denmark, UK, Poland, Brazil, Spain, Mexico, Argentina High Context: Japan, China, Korea, Indonesia, Kenya, Arabia, Iran, India, Russia, France
What are the roles of content and relationship in communication interpretation?
Low-Context Cultures: Value content over relationship in communication High-Context Cultures: Value relationship over content in communication
What are the components of the core and complementary foods model? What are ingredient and food examples for each component?
Model: Food can be categorized based on frequency of consumption -Core foods: wheat, rice, potato, corn, taro -Complementary foods: chips and salsa, beans and rice, pickled vegetables and rice -Peripheral foods: poke, dumplings, tacos (foods eaten sporadically)
What are the characteristics of monochronistic and polychronistic societies?
Monochronistic Societies: -Want to accomplish one thing before moving on to the next -Characteristic of low-context cultures -Ex. US, Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland Polychronistic Societies: -Many tasks are pursued simultaneously, not to the exclusion of personal relationships -Courtesy and kindness are more important than deadlines -Characteristic of high-context cultures -Ex. Most Latin-American and Asian countries
In general, which foods are expensive and which foods are cheaper on a calorie basis?
More expensive foods: fresh vegetables and fruits (ex. squash, peppers, lettuce, tomatoes) *LOWER CALORIE FOODS Cheaper foods: oil shortening, margarine, mayonnaise, sugar, crackers, white bread *HIGHER CALORIE FOODS
What are the general aspects of Mormon and 7th Day Adventist dietary practices?
Mormon Dietary Laws: -Tobacco, strong drinks (alcohol), and hot drinks prohibited -Eat meat sparingly -Diet focuses on grains, especially wheat -Keep enough food and clothing for one year -Many fast one day per month and donate money that would have been spent on food to the poor 7th Day Adventist Dietary Laws: -Belief that one can preserve health by eating the right kinds of food in moderation and getting sleep and exercise -Vegetarianism encouraged -Avoid pork and shellfish if meat is eaten -Overeating discouraged -Encouraged to eat beans, nuts, vegetable oils, and whole grains -Don't consume tea, alcohol, tobacco, or coffee -Water is considered the best liquid -Spices are avoided *Kellogg cereal was invented for 7th Day Adventists as a meat substitute
What is MyPlate? What are its 5 food categories?
MyPlate is the current US dietary guideline visual 5 Categories: 1. Fruits 2. Vegetables 3. Grains 4. Proteins 5. Dairy
What are the laws of Manu, and how do they play out in Hindu food choices?
No sin is attached to eating flesh, drinking wine, or having sex, but abstinence from these bears greater fruits -The cow is sacred and not to be killed or eaten -Food prepared by untouchables should be avoided -Food contaminated and alcohol should be avoided
What is nonverbal communication, and how can it differ from culture to culture?
Nonverbal Communication: -Touching (sometimes expected, sometimes avoided) -Facial expression (smiling in Japan and India=less intelligent, vs smiling in Germany and China=more intelligent) -Gesture, posture (crossed arms, thumbs up, nodding head up and down or back and forth, good vs. bad posture) -Eye contact (respect and attentiveness vs. aggression) -Spatial relationships (people define their own space and may feel uncomfortable if someone is in their space; height of interactions is also important)
What are the primary and secondary motivators for food choice?
Primary motivator: TASTE Secondary motivator: COST
What are the differences between Roman Catholicism, Orthodox Christianity, and the Reformed/Protestant Churches (Lutheran, Calvinist, Anglican)?
Roman Catholicism: -Substantial numbers immigrated to the US from Germany, Poland, Italy, and Ireland in the 1800s -Sacraments like confession, confirmation, marriage, Holy Orders, and Anointing of the Sick -Fasting and abstaining (no meat) on Ash Wednesday Orthodox Christianity: -As old as Roman Catholicism -Shared communion with Catholic Church until Great Schism of 1054 -Different interpretation of the Trinity, use of leavened bread for communion, and no celibacy requirement on the clergy -Food habits: red Easter eggs, fast days (during Lent) Protestantism: -Based on teachings of Martin Luther -Emphasis on individual's direct responsibility to God -Denominations: Lutheranism, Anglicanism, Calvinism, Presbyterian, Baptist, Methodist, etc.) -Most significant food ordinance is the Lord's Supper Lutheranism: -Doctrine of grace through faith based only on the Bible Calvinism/Reformed Churches: -Based on predestination -Denominations: Presbyterian, Baptist, Adventist, Congregationalist Anglicanism: -Act of Supremacy: King Henry VIII pronounced the Head of the Church of England -Reformed theology that contains elements from Catholicism -Related denominations: Episcopal Church, Methodism, Pentecostalism
What are the main aspects of staple foods, dietary habits, and meal patterns of Native Americans?
Staple Foods: -Corn, squash, beans (cranberries, maple syrup) -Indian/flint corn: outer skin much harder than common corn, lower starch content, best prepared by nixtamalization -Nixtamalization: cooking of corn kernels in lye to soften outer hulls and bring nutritional benefits (ex. increasing mineral content) -Hominy: food produced by dried maize kernels from nixtamalization (used whole or ground into flour/paste) -Kanuchi (Cherokee): Hickory nuts shelled and pounded into a paste typically using a hollowed-out tree stump- cooked in water until consistency of thick cream -Buffalo Jerky (from Plains) -Seafood (Chumash): fish, mussels, abalone, clams, and sea mammals like seals and otters -Land animals (Chumash): deer, bear, quail, water fowl (ducks) -Acorns: treated to remove bitter tannins from ground acorns and cooked in a soup for most meals -(Alaskan Natives: seal blubber and dried salmon) Traditional Food Habits: -Geography and climate had the largest influence -Some tribes were agriculturally based, while some were hunter-gatherers -Most of the day was spent gathering food Meal Patterns: -Vary widely depending on region and ethnicity -Between 1-2 meals per day were typically eaten -Meals consisted of simple, fair foods with little variation between meal patterns -Methods of cooking included roasting, steaming, drying, mashing, and baking -All nations liked sweets, which were limited to fruits and dishes flavored in maple syrup, honey, or other indigenous sweeteners
What is the Eucharist/Holy Communion/Lord's Supper?
The Christian sacrament commemorating the Last Supper in which bread and wine are consecrated and consumed -Bread represents the body and the wine the blood of Jesus -Remembrance of Jesus's sacrifice on the cross -Differences in procedure and interpretation between Christian denominations
What is the omnivore paradox, and how does it affect our relationship to foods?
The need to experiment with food combined with the need to be conservative (because no single food provides all the nutrition we need, so we must eat a variety) -Aka an attraction to new foods combined with a preference for familiar foods -Food habits developed by cultural groups help balance these conflicts
What is medical pluralism?
The use of multiple healthcare systems -Many people seeking biomedical healing are also using other remedies
What is the Native Americans' view of time being cyclical?
They view time as cyclical, meaning that there's no definite beginnings or endings, only what was, what is, and what will always be -Could be interpreted as "focus on the present" -Fits in with high-context societies
What are some cultures that consider touching acceptable and expected, and what are some cultures that mostly avoid touching?
Touching Is Mostly Avoided: -US, Canada, UK, Germany, Netherlands, Scandinavia, Japan, Korea Touching is Expected: -Middle East, Greece, Italy, Spain, Latin America, Russia In Between: -China, France, India, Africa, SE Asia, Pacific *Handshake, bow, and hug may have originally meant that people had peaceful intentions and carried no weapons
How do unconventional therapies compare to biomedicine?
Unconventional Therapies: -Foods with medical benefits (ex. drug-like actions of high doses of nutrients, soluble fiber) -Botanicals (therapeutic parts of plants, including roots, bark, gum, flowers, etc.) -Phytochemicals (bio-active compounds found in plants- often produced by plants to promote growth or protect against parasites, predators, or competitors) -Healing: responds to personal, familial, and social issues surrounding sickness (alleviates symptoms of sickness even when diagnosis is not present) Also: 1. Administration of therapeutic substances (ex. botanical medicine, homeopathy) 2. Application of physical forces or devices (chiropractic, osteopathic, acupuncture) 3. Magico-religious interventions
What are verbal and nonverbal communication?
Verbal Communication: -High and low context communication -Individuals and groups -Uncertainty avoidance -Power, authority, and status -Time perception Nonverbal Communication: -Touching -Gesture, facial expression, and posture -Eye contact -Spatial relationships
What are the worldviews and traditional health beliefs of Native Americans?
Worldview: -Harmony and balance between spiritual, social, and physical aspects of life -Earth should be cared for and treated with respect -Generosity is esteemed and treated with respect -Notion of time as cyclical *High-context society! Religion: -Many have resisted attempts at Christian conversion and maintained native religious values and principles -But some have not- combination religions have been created Traditional Health Beliefs: -Health reflects a person's relationship to nature (to the community, the family, and the environment) -Illness is due to imbalance and... *Witchcraft *Possession of a spirit or soul loss *Violation of a taboo *Bad dreams or desires -Traditional medicine is concerned with physical, mental, and spiritual renewal through health maintenance, prevention of illness, and restoration of health -Some reject the concept that poor nutrition, bodily malfunction, or an infection by a virus/bacteria can cause sickness -Medicine bundles, fetishes, feathers, or symbols may be worn to protect against malevolent forces -There are traditional medicine men and women, healers, singers, diagnosticians, dreamers, and herbalists -Home remedies are tried first
What is the concept of yin and yang? How does it relate to food choice?
Yin and yang concept: "Seemingly opposite forces are actually complementary and interconnected" Yin: "Shady Place" -Raw -Soothing -Cooked at lower temps -White or light green -Ex. Watermelon, lettuce, bananas Yang: "Sunny Place" -High calorie foods -Cooked in high heat -Spicy -Red or orange or yellow -Ex. Peppers, beef, ginger