Mild Moderate Disabilities

Define the assessment terms of generalizability. compensatory grading, and non-compensatory grading, and also define a cut score, giving a couple of examples.

Generalizability is related to reliability, ie., the consistency of test scores over repeated administrations; but it moreover refers to the specific features of a certain test administration. It means the results on one test can be generalized to apply to other tests with similar formats, content, and operations. Generalizability can also refer to whether a test's results can be generalized from an individual or group to the larger population. Compensatory grading is the practice of balancing out lower performance in one area or subject with higher performance in another. Non-compensatory grading does not permit such balancing, but requires a similar standard of achievement in each area or subject. A cut score is a pre-determined number used to divide categories of data or results from a test instrument. For example, a cut score can divide the categories of passing and failing scores. It can also divide the categories of passing scores from a category of "honors" or "excellent" or "superior" scores.

Discuss some differences in how deaf students learn versus how hearing students learn.

Hearing children are surrounded by speech sounds from birth, and they absorb a great deal of their knowledge and understanding of language and speech through this immersion. However, deaf children do not benefit from sensory input in the auditory mode. Those whose parents use sign language and/or speech reading learn to comprehend and produce language through the visual modality instead. This is a major difference, because the main basis for communication among the majority of the population is auditory; and written language, with its relationship to spoken language, has the same auditory basis. Instead of auditory cues like tone of voice, grammatical inflections (like verb tense or plural endings), or intonations like the rising end of a question, deaf students rely exclusively on visual cues like facial expressions, gestures, and body language; and in ASL (american sign language), built in signs conveying grammatical information.

Define the terms Standard Error of Measurement (SEM) and Standard Error of the Mean relative to educational assessment.

If an individual student took a lot of tests that were similar in size or length (i.e., the number of items on each test), the assessors can estimate how much that student's scores will vary. This estimate is called the Standard Error of Measurement (SEM). The SEM is calculated using the reliability coefficient that is established for a given test and the Standard Deviation (SD) that has been established for the group of scores that the student achieved. When a group of students takes a test, the assessors can estimate how much the mean or average score of that group would vary if they selected many samples with the same sizes and then calculated the means or averages of their scores. This estimate of variance around the mean of a group's test scores is called the Standard Error of the Mean.

Describe the procedure used in the Hofstee method to determine the cut score for a particular assessment instrument.

Several methods have been developed to set a cut score, the score above which all scores are passing and below which all scores are failing, for a particular test with a multiple choice format. The Hofstee method is also called the compromise method. It addresses the difference between norm referenced and criterion referenced tests, i.e., tests that compare individual student scores to the average scores of a normative sample of students found representative of the larger population versus tests that compare students scores to a pre established criterion of achievement. Educators estimate an acceptable number of students who would fail the test and the largest number of test items a student who fails the test would answer correctly. They then plot the answers to this number of items to determine how many items students could miss and how many failed test items would affect the number of students who could fail.

Discuss a few similarities between blind and sighted individuals.

Although the totally blind cannot read printed text, blind students still often want to read and enjoy it. Some read available Braille texts by touch. Others listen to books on tape and/or use text to speech computer software, greatly expanding their options of available texts. Though blind students may not understand visual humor like sight gags, they still appreciate humor. Students not blind from birth have additional frames of reference for understanding visual expressions and comparisons. For example, Helen Keller, who became deaf-blind at 19 months, reportedly was told she had blue eyes and asked "Are they like wee skies?" Without hearing or sight, Keller had to learn tactile finger spelling to communicate, yet her accomplishments made her famous. a woman who became blind around nine years old found hilarious a coworker's description of another employee bundled up in a fur coat and hat with only her nose protruding. Blind people have the same social, communication, and emotional needs; they just need supplementary auditory information/verbal descriptions of what they cannot see.

Identify Piaget's third stage of cognitive development by name and summarize some of its prominent characteristics.

Arounds ages 7-11 years, children are in what Piaget termed the Concrete Operations stage. A salient feature of this stage is that children develop the ability to think logically and conduct mental operations with regard to concrete objects. However, they still have trouble comprehending hypothetical and abstract concepts. A significant ability developing during this stage is the understanding of reversibility, i.e., that actions can be reversed. Whereas the younger Pre-operational child watching someone pour liquid from a short, wide container to a tall, narrow one believes the taller container has more liquid, the Concrete Operations child sees the amount is the same despite different container shapes. Reversibility aids this insight. Children in Concrete Operations also understand sequences between mental categories, e.g., their pet is a poodle, a poodle is a dog, and a dog in an animal. The introduction of formal school subjects, especially math, is no coincidence with the age range of this stage because children in Concrete Operations are first able to do simple arithmetic computations.

Discuss some of the challenges of disabilities to child development when children with disabilities begin to attend school.

As Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and others have observed, when children begin school their social and emotional focus shifts from the parent-child relationship to developing social relationships outside of the home with peers, children of other ages, and adults other than parents. The focus of child development consequently shifts from mainly personal skills and parental attachment to social competencies and interpersonal skills. In spite of government mandates of special education and inclusion, schools still vary significantly in their effectiveness with these. Insufficient funding for special education programs; inadequate training of school staff for accommodating instruction to special needs; and frequently, negative attitudes regarding disabilities in school personnel and other children, constitute some of the obstacles faced by children with disabilities and their parents. Because of the variance among schools in this respect, some families realize great resources in school programs, while others realize great additional challenges in trying to advocate for their disabled children's educational rights with schools and other service providers.

Describe some of the challenges of adolescent development to teens with disabilities.

As especially elucidated by Erikson, adolescents have the developmental tasks of developing their individual identities, separating from their childhood relationships with parents, and becoming more independent. Having a disability makes these tasks more challenging for a teenager. While normally developing adolescents often engage in risk taking, e.g., experimenting with alcohol and tobacco, as part of this process, teens with disabilities may refuse prescribed medications, diets, or other disability related treatments as their form of the risk taking part of the developmental process. The natural adolescent development of sexuality also involves additional complications for disabled teens, as they often experience anxieties and fears about their desirability, performance, and future potential for marriage and reproduction. The complications they encounter can include being exploited sexually by others for the cognitively disabled, risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases, and possible higher risks of pregnancy for girls with disabilities.

Summarize some major components included in a complete educational assessment of a student with a mild or moderate disability.

For a complete educational assessment, the assessor should collaborate with the student's teachers to compile background information on the student's academic history. The assessor must also establish and maintain rapport with the assessed student and administer formal test instruments to him or her, then score and interpret those results. To accommodate the student's individual needs, the assessor must be able to modify any existing tests or tools as needed. The assessor will have to determine the student's current level of functioning through interpretations of formal and informal assessment measures. The assessor will discuss the evaluation results with the student's teachers. The assessor will discuss the evaluation results with the student's teachers. The assessors must take ethical procedures for confidentiality of communication into consideration when sharing student information. Finally, the assessor will complete a written report of the assessment results.

Identify some of the accommodations allowed in various US states for the students with special needs to participate in standardized testing via modified assessments.

For blind or visually impaired students or those with visual processing deficits, testers may provide Braille transcriptions of the printed test; large print versions of the test; or if the student needs larger type than the fonts used in large print versions, test items may be enlarged. Students who require addtiional time and/or shorter testing durations (e.g. those with cognitive impairments, attention deficits, or behavior disorders) may be allowed to take a test normally administered in one sitting over more than one day and/or take supervised breaks during one test section. Medication effects and fluctuating attention and/or performance levels can be addressed by administering tests at the optimal time of day for the student. Examiners may test some students in home or hospitals. Test items and answer choices may be presented in sign language, audio recordings, or read aloud. On math and science tests, like in fifth grade, some students may be allowed to use calculators and/or concrete math manipulatives.

Name and briefly describe some normal developments during the fourth stage identified by Piaget in his theory of cognitive development.

Piaget termed his final stage of cognitive development, from around age 12 into adulthood, as Formal Operations. This reflects the individual's ability to understand and manipulate completely abstract concepts without needing to refer to concrete objects. This stage also features the development of logic, the addition of deductive reasoning to the inductive reasoning children develop in the previous stage of Concrete Operations, and systematic planning. Children/teens/adults can now consider hypothetical situations; apply general principles to predict specific events (deductive reasoning) as well as make generalizations from multiple specific details (inductive reasoning, which typically develops during Concrete Operations); and plan organized, systematic approaches to problem solving. They are more fully able to consider another's viewpoint and feelings, and can understand abstract concepts like liberty, justice, democracy, truth, and beauty.

Indicate the person and community variables used respectively in establishing norms for the Woodcock Johnson Test of Cognitive Abilities and for the Wechsler intelligence scales (WPPSI, WISC, and WAIS).

For its norms - normally distributed test scores of a sample of students representative of the general population - the WJ cognitive tests use the person variables of sex, race, Hispanic origin, parent education, school type (public, private, home), occupations of adults, occupational status, and education of adults. The Wechsler intelligence scales use the person variables of gender, race/ethnicity (no separate category for Hispanic origin), and family socioeconomic status, including occupation and education. The Wechsler tests use community location and size as community variables for establishing norms. The WJ cognitive tests use location, size, and 13 additional socioeconomic community variables, distributed as these controlled values: three adult educational levels; three levels of occupational status; three classes of occupations; and among colleges and universities, two types of institutions and two types of funding.

Identify which subtest of the Woodcock Johnson (WJ) Tests of Cognitive Abilities measure short term and long term memory abilities. including definitions of each of these abilities.

Short term memory (immediate, temporary memory) is test by the Woodcock Johnson (WJ) sub tests of Numbers Reversed and Auditory Working Memory, measuring working memory span; and Memory for Words, also measuring memory span. Working memory is the ability to retain current information temporarily well enough to manipulate it, such as combining additional parts to form a coherent whole, as in understanding words in a sentence or sentences in a paragraph. Memory span measures the ability to recall information presented once, immediately and in correct sequence. Long term memory storage and retrieval are tested by the WJ sub tests of Visual-Auditory Learning and Visual-Auditory - Delayed, which measure associative memory, or the ability to recall one item from a previously learned (unrelated) pair when presented with the other item; and Retrieval Fluency, which measures ideational fluency, or the ability to generate many varied responses to one stimulus.

Explain the meaning and purpose of the term Confidence Interval with respect to educational assessment and give an example.

Statisticians use the Confidence Interval to express the range wherein a "true" or "real" score is situated. The purpose is to acknowledge and address the fact that the measurement of a student's performance contains "noise", i.e., interfering/confounding variables that influence the measure of pure ability/achievement, akin to static in a radio, phone, or other sound signal. Giving a Confidence Interval shoes the probability that a student's true score is within the range defined by that interval. For example, a student might take a test a receive a score of 80%. If that student took several other, similar tests, most likely the student's scores would not all be exactly 80%; they would be similar, but vary. The assessors might give a Confidence Interval of +2 Standard Deviations, 95% of the time. Computing Confidence Intervals does not use Standard Scores (z scores). but literal scores to show the upper and lower limits of the range of likely scores.

Define the terms positive skew and negative skew in terms of test scores. Briefly comment on the relation of a normal distribution or normal curve to data typically obtained in educational assessments.

When the majority of a group of numbers, such as test scores, is concentrated toward the high end of the range/distribution with the minority "tail" of scores near the low end, this group of numbers is said to be positively skewed. When the majority of scores is bunched near the lower end of the distribution, with a minority "tail" near the higher end, the set of scores is negatively skewed. A normal curve is called a bell curve because it resembles the shape of a bell, with the largest number of scores collected around the center mean or average score and the numbers of scores descending as they move away from the center and mean. Parametric statistics assume a normal distribution. However, in typical educational assessments, the data obtained as scores on testing instruments are not usually found to be distributed normally.

Summarize some examples of delays in cognitive development that represent atypical development in young children.

Whether caused by neurological deficits or damage, deprivation or other environmental factors, or a combination, some children do not develop cognitive skills typically. They may develop them much later than others or not at all. They may also demonstrate differences in the quantity and quality of their cognitive skills. Children with cognitive developmental delays, for example, can have significant difficulty with learning colors, shapes, and similar basic concepts. They often have trouble learning more advanced concepts, such as counting numbers, reading printed language, and writing language. In addition, children with delayed and/or deficient cognitive development can demonstrate a failure to generalize things they learn to other situations or contexts. Moreover, when children have problems with adjusting to new situations and changes in their environments, this can be a sign of delayed or deficient cognitive development.

Describe some similarities between deaf and hearing students

Although a major difference in deaf students is that they learn language through visual rather than auditory modalities, they also have many similarities to hearing students. They have the same need to communicate and interact socially with others. Unfortunately, the majority of hearing people do not know sign language; and while many deaf people can visually read speech, many others who sign exclusively and adhere to deaf culture function best within the signing deaf community and are at significant disadvantages in hearing milieus. While deaf students often do not understand humor based on word play or sound, they do appreciate humor, and the deaf culture has its own inside jokes. Deaf students have equal interests in competing in sports and academics as hearing students do. They feel the same emotions as others. While they hug each other more and spend longer times on good byes, their social interactions still fulfill the same needs for belonging, connection, and communication.

Identify a condition for which a doctor may prescribe a drug like Pulmozyme (dornase alfa) and explain briefly why. Identify some serious and less serious side effects of this medication.

A doctor may prescribe Pulmozyme to a patient who has cystic fibrosis. This condition causes thick mucus secretions in the lungs, interfering with normal breathing. Excessive DNA in the pulmonary secretions causes these symptoms. Pulmozyme is a synthesized protein that breaks down this extra DNA. It makes the lung secretions thinner and thus less likely to obstruct breathing, and also decreases the patient's risk of respiratory tract infections. Pulmozyme is given in solution via inhalation from a nebulizer. Allergic reactions to Pulmozyme cause symptoms like breathing difficulty, swelling of the face, lips, or tongue, hives, swelling/closing of the throat, chest pain, and/or fever. Emergency medical attention or immediate physician contact are indicated for these, which are the primary serious side effects. Less serious Pulmozyme side effects include changes in the voice; a sore throat; laryngitis; rashes, conjunctivitis, or red, irritated, or inflamed eyes; nasal congestions and/or discharge; and other symptoms, for which a doctor should be consulted.

Describe what parents should expect at their first IEP meeting and how they can arrive prepared.

A student's Individual Education Plan (IEP) is a central part of his or her special education program. IEP team meetings are held to discuss initial referrals for evaluation, to discuss evaluation results, to plan and produce the student's IEP, for annual IEP reviews, for transitions between programs or schools, and to address other issues as needed. Parents should review their child's report cards, test and assignment grades, progress reports, and any assessment results to focus on strengths and needs to be addressed in the IEP. They should consider what issues are important to them to discuss at the meeting. It is often helpful for parents to make notes in advance to bring to the meeting in order to be sure all their concerns are addressed. They may also want to find out in advance who will attend the meeting and what their roles are. Additionally, it is good for parents to have a copy of their rights, guaranteed under the IDEA law and familiarize themselves with those rights. Parents with questions about their legal rights can ask the IEP team's chairperson or the school district's special education coordinator.

Compare some pros and cons of a few different medications prescribed for childhood anxiety disorders, which can include separation anxiety disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia, and others.

According to psychiatrists, children with anxiety are often prescribed the wrong medications when practitioners fail to understand the children's experiences and lack knowledge of evidence based anxiety treatments. Anxious children have attentional difficulties, not from attention deficits but worries. They are often misdiagnosed as having ADHD and prescribed stimulants. These improve concentration, but not mood; they can even increase anxiety and the insomnia its causes. Alpha-two agonists, e.g., clonidine or guanfacine, lower arousal levels and can calm children, but do not treat their anxiety. Some practitioners even prescribe antipsychotics, also inappropriate for anxiety disorders. Serotonin specific reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressants are most effective in research studies and patient treatments by experienced psychiatric physicians. These can improve children's anxiety relatively fast, e.g.m beginning in a week or two, and are most effective in conjunction with cognitive behavior therapy. Benzodiazepines (Valium, Librium, Dalmane, Halcion, Xanax, Ativan, etc.) used as anti seizure treatments, sleep aids, ad muscle relaxants as well as anxiolytics, also provide short term help for extreme anxiety, but not long term help like SSRIs.

Identify which subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence scales measure auditory processing, processing speed, and quantitative knowledge, including definitions of these cognitive abilities.

Auditory processing is the ability to interpret information received through the sense of hearing. The Wechsler intelligence scales do not contain any sub scales specifically measuring auditory processing. Processing speed is the ability to perform easy or familiar cognitive operations quickly and automatically, especially when they require focused attention and concentration, that is, high mental efficiency. Three Wechsler sub scales measure this: the Coding Digit Symbol and Animal Pegs sub scales measure rate of test taking. This does not reflect test content, but is rather a general measure of rapidity in taking easy or over learned tests requiring very simple decisions. The Symbol Search sub scale also measures this, plus perceptual speed, or finding, identifying, comparing, and contrasting visual elements. Perceptual speed includes pattern cognition, scanning, perceptual memory, and complex processing abilities. Quantitative knowledge is numerical or mathematical knowledge. Wechsler's Arithmetic sub scale measures math achievement, which relies on quantitative knowledge, as well as quantitative reasoning (inductive and deductive reasoning about mathematical properties and relations).

Identify some signs that babies and young children are demonstrating atypical development or delays in their use of spoken expressive language.

Babies normally babble at a few to several months. An infant's not babbling at eight months is a sign of delayed/atypical spoken language development. A child not uttering any words by 18 months is not developing expressive language normally. Children over two years using only single words show atypical development. After four years, speaking mainly in "baby talk" is atypical. Echolalia (continually repeating what others say) is normal in younger children, but beyond three years is atypical. Talking to oneself aloud is typical of toddlers, but children continuing this practice extensively past three years show delayed development. Children older than three years who do not take conversational turns but talk "in circles" are not developing typically. Children over four years who have trouble expressing their needs and wants show atypical development. Answering open ended questions ("What did you do at Jimmy's?") with single words indicates a delay in a six year old. Overgeneralizing, i.e., naming many objects with one word like calling all vehicles cares, is another sign of delayed expressive language development.

Identify some nonverbal and behavioral signs of delayed expressive language development that can be observed in children by the age of 12 months.

Babies who make no, or very little, eye contact with others by 12 months of age are not developing typically. Another sign indicating a need for evaluation is not pointing at things by this age. Children who demonstrate few or no skills at taking turns by a year old can have expressive language delays. Little or no demonstration of joint attention, i.e., attending to the same thing as his/her parent, is another sign of developmental delay. So is a lack of joint action, i.e., engaging in the same activity as the parent. Children who consistently hit others or have temper tantrums when they cannot communicate a message to others show signs of delayed expressive language. Crying, yelling, and similar shows of frustration when trying to communicate also indicate developmental delays. In addition, young children with such delays may rarely if ever initiate conversations with others, and may not want to engage in activities with others.

Describe some aspects of the interrelationship of disability and child's development, and this interrelationship's impacts on the child's family.

Because childhood development is sequential, the mastery of skills at each level or stage depends upon the successful completion of the previous stage. Therefore, the earlier in a child's life the onset of a disabling condition is, the more it interrupts the child's developmental progress. Accomplishing developmental tasks is complicated in many ways for children with disabilities. This influences what family roles the child can adopt and consequently affects the family. In an infant's disability prevents the infant from responding to parental efforts at nurturing, this impedes the development of bonding, secure attachment, and trust, undermining parenting competence. Toddlers must actively explore their social environments to develop self control and autonomy. But sensory, motor, or cognitive disabilities can hamper such exploration. Parents may be overprotective for fear of additonal damage or injury, and/or, due to guilt or sympathy, overindulgent. Others' negative feedback about the child's disability can reinforce these parental behaviors, additionally limiting the child's disability can reinforce these parental behaviors, additionally limiting the child's development of self control and autonomy.

Discuss some differences between blind and sighted students.

Blind students with normal hearing do not miss out on the auditory medium wherein children learn to understand and use speech and language as deaf students do. However, while they can learn spoken language normally, they cannot learn to read and write visually as other children can. They must learn Braille and have access to Braille publications to read and/or listen to books on tape. Today they have the added advantage of computer text to speech software. Another significant difference is that blind students cannot learn their way around schools and other large, complex buildings simply through the experience of navigating them a few times. Sighted individuals often take this for granted. Blind students usually need help from Orientation and Mobility specialists to learn how to get around in indoor and outdoor settings. Without the benefit of the multitude of visual information others have, it can be very confusing not to know just which way to go, but even where one is and in what position relative to one's surroundings (orientation).

Describe some aspects of the emotional and caregiving impacts of disabilities on families.

Caring for a disabled child or family member, particularly one with more severe disabilities, is a daily stressor that can exhaust caregivers and all family members emotionally and physically. Emotional stress includes anxiety, anger, guilt, and insecurity- about the disability's cause, other family member's needs, whether caregivers are going enough, the future, etc. Families grieve the disabled member's functional losses, initially and recurrently. A member's disability frequently causes major changes in family life. Members, especially females, may discard or alter jobs and/or career plans for caregiving duties. Some members feel too involved in care while others feel left out, and within family relationships change. Different loyalties and/or alliances develop within the family. Past research has found that while disability tended to increase marital tension, it did not necessarily increase divorce rates.

Identify some examples of activities that preschool and young school age children learn to do that reflect written expressive language skills development.

Children learn to speak before they learn to write, though there is also some overlap in their developing spoken and written expressive language skills. These both also depend on the development of the receptive language skills of listening and reading comprehension. Young children first learn to trace letters, then they copy them, and then they write them. They follow the same progression with tracing, copying, and writing numbers. They copy examples of simple words, like "Mom," and then do the same with more complex words like, "truck." Once they have copied words and can remember letters, they progress to writing the letters in sequence to spell written words. Thereafter, they learn to write consecutive words that form sentences, such as "I love my mommy." Eventually, school age children can write connected sentences that form paragraphs, like "I love my kitty. One day my friends will come over. I will show my kitty to my friends."

Identify some of the medical needs that children with cystic fibrosis often have.

Children who inherit cystic fibrosis have a genetic defect that makes normally thin, slippery secretory juices become thick and sticky. These fluids, which normally lubricate the tissues, when thickened obstruct passageways, ducts, and tubes, particularly in the lungs and pancreas. CF has no cure, and treatment involved complex management. However, improved detection and intervention have decreased complications and ameliorated symptoms, allowing children to live longer. Treatment focuses on loosening and eliminating mucus from the lungs; preventing and controlling lung infections; preventing and treating intestinal obstructions; and supplying sufficient nutrition. This includes antibiotics; mucus thinning medications; bronchodilators to keep airways open; pancreatic enzymes to improve nutrient absorption; chest clapping by hand or mechanical device, inflatable vibrating vests, and breathing masks/tubes; breathing exercises and strategies; nutritional counseling; energy conserving techniques; counseling and/or support groups. Additional procedures include oxygen therapy to prevent pulmonary hypertension, endoscopy and lavage to suction mucus, surgical nasal polyp removal, feeding tubes for supplemental nutrition, surgical removal of bowel obstructions, and lung transplants.

Describe some characteristics of the physical and motor development of children with Down Syndrome in contrast to typical development.

Children with Down Syndrome show overall slower development in physiology and motor skills. They grow more slowly in physical size and also ultimately attain smaller full statures than typically developing children. They tend to have lower/weaker muscle tone, or hypotonia. They commonly start walking significantly later than other children. Even once they learn to walk, they may not develop physical coordination, balance, and proprioception as soon or ever as well as other children. The oral motor skills components of motor development are also slower to develop in those with Down Syndrome, compounded by having large, thick, often protruding tongues, which can interfere with eating skills and clear speech. Additional physiological stigmata of Down syndrome include small hands and feet; short, stubby fingers; short, thick necks; small heads, flattened in back; small noses; and Asian appearing eyes with epicanthal folds. Down syndrome children are more likely to have celiac disease (gluten intolerance), gostroesophageal reflux, hypothyroidism, hearing and visual problems, and to develop senile dementias earlier than normally.

Identify which subtest of the Wechsler intelligence scales (WPPSI, WISC, WAIS) measure crystallized intelligence and fluid reasoning, including definitions of each of these cognitive abilities.

Crystallized intelligence is the knowledge that students have amassed from their culture through their life and formal and informal educational experiences, including the ability to retrieve this information from memory. David Wechsler's intelligence scales measure this capacity through four sub scales: Information, which measures the student's store of general information; Vocabulary, which measures language development and lexical knowledge; Similarities, which also measures language development and lexical knowledge, in the context of the ability to make comparisons; and Comprehension, which measures language development and general information. Fluid intelligence or reasoning is the ability to perform mental operations that manipulate information to solve new problems, requiring cognitive flexibility, as well as existing knowledge. The Wechsler tests measure this capacity through the Matrix Reasoning sub scale, which test inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning is the ability to generalize from a specific task, problem, or set of observations to a broader underlying principle, concept or rule.

Identify which subsets of the Woodcock Johnson (WJ) Tests of Cognitive Abilities measure crystallized and fluid intelligence, including definitions of each of these two cognitive abilities.

Crystallized intelligence, or the solidified knowledge that an individual has acquired from her or her culture through life experiences and formal and informal education, is measured on the WJ by its subtests of General Information and Verbal Comprehension. The latter subtest measures language development and lexical knowledge (vocabulary). Fluid intelligence or reasoning stands in contrast to crystallized intelligence or knowledge. This is the ability to solve novel problems by performing mental operations. Fluid reasoning is measured on the WJ by its Concept Formation subtest, which tests inductive reasoning - the ability to relate a specific problem to a generalized, underlying rule, concept, or principle - and Analysis Synthesis, which test deductive or general sequential reasoning - the ability to apply a general rule, concept, or principle to a specific problem. Thus inductive (specific to general) and deductive (general to specific) reasoning, which are opposite processes, are both part of the cognitive ability of fluid intelligence.

Discuss some treatments used to address some medical needs of children with cerebral palsy.

Damage or deficient development in the brain before birth usually causes cerebral palsy, which affects muscle tone, posture, and movement. It can include spasticity causing muscular rigidity and incoordination, athetosis causing involuntary movements and exaggerated reflexes, or both. Its effects can range from an unsteady gait or slight limp to complete loss of walking and speech, and every degree in between these. Botox can help isolated spasticity, and muscle relaxants can help generalized spasticity. CP patients benefit from physical therapy to improve motor development, mobility, strength, balance, and flexibility. Splints or braces can stretch stiff muscles, prevent contractures, and help some children walk. Occupational therapists provide adaptive equipment and alternate strategies to help children participate independently in daily routines and activities. Speech language therapists help children speak clearly, use sign language or communication boards/devices, and improve eating/swallowing muscle use. Orthopedic surgery for severe deformities or contractures can reposition bones or joints; lengthen contracted tendons and muscles to reduce pain and increase mobility; and sometimes sever extremely spastic muscles.

Identify some factors for teachers and school administrators to consider when selecting formal tests for the assessment of students with mild to moderate disabilities.

Educators should consider where to obtain a published test, its price, and any purchasing restrictions. They should determine whether the test is available in other languages and identify the population used for the test's norm group, including their ages and ethnicities, and whether students with disabilities are represented. It is also important to examine test content for signs of cultural bias. Furthermore, they must consider what accommodations of a test are possible in order to enable students with disabilities to take it. They should review the test's materials, administrations an scoring procedures, and what types of scores its yields. They should examine the test's validity, reliability, applications, and limits. Additionally, they should take all this information into account to arrive at their own judgment of a test's value as a psycho-educational assessment instrument for students with mild to moderate disabilities.

Explain how educators use a cut score relative to interpreting assessment results. Identify one method that is used to determine a cut score and summarize its procedure.

Educators use a cut score to determine which scores are passing and which are failing. They set a particular number as the cut score; all scores above it are passing and all scores below the cut score are failing. Using methods developed for multiple choice tests allows them to adjust for various factors, e.g., the difficulty of a certain test or assessing student population which special needs, rather than arbitrarily assigning the same cut score to all tests. One such method for establishing a cut score is the Nedelsky method: the assessor(s) identify a "borderline" group of students, i.e., those who do not always pass or fail, but tend to score on the borderline of passing/failing. The assessor(s) estimate how many of these "borderline" students will probably answer a given test item correctly. A common number for this group is 10 students. The sum of the percentages of students estimated to response correctly to each test item is rounded to an integer, yielding the cut score.

Discuss some aspects of the social and emotional development of students on the autism spectrum as contrasted with typical development.

Emotional and social differences can be observed in autistic people from early childhood, when many of them avoid eye contact with others and resist physical contact with parents, like flinging themselves backward from being hugged/held or going rigid in their bodies when held. Many also engage in repetitive, stereotypic self stimulating behaviors like rocking. Students with autism experience the same internal emotions as others, but may not express these normally. Moreover, they often have great difficulty noticing or understanding the emotions of others and their expression of them. As a result, their behavior in social situations can appear rather strange, especially from high functioning autistic individuals with above average intelligence. For example, as autism expert John Gerdtz once related, "It's really strange when you're talking with someone who has a PhD in mathematics, and he suddenly turns and walks away right in the middle of the conversation." Autistic individuals frequently fail to follow social conventions because they do not understand them.

Give some examples of variations in test administration that are allowed by various US states for modified assessments of students with special needs on standardized tests.

Exclusive of actual test items, in some states the test administration instructions may be clarified or simplified. Other than item responses, students may be allowed to highlight or make other marks in their test booklets. Students may be tested in small groups rather than whole class settings. Test administrators may given students additional time within the testing day to complete a test. Individual students may be tested separately with direct examiner supervision. Students with visual impairments may use visual magnifiers for test text, and hearing impaired students may use audio amplification. Individual study carrels/enclosures may be used as noise buffers for hearing impaired or distractible students. Special lighting, acoustics, special furniture, or adaptive furnishings may be allowed. Masking or colored overlays may be used to sustain student visual attention. American Sign Language (ASL) or Manually Coded English (MCE) may also be used to give test instructions (but not test items) to deaf, hard of hearing, or nonverbal students.

Briefly define expressive language development. Identify several components of non-verbal expressive language in babies and young children.

Expressive language is that language we produce in order to communicate with others, whether through spoken or written words, vocal sounds, facial expressions, physical gestures, and/or body language. Babies and children develop expressive language gradually and in a cumulative sequence. Nonverbal expressive language consists of all of that expressive communication that does not involve the use of words. For example, when a baby cries, that is a form of nonverbal expressive language. Smiling also communicates pleasure, recognition, and/or affection towards others. Laughing expresses amusement or delight. Frowning expresses displeasure, sadness, or anger. When infants and toddlers learn to wave bye-bye they are using nonverbal expressive language. When babies and young children point at things, they nonverbally communicate a variety of messages - like "I want that", "Look at that"; "What is that?"; "I see that". When young children throw objects, whether to express anger, protest something, or get an adult to retrieve it as a game, this is also nonverbal expressive language.

Characterize some differential psychosocial effects on families of various aspects of disabilities, including a few examples of general disability types.

Families are affected differentially by the degree of a member's disability: its type, i.e., whether it is a motor, sensory, or cognitive disability; how visible the disability is; how much pain or other symptoms are involved; the disabled member's life expectancy or prognosis; how much treatment and/or care is required; and whether the disability is progressive, constant, or relapsing in nature. Some experts believe these characteristics have more influence on a chronic condition's psychological impact than the diagnosis itself. Constant disabilities, e.g., spinal cord injuries, necessitate major initial family restructuring, plan long term endurance and persistence. While the family can plan for a known future, they can still become exhausted, especially if community resources are lacking. Progressive disabilities, e.g., dementia or degenerative arthritis, cause grief over continuous losses, uncertainty about living arrangements and degrees of dependency, and increasing demands in care taking. Relapsing disabilities, e.g., cancer or epilepsy, require less continual care but more ability to shift suddenly from normal to crisis mode and rapidly activate resources.

Identify some general aspects of the family's role relative to their children with disabilities, including some common advantages and disadvantages.

Families play a critical tole by frequently serving as their disabled child's firs case manager. In this capacity, they are the most consistent and know the most about their child's abilities and needs. Families help coordinate the services disabled children need. They help them explore career possibilities and interests. They supply housing, transportation, adaptive equipment, and other necessities. When young people with disabilities progress from high school to college or employment and community living, their families support the transitions they must make. Families can help their children achieve greater understanding of themselves and their disabilities. However, many families do not realize how crucial such self knowledge is, and many assume the schools teach this when they seldom do. Also, when educators and families avoid directly discussing disabilities and focus instead on abilities and strengths, children can grow up not realizing their disability's impact and the accommodations to facilitate their success. Students who avoid identification as disabled for fear of labeling and stigma are frequently unprepared for self advocacy.

Differentially define formative assessments versus summative assessments in educational testing.

Formative assessments are given during a lesson, unit, course, or program. Their purpose is to give the teachers and students an idea of how well each student is learning what the teacher has planned and expected for them to learn. The teacher uses the results of formative assessments to explain to each student his/her strengths and weaknesses, and how he/she can build on the strengths and improve the weaknesses, and to report student progress to parents, administrators, and others. Summative assessments are given after a lesson, unit, course, or program has been completed. Their purpose is to determine whether the student has passes the segment of instruction. This determines whether they need to repeat the instruction or can move on to successive segments. Summative assessments apply to lessons or units within a class, to course in a subject, to promotion from one grade level to the next, and to graduation.

Identify some of the less serious side effects of the medication gabapentin. Also identify some side effects that are more likely in children taking this drug, and what to do if these occur. Mention a consideration for educators regarding students taking seizure medications.

Gabapentin is prescribed to children to control seizures. It is also prescribed to adults for Rest Leg Syndrome and for nerve pain secondary to shingles. It may be prescribed to some children for whom other anti-seizure medications have not been effective. Some less serious side effects of gabapentin include sleepiness, dizziness, weakness, fatigue, constipation, diarrhea, nausea, blurred vision, headaches, swelling of the breasts, dryness of the mouth, and loss of coordination or balance. In children particularly, gabapentin is more likely to cause problems with memory, changes in behavior, difficulty concentrating, and restless, aggressive, or hostile behavior. If parents of caregivers observe any of these side effects in children who are taking gabapentin, they should always contact the prescribing physician. Educators should always ensure they are informed when students are taking seizure medications, especially younger children less likely to know/understand or volunteer this information. They should not automatically assume a child has an attention deficit or behavior disorder instead. They should also realize this is probably the reason if a student seems sleepy.

Summarize some general adaptations to assessments for special needs students and some adaptations to assessments specifically for visually impaired students.

General testing adaptations include using these oral directions interchangeably: "Find", "Show me", "Point to", and "Give me". Testers should place stimulus cards and manipulatives however the student is best able to perceive these. Concrete materials should be set on surfaces with boundary edges so they cannot roll away or fall down when students use them. Testers should arrange the test environment to eliminate or reduce distractions for students more susceptible to these. For visually impaired students, testers may enlarge stimulus cards as needed. They may replace visual stimuli with Braille, beeping objects or other auditory stimuli, or textured materials if the student is accustomed to using these regularly. Testing teachers can cut out the outlines of shapes or figures from stimulus cards. They may substitute spoken cues like "Tell me" instead of "show me." As necessary, they may describe the content of pictorial stimuli. They should let students handle concrete objects as is needed. Students who wear corrective glasses should always wear these during assessments.

Discuss some differences in the impacts of disabilities on families according to the age of disability onset and the age of the parents at onset or diagnosis.

In contrast to disabilities manifested in late adulthood, which are more predictable and less disruptive psychologically to families, disabilities occurring earlier in life are perceived as less normal, affect development more, and require making more adjustments for longer times. Congenital disabilities shape the identity and life of a child, so the child and family are not required to adjust to a sudden loss of function. An example is the difference between a child born with spina bifida versus a normal adolescent who sustains an injury and suddenly becomes paraplegic. Parental age at onset is also a factor in family response to disability. Adolescent parents still have salient developmental needs themselves; plus, they usually have fewer resources and less maturity for coping with the additional demands of the child's disability. Older parents have greater risks of bearing children with Down syndrome and other disabilities, lesser endurance for caregiving, and more fears about who will care for their child after their deaths.

Define the term "domain" in the context of educational assessment. Additionally, explain briefly the premise of Item Response Theory and explain its application to educational testing.

In educational assessment, the term "domain" is the identified scope of expected learning to be assessed. Tests typically present students with samples of assessment tasks. The results of these tests are then interpreted to generalize the performance on the full range of possible assessment tasks that would measure the domain of intended learning. Item Response Learning (IRT) posits that performance on a test item is attributed to three influences: the item itself; the test taker; and the interaction between the two. In education, when large groups of test takers are given many test items to produce large data sets, raters can use formulae to separate influences on test items from the test takers true ability, skills, or knowledge. However, the kind of assessment that is normally conducted within a given educational program does not afford enough data to calculate parameters according to Item Response Theory that would be stable enough to be meaningful.

Differentially characterize norm referenced tests and criterion referenced or domain referenced tests relative to assessments in educational programs, including general examples.

In reference to testing large groups, like the entire student body of a school, district, or state, the high stakes standardized tests given are typically norm referenced tests; that is, they compare student's scores to a normative sample of students deemed representative of the general population. Criterion referenced tests may or may not be standardized and compare student scores to a predetermined set of criteria for acceptable performance. In the context of educational programs, norm-referenced tests seek to determine the highest or lowest achievement rather than the absolute score achieved. For example, educators might determine the 10 highest student scores on a certain test to reinforce with "best in group" awards. In this context, measures of mastery learning are examples of criterion referenced or domain referenced testing. Educators establish a minimum performance level score that equates to passing. Student scores are compared against this score, so the students in a given class could all pass or all fail the test.

Explain what item analysis is in terms of educational assessment, including what it indicates, its implicit orientation, and the characteristics of test items that it typically covers.

Item analysis is often used to evaluate test items that use multiple choice formats to show the quality of the test item and of the test overall. Item analysis had an implicit orientation of being norm referenced rather than criterion or domain referenced. That is, it evaluates test items using performance within the group of test takers rather than an externally preset criterion for expected achievement. Characteristics analyzed in test items include how many high scoring students got an item correct; how many low scoring students got the item correct; the test item's discrimination index for separating high and low scoring test takers; the test item's difficulty index; how many test takers chose each of the answer choices on each test item; the quality of the correct answer choices; and the reliability of the test, i.e., how consistent its results are across separate administrations to the same test takers.

Discuss the technological development of portfolio assessments into ePortfolios and the additional influence of social networking. Identify some key processes involved in portfolios, social networking, and technology.

Just as physical portfolios show a student's work and creative products accumulated over time, ePortfolios store documents and photos of products and can be shared with others; but given the advent of social networks, they benefit from additional advantages of immediate communication and reinforcement. Digital archives can portray a student's life, from birth through early childhood family learning via scrapbooks, and through formal schooling and into employment and professional development. In portfolios, key processes include collecting products for the digital archive; selecting those demonstrating certain standards or goals by creating hyperlinks for others, which leads to reflecting or metacognition, helping the student construct meaning from the works he/she selected, aided by new storytelling models generated by technology; directing or goal setting; presenting e Portfolios; and getting feedback on them. Social networking includes processes of connecting with others; listening to or reading posts; responding by commenting on posts; and sharing via linking or tagging. Key processes technology enables include archiving; linking and thinking; digital storytelling; collaborating; and publishing.

Explain briefly why central nervous system stimulants like amphetamines are often prescribed to children with ADHD. Identify some serious and less serious side effects of amphetamines.

Many adults do not understand why a child who is already hyperactive would be prescribed a stimulant drug, thinking this would only make them even more so. However, stimulants like amphetamines often have the effect of helping children with ADHD to focus their attention better for longer time periods. This compares to the effects of caffeine and controlled amphetamines doses in helping normal but tired adults concentrate better. Serious amphetamine side effects include rapid, uneven, or pounding heartbeat; burning or pain with urination; increased talkativeness; other unaccustomed behaviors; extremes of depression or elation; muscular twitches/motor tics; physical tremors; hallucinations; and dangerous elevations in blood pressure, with symptoms like buzzing in the ears, severe headaches, shortness of breath, cardiac arrhythmias, chest pain, confusion, anxiety, seizures, and others. Less serious side effects include blurred vision, dizziness, weakness, moderate headaches, irritability, restlessness, agitation, insomnia, dry mouth, bad taste in the mouth, constipation, diarrhea, stomachache, nausea, vomiting, fever, loss of appetite, weight loss, hair loss, loss of libido, and others.

Identify some signs of atypical development in the area of gross motor skills for a child between the ages of 3 and 12 months, and between 12 and 36 months.

Motor development follows a hierarchical pattern. In other words, for example, if a child cannot stand, he/she cannot walk, and if he/she cannot walk, he/she cannot run. When a baby is between 3 and 12 months old, some signs of atypical gross motor skills development include that the child does not open her/his hands during the normal age range; that the child has trouble holding his/her head up; the child cannot sit up without support, and/or the child has difficulty sitting up even with support; and the child does not begin to pull up on furniture or stand up during this age range. Between 12 and 36 months, signs of delayed/atypical development include problems with walking and/or running; with ascending or descending stairs; with rolling, catching, and throwing a ball; and with jumping and hopping. Children with atypical motor development may demonstrate higher or lower muscle tone than normal and problems with motor planning, motor coordination, balance, and proprioception.

Discuss some of the medical needs associated with muscular dystrophy in children.

Muscular dystrophy, a genetic condition, makes muscle fibers unusually vulnerable to damage, causing progressive weakness. Symptoms include breathing/swallowing difficulties and limb contractures. Some forms affect the heart and other organs. Among at least seven forms of MD, the Duchenne type comprises roughly half of all cases and is most common in boys. Children learning to walk may fall often; have trouble getting up, running, and jumping; waddle when walking; and have enlarged calf muscles. They also often have learning disabilities. With no cure, treatment focuses on decreasing/preventing spinal and joint deformities and enabling mobility as long as possible. Prednisone and other corticosteriods can slow progression of some forms of MD and enhance muscular strength, but also weaken bones, elevating fracture risks, with long term use. Surgeries can loosen contracted joints, correct spinal scoliosis to ease breathing, and install pacemakers for MD related heart conditions. Range of motion exercises improve flexibility. Braces support weak muscles, stretch muscles and tendons, and preserve flexibility, slowing contracture progression. Some patients need C-PAP sleep apnea devices or ventilators.

Identify spoken verbal expressive language skills that children develop as they grow older, starting after toddler's two word phrases and continuing through full sentences.

Once they can speak using more than one word expressions, young children begin to ask questions and answer others' questions. They progress to correctly using words expressing qualitative concepts, including opposites like big and little, tall and short, etc; and quantitative concepts, including opposite and relative quantities like all, none, a lot, or a little. As their expressive language skills develop, they reflect children's receptive understanding of the concepts underlying the words. The toddler's basic "She walk" phrase gives way to the more advanced present progressive verb tense "She is walking" in preschoolers. Children begin to use pronouns like "I" and "you", rather than using no pronouns or only "me" or "mommy". They then develop possessive pronouns like "mine" and "my" (+ object). They start including prepositions like on, in, over, and under. They use past tenses, both regular and irregular ("gave") ad future constructions like "will/is going to" (+ verb). they progress from two word to three and four word phrases, and then full sentences with subject, auxiliary verb, verb, and object.

Summarize several main areas of behavioral differences observed in individuals on the autism spectrum.

One area of behavioral difference among the autistic is language; some people with ASD ave few or no verbal skills; others have limited speech and language; others have more functional, but odd sounding speech and language; and still others have highly functioning verbal skills. Some are able to speak extensively on favorite topics but cannot start or continue social conversations. Another area is social and emotional: those with ASD's have difficulty observing, interpreting, and using socially accepted behaviors indicating emotions. A common autistic deficit is tolerating interruptions, changes, or transitions in activities. Autistic people frequently display narrowly limited interests and activities, and rigid thinking and behavior. The lower functioning often engage in repetitive behaviors; the higher functioning can focus intensely on a single activity for long periods, but not shift or divide their attention. Some autistic individuals react to sudden changes, or sensory input they find painful due to hypersensitivity, with panic reactions including screaming, self injurious behavior, and/or withdrawal into rocking, counting, or other repetitive self soothing actions.

Compare the administration time of the Woodcock Johnson Test of Cognitive Abilities and the Wechsler intelligence scales (WPPSI, WISC, and WAIS). including the standard batteries and optional subtests.

Overall, the Woodcock Johnson standard battery of tests take less time to administer than Wechsler's standard battery for children and younger teens (WPPSI and WISC). The Woodcock Johnson extended battery can take as long as Wechsler's standard battery for older teens and adults (WAIS), but if optional sub tests in the WAIS are also administered, it can take longer than even the extended battery of the Woodcock Johnson tests. The Woodcock Johnson's standard battery of tests normally takes about 35 to 45 minutes to administer. The Woodcock Johnson extended battery normally takes about 90 minutes total. Most of these sub tests are not timed, while the Wechsler sub tests are. The WPPSI and WISC for preschoolers and primary students respectively, and for children, each take about 50 to 70 minutes to administer; including optional sub tests adds approximately 10 to 15 minutes more. The WAIS, for ages 16 to 89, takes approximately 60 to 90 minutes to administer, with optional sub tests adding about 10 to 15 minutes more to the total time.

Comment on some differences and similarities between physically disabled students and others.

Physically normal students, and sometimes even educators, may not realize that even navigating through a school building - a seemingly simple everyday activity they take for granted - is not the same for the physically disabled. For example, building with traditional construction frequently include doorways too narrow for wheelchairs, solid obstacles impossible or difficult to move around, or stairs and grades not safely traversed using crutches. Federal legislation protecting the rights of the disabled has now mandated that all new constructions be accessible to them; however, this does not address old/existing buildings that often cannot by retrofitted. Also, physically disabled students have the same needs and desires to compete, win, and play as others, which should not be discounted. For example, wheelchair basketball and races are popular alternatives. In some schools, students in wheelchairs are also included in regular sports teams and games.

Summarize some normal characteristics of a child in Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, including its name, age range, some descriptive terms Piaget coined, and some examples of these.

Piaget called his second stage of cognitive development, between the ages of 2-7 years, Pre-operational, because children have not yet developed the ability to perform mental operations, i.e., mentally manipulating information, and do not understand concrete logic. Piaget called children in this stage egocentric, i.e., they cannot assume another's perspective. For example, Pre-operational children can select a picture matching a three-dimensional scene they just saw, but cannot select a picture matching what someone else would see from a different physical location/position. They do not understand what Piaget termed conversation, the concept that quantities remain constant regardless of shape or appearance. For example, children judge the same amount of liquid differently by its appearance in differently shaped containers (short wide vs. tall narrow), even when seeing it poured from one to the other. Piaget identified additional characteristics of Pre-operational thinking as animism (attributing human qualities to inanimate objects) and magical thinking (attributing external events to one's internal thoughts)

Describe typical cognitive development in infancy according to Piaget's theory, including his names for the first stage, some of its characteristics, and its substages.

Piaget defined four stages of cognitive development. He called the first stage sensorimotor to characterize infants' cognitive processes: they perceive sensory information from their surrounding environments and respond to these by engaging in motor activities, e.g., rooting, suckling, looking, listening, reaching, and grasping. Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into six sub stages: Reflexes, from 0-1 month; Primary Circular Reactions from 1-4 months wherein infants finds accidental actions like thumb sucking pleasurable and then intentionally repeats them; Secondary Circular Reactions from 4-8 months when infants intentionally repeat actions to evoke environmental effects; Coordination of Reactions from 8-12 months, featuring obviously intentional actions, comprehension of cause and effect, and combining schemas (concepts); Tertiary Circular Reactions from 12-18 months, when children experiment with trial and error; and Early Representational Thought from 18-24 months, when children begin representing things or events with symbols. A significant sensorimotor development is Object Permanence, i.e., realizing things still exist when out of sight.

Identify which subtests of the Woodcock Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ) measure processing speed and quantitative knowledge, including definitions of these.

Processing speed refers to the ability to perform easy or familiar cognitive operations quickly and automatically, especially when they require focused attention and concentration, that is, high mental efficiency. The WJ test this ability through four sub tests: Visual Matching measures perceptual speech that is, finding, identifying, comparing, and contrasting visual elements. This includes pattern recognition, scanning, perceptual memory, and complex processing abilities. The Decision Speed sub test measures semantic processing, meaning reaction time to a stimulus requiring some encoding and metal manipulation. The Rapid Picture Naming sub tests measures naming facility ("rapid automatic naming" in reading research), meaning the ability of rapidly naming familiar presented things (objects, concepts, their images, or descriptions) with names retrieved from long term memory. The Pair Cancellation sub test measures the student's ability to attend to and concentrate on presented stimuli. Quantitative knowledge is acquired numerical or mathematical information. The WJ does not have any sub tests for measuring quantitative knowledge.

Describe the Ebel method for determining a cut score for passing or filing a given test instrument.

Rather than arbitrarily setting the same pass/fail cut score for all tests, several methods exist for determining an appropriate cut score for a particular instrument. The Ebel method considers the importance and difficulty level of each test item in establishing a cut score for a test. First the testers divide all test items into six categories: High, Medium, and Low importance; and High, Medium, and Low difficulty. Then, after selecting a group of "borderline" students who do not always pass of fail tests but are about equally likely to do either, they estimate how many of these students would probably get each item correct in each of these six categories. They add up their estimated percentages for each test item and round the sum to an integer, which is the cut score. The assessors can also then modify their estimators based on data they may obtain from a student class or group's actual test results.

Briefly discuss receptive, expressive, and pragmatic language. Identify several signs of delayed or atypical development of receptive language milestones at various ages during childhood.

Receptive language is comprehending language we hear and read. Expressive language is out production of spoken and written language. Pragmatic language is our using receptive and expressive language depend upon receptive language, which precedes them. If a baby is not imitating others' vocal sounds or behaviors or responding to hearing his/her name called and/or seems not to be listening to others' speech by the age of 12 months, this can indicate delayed/deficient receptive language development. By three years, if a child does not follow instructions and/or does not learn to speak normally, this can indicate receptive language delay. When children frequently ask others to repeat and/or have trouble answering questions by five years old, they may have receptive language delays. By seven years, signs of receptive language deficits include having trouble understanding stories told/read aloud; avoiding participating in social activities; and having trouble processing or making sense of verbal information. Having trouble reading sentences by nine years old is another sign.

Briefly define the assessment terminology of reliability and validity, and explain the difference between the two. Name three subtypes of reliability and five subtypes of validity.

Reliability is consistency of an assessment instrument's data across repeated administrations. For example, reliable test scores are similar when the same test taker is given the test two/three times at two week intervals. Internal consistency reliability is consistency of test items with one another by measuring the same quantity/construct. Inter-rater consistency is reliability among individuals scoring the same test. Intra-rater consistency is an individual's consistency in rating responses to various test items. Validity is whether a test measures what it claims/intends to measure. Content validity means a test includes items representing the complete range of possible items. Construct validity means a test's scores measure the construct they are meant to measure, like intelligence. Criterion validity means a test's scores effectively measure a construct at the same time. Predictive validity, another type of criterion validity, means test scores effectively predict future outcomes, as when aptitude tests predict future subject grades.

Identify a few sources of variation in the impact of disabilities on families. Identify some general negative and positive outcomes for families with disabled members.

Research shows the functioning and health of family members can be compromised by disability's additional demands. This includes elevated risks of behavioral and psychological symptoms in other family members. But despite this greater risk, studies also find that the majority of children and adults in families with a disabled member do not demonstrate such behavioral or psychological problems. This is attributed to the family members' adaptive abilities: they find and apply various coping skills to address the additional stresses caused in their life by the disability. Even through having a disabled member can cause families to experience grief, fatigue, depletion of resources, and other stressors, many families have aso reported experiencing greater family closeness, acceptance of other people, new friendships, deepened spiritual faith, greater self efficacy, and sense of competence, more respect for life, and becoming stronger as a family. Thus, both negative and positive consequences are associated with having a family member with a disability.

Differentiate between the meanings of sensitivity and specificity with regard to educational testing. Summarize the purpose and procedure of the KR20 formula with educational assessment instruments.

Sensitivity refers to how well a test identifies every member of a defined group. The more sensitive a test is, the more likely it can include some individuals who should not be in that group. Specificity refers to how well a test identifies only those members of a defined group. The more specific a test is, the more likely it will omit some individuals who should be included in that group. Among many KR formulas used to estimate statistically a test's reliability or consistency, the KR20 is one that assumes that the relative difficulty of items on a test, and the correlations among those items, are basically equal. The KR20 formula deducts the variances of all individual test items from the total test's variance, which produces an estimate of the test's internal consistency reliability. When a test has items of dissimilar difficulty, the Horst's modification can be used to correct for this by estimating the maximal variance possible within a given range of item difficulties for that test.

Identify which subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence scales measure short terms memory and long term memory, including definitions of each.

Short term memory is the ability to maintain immediate awareness of information received in the last few minutes. Three Wechsler sub scales address this: the Digit Span sub scale measures memory span, or the ability of sequentially accurate, immediate recall of a series of numbers presented only once. The Letter-Number Sequencing sub scale measures both memory span and working memory, or the ability to temporarily store information and perform mental operations on it, requiring divided attention. The Sentences sub scale measures both memory span and the level of the student's language development. Information used in working memory and memory span, that is, in short term memory, is not retained beyond the few minutes when it is needed, unless it is also stored in long term memory. Long term storage and retrieval can be reproductive, meaning recalling facts from memory; and/or reconstructive, that is generating new material based on rules, principles, or concepts stored in memory. The Wechsler intelligence scales do not contain any sub scales to measure long term memory storage and retrieval.

Describe some examples of accommodations that may be allowed in some US states for modified assessments of students with special needs on standardized tests.

Some states allow students to mark their test responses in their test booklets, and then the school personnel transfer these onto the standardized answer form used by other students to be electronically scored. For students with vision, hearing, manual, or motor impairments, they may dictate their responses to multiple choice test items aloud or in ASL or Manually Coded English to a designed scribe who writes, types, or fills in bubbles, circles choices, or otherwise marks the student's answers on a form. For essay questions, some students may be permitted to use word processing software programs, with the spell check and grammar check features disabled. Other students may be allowed to dictate their essay answers orally to a voice recorder or scribe, or manually in sign language to an interpreter/scribe, or using speech to text computer software. In these cases, students supply all writing conventions of spelling and grammar in their dictation. Assistive devices that allow independent student work may be used.

Describe some common medical needs of students with spina bifida.

Spina bifida is a neural tube defect; the neural tube that will become the baby's brain, spinal cord, and enclosing tissues does not close completely. Of its several types, spina bifida occulta frequently needs no treatment. Spina bifida meningocele requires surgery to replace the meninges back into the spinal column and close the vertebral opening. Spina bifida myelomeningocele needs surgery within 24 to 48 hours of birth to lessen infection risk and protect the spinal cord from further trauma. Surgeons sometimes install a shunt in the infant's brain during surgery, before week 26 of gestation, reduces children's needs for brain shunts, crutches/walkers/braces, etc., but i risky for mothers and highly elevates premature birth risks. Despite early surgery, children with myelomeningocele often have lower body paralysis and bladder and bowel problems. Treatment includes exercises preparing for later assisted walking. Myelomeningocele complications include tethered spinal cord from postoperative scar tissue, inhibiting growth. Surgery can restore some function and mitigate the extent of disability.

Explain what the standard deviation is and how it relates to assessments results. Include the formula for calculating the standard deviation. Define the standard score. Define what a scaled score is and give an example.

Standard deviation measures variability within a set of numbers. In interpreting assessment results, it measures how much scores among a group of test takers vary around the mean/average. For example, a bell curve shows a normal distribution of test scores: the high center represents the majority of scores closest to the mean, while the lower sides represent standard deviations above and below it. SD is calculated by obtaining the square root of the sum of deviations of each score and the mean, and dividing this figure by the number of scores in the group. The standard score, or Z score, represents the amount whereby an individual score deviates from the mean, measured in SD's. For example, a common SD unit for IQ tests is 15 where the mean is 100. A scaled score is obtained by converting a group of test scores to a scale/distribution with a designated mean and SD. For example, the US Medical Licensing Examination (ASMLE) has a mean of 200 and an SD of 20.

Discuss some ways the technology enabling ePortfolios and social networks supports the educational, psychological, and social goals of autonomy, mastery, and purpose.

Students can be internally motivated (self directed by inner goals) or externally motivated by outer rewards. The ePortfolios enabled by technology can support students' internal motivation and autonomy by establishing online environments wherein others feel good about participating, keeping systems relatively open, and giving users freedom to participate. Social networks support student autonomy by giving them choices and voices in the content the post and view; opportunities to share and give feedback; and far greater immediacy in all of their interactions. Students can experience academic and personal mastery through social networking, which affords the motivational factor of what Csikszentmihalyi called "flow" (energized, positive, task aligned, spontaneous, single minded, focused, immersed, joyful, deep, and total engagement in activity); the ability to showcase their achievements; and the benefits of enhanced self insight and self awareness. Via choice and personalization, students find their passions and voices. Constructing ePortfolios also helps students develop senses of purpose by engaging in something beyond themselves, understanding the relevance of what they learn, and seeing the "big picture".

Describe some variations some US state allow in administering standardized tests using modified assessment procedures for students who are English language learners (ELL) or learning English as a second language (ESL).

Students whose native language is not English are allowed some variations by the US states to participate in standardized testing in the English language on a more equable footing with native English speakers. For example, they may hear the printed test instructions translated into their native language and read aloud. They may be allowed to ask questions in native language to clarify test instructions. ESL/ELL students may be granted additional, supervised breaks during a testing day or test portion, providing they complete the portion within the testing day. (Standardized tests typically display a "STOP" sign to indicate the ends of tests portions). Students learning English may be allowed to take tests separately in groups with other ELL/ESL students, under supervision by school personnel cleared for test security, particularly if their regular instruction and/or testing have included similar flexibility. ELL/ESL students taking math and science tests may be permitted access to word lists or glossaries translated from English to their native language, excluding formulae or definitions.

Generally describe some ways that assessments can be modified to accommodate students with mild to moderate disabilities in public school general education classrooms.

Teachers and other test administrators should try to find quiet places for mildly or moderately disabled students to take tests. For students with difficulty writing, they should allow oral responses or provide scribes to write down students' responses. If possible, students with mild or moderate intellectual disabilities should be exempted from district wide standardized tests, which are normed using students without intellectual disabilities. For students who can or must take a test, the teacher or other administrator should divide it into smaller, more manageable parts. Teachers should grade disabled students' response content separately from their spelling for fairness. Students with intellectual disabilities should be given as much time as they need to complete tests. In fact, administrators should avoid giving this population timed tests at all. Another modification is to adjust the percentage of correct responses required for a passing score. Disabled students should be allowed to retake tests if needed. Administrators should also enable monitored breaks during testing for these students.

Describe some general examples of adaptations teachers can use to facilitate the assessment of hearing impaired, nonverbal, and sensorimotor impaired students.

Teachers can allow students to use augmentative communication devices for receiving and responding to test stimuli. For students who use ASL or manually coded English, teachers should use these languages or have an interpreter use them instead of spoken instructions or stimuli whenever appropriate. Nonverbal students should be allowed to give test responses using vocalizations, gestures, or movements instead of speech. Some students may draw pictures instead of writing. (This can also apply to students with dyslexia) As is appropriate, teachers may accept eye gazes as responses instead of speech or gesture. Students who wear hearing aids must wear them during assessments; teachers should check that they work first. Students with sensorimotor impairments should be given longer times to initiate responses. Teachers should accept changes in facial expressions or muscle tone as observed behaviors. Teachers should stabilize and position students to afford the most controlled possible motions. Teachers should also let students direct others to perform physical tasks.

Compare and contrast content features of the Woodcock Johnson test of Cognitive Abilities (WJ) and Wechsler Intelligence Scales (WPPSI, WISC, and WAIS) in terms of nonverbal measures, subtest norms, and aptitude measures.

The WJ cognitive tests are administered in pantomime and require no verbal responses, so they are suitable for students with deficits in both receptive and expressive language. The Wechsler tests have a composite needing no expressive verbal responses, but demanding receptive language comprehension. All 20 WJ cognitive sub tests are normed for ages 4 to 90+; seven of these are normed for ages 2 to 90+. The WPPSI has 12 sub scales normed across its age range of 2 years 11 months to 7 years 3 months. The WISC has 13 sub scales normed across its age range of 6 to 16 years 11 months. The WAIS has 14 sub scales normed across its age range of 16 to 89 years. The WJ tests include differentiated measures of aptitude to help predict potential future achievement according to specified criteria. These measures include Oral Language Aptitude, Reading Aptitude, Mathematics Aptitude, Written Language Aptitude, and Knowledge Aptitude. The Wechsler scales do not use aptitude measures to predict achievement.

Identify some formal assessment instruments for evaluating the intellectual abilities of students with mild or moderate intellectual disabilities.

Today, both intellectual ability and adaptive behavior are measured to assess intellectual disabilities. For assessing intelligence, a number of valid, reliable IQ tests exist. David Wechsler's series includes the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scales of Intelligence (WPPSI) for ages 2 years 6 months to 7 years 3 months; Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children (WISC) for ages 6 to 16 years 11 months; and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales (WAIS) for ages 16 to 90 years. The Stanford Binet Intelligence Scales constitute another standardized IQ test or individuals aged 2 to 23 years. The Woodcock Johnson (WJ) Tests of Cognitive Abilities for ages 2 to 90+ years, the Differential Ability Scales (DAS) for ages 2 years 6 months to 17 years 11 months, and the Kauffman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC) for ages 3 to 18 years are additional good formal, standardized intelligence measures. All these tests measure specific cognitive abilities in addition to general intelligence.

Compare and contrast content features of the Woodcock Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ) and Wechsler Intelligence Scales (WPPSI, WISC, and WAIS) relative to controlled learning, timed testing, preschooler- targeted subtests, and long term follow up capacity.

The WJ cognitive tests include three controlled learning tests, meaning tests measuring learning with corrective feedback provided throughout their administration: the Visual Auditory Learning, Concept Formation, and Analysis Synthesis subtests. These are useful, as many students with mild to moderate deficits do not have the same automaticity in these cognitive abilities as others, yet are able to learn them with instruction. The Wechsler scales do not include controlled learning tests. The Wechsler sub-scales are generally timed. The WJ tests are not timed except for those specifically measuring speed. The WPPSI, whose age range includes preschoolers, includes subtests specifically designed for preschoolers using diverse printed and manipulative test materials. The WJ tests do not include sub-scales specifically targeting this age group. Both the WJ and Wechsler cognitive tests have the capacity for longitudinal follow up testing using the same measures across the age ranges specified for each test.

Identify which subtests of the Woodcock Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ) measure visual and auditory processing, including brief definitions of each of the cognitive abilities tested.

The WJ test visual processing through sub tests of Spatial Relations, which includes visualization; Picture Recognition, measuring visual memory; and Planning, which includes spatial scanning. The term "spatial relations" means the ability to perceive objects in space, their orientation, and visual patterns, and to maintain and manipulate these rapidly. Visualization is the ability to match objects in space, including mentally manipulating them three dimensionally more than once, regardless of response speed. Spatial scanning involves quickly and accurately identifying paths through complex, large, visual, or spatial fields. Auditory processing, the ability to interpret sound signals from one's sense of hearing, is tested by the WJ sub tests of Sound Blending, measuring phonetic coding for synthesis; Incomplete Words, measuring phonetic coding for analysis; and Auditory Attention, measuring ideational fluency. Phonetic coding for synthesis involves putting sounds together meaningfully as in words. Phonetic coding for analysis involves breaking words down to their component sounds. Ideational fluency is the ability of rapidly generating many diverse responses or ideas to one stimulus.

Identify whether the Woodcock Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities and Wechsler intelligence scales (WPPSI, WISC, WAIS) are linked to certain achievement tests and/or special purpose test batteries; and if so, which ones. Contrast how WJ and Wechsler tests analyze ability and achievement relative to discrepancy norms.

The Woodcock Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ) are not linked to any specific tests of achievement or special purpose test batteries. The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scales of Intelligence (WPPSI) and Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children (WISC) are linked to the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT). The WISC is additionally linked with the Children's Memory Scale (Cohen). The WISC and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales (WAIS) are both linked to the Wechsler Abbreviated Intelligence Scale (WASI). The WJ cognitive tests base their aptitude/achievement analyses on actual discrepancy norms, that is, without correlation for statistical regression procedures. This permits student discrepancies between ability and performance to be compared with national distribution norms for discrepancy scores. The WPPSI and WISC, with the WIAT, base their aptitude/achievement analyses on estimated discrepancy norms, using correction for regression procedures. The WAIS gives analyses of discrepancies between ability and memory with the Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS) based on actual discrepancy norms.

Compare the respective sample sizes of student scores used for establishing norms for the general measure of intelligence on the Woodcock Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities and Wechsler intelligence scales (WPPSI, WISC, WAIS)

The Woodcock Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ) instrument has a total sample size of 6,085 students for establishing its norm for the general intelligence measure. The WPPSI, for preschool and early primary school age children (ages 2 years 11 months to 7 years 3 months), has a sample size of 1700 with an average per year of age of 283. The WISC, for older primary and early secondary school age children (ages 6 years to 16 years 11 months) has a sample size of 2,200 with an average of 200 per year of age. The WAIS for older adolescents and adults (ages 16 to 89 years) has a sample size of 2,450 with an average of 200 per age group. The WJ covers ages 2 to 90+ years while the Wechsler tests are divided by age range, so the latter can be added together: 1,700 + 2,200 + 2,450 = 6,350. Thus, the WJ's total sample size of 6,085 and the Wechsler tests' total samples for all age ranges of 6,350 are comparable, with the Wechsler tests' total having 265 more students than the WJ's total sample.

Compare and contrast administration features of the Woodcock Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities and Wechsler intelligence scales (WPPSI, WISC, and WAIS) relative to recorded test, selective testing, examiner training, and Spanish versions.

The Woodcock Johnson cognitive tests include recording of sub tests for memory and auditory processing to standardize their administration; the Wechsler intelligence scales do not. The Woodcock Johnson test manual emphasizes the principle of selective testing in that its authors recommend customizing the battery's sub tests for specific referral matters. Wechsler does not emphasize selective use of his sub scales for referral purposes. The Woodcock Johnson manual includes examiner training activities such as examiner training check lists, observation check lists, and so forth, while the Wechsler test manuals do not. There is not presently a Spanish language version of the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children (WISC) and another version normed on Puerto Rican Spanish students (EIWN-R_PR, or Escala de Inteligencia Wechsler para Ninos - Revised - Puerto Rico).

Discuss some typical elements of an IEP team meeting for a student with mild to moderate disability.

Typically, IEP team meetings start with participant introductions and short explanation with the student and school roles. Parents are given a copy of the IDEA Procedural Safeguards, sometimes called "parents' rights". They may ask the team chairperson for explanations as needed or waive discussion if they understand or are already familiar with this material. The team may discuss need for referral; discuss evaluation results already obtained; determine eligibility for special education services and/or general education accommodations; review IEP progress annually, adjusting goals and objectives as indicated; plan for transitions; and/or address concerns at any time. The team establishes the student's present level of performance through assessment results and writes student goals and objectives for improvements. A designated team member records a meeting summary; parents should receive a copy of this summary. They may voice any disagreements with team decisions, which should be consensual, and record their objections in the written summary.

Comment on some of the financial and service challenges of disability on family systems.

The challenges and demands on family systems are compounded when a member has a disability, and such challenges are typically long term. Regardless of the type of family, the age of the disabled member, and the type of disability, many of the family demands are the same. For example, obtaining appropriate health services, social services, ad educational services of sufficient quality often entail significant economic burdens, as do modifying the home to accommodate a disability and procuring adaptive equipment, medications, and special diets. Although families may qualify for public funding, e.g., from Medicaid, Social Security SSI, or private health insurance, additional challenges are not only to discover which programs and services their child is eligible for, but moreover to interact with various bureaucracies to conform such eligibility - frequently on a repeated basis. Another major problem is service coordination among providers, like doctors, teachers, counselors, physical and occupational therapists, social workers, and dietician's. Frequently providers are not informed of one another's actions and may give contradictory information.

Summarize the importance of early language development in children and its relationship to other developmental domains. Define receptive language and distinguish it from expressive language. Respectively identify the main features of nonverbal, verbal, and written receptive language.

The development of language skills is critical to the development of cognitive, emotional, and social skills. These are all interrelated, so problems in any one areas usually cause problems/delays in others. Receptive language is the ability to understand spoken and written language. Receptive language develops before expressive language: children must understand what they hear before they learn to speak, and to read and comprehend written language before they learn to write. Hence a child's receptive vocabulary typically exceeds his/her expressive vocabulary: he/she can understand more words than he/she use. Nonverbal receptive language includes understanding others' facial expressions. Verbal receptive language includes understanding what others say; understanding qualitative concepts like big/little and tall/short and quantitative concepts like a lot, a little, all, none, etc.; understanding and following simple directions; listening to stories; understanding and following complex/multiple directions to do a series of things; and understanding others' questions. Written receptive language includes identifying upper and lowercase letters and numbers, and also reading and comprehending simple and complex sentences and paragraphs.

Define the terms "Discrimination Index" and "Difficulty Index" relative to educational assessment.

The discrimination index is a measure of how well a specific test item can separate students who generally score high on the test from students who generally score low on it. Educators obtain a point biserial correlation between high total scores and low total scores with correct and incorrect item responses. Typically, they use total test scores to select the top 27% and bottom 27% of test takers to magnify the variation between high and low test performance. When analyzing standardized, norm referenced tests, the preferred discrimination index is .50. The difficulty index is a simple measure of how difficult a test item is considered. It is obtained by calculating the percentage of all students taking a test who answered a certain test item correctly.

Differentially define the terms mean, median, and mode relative to educational assessment, including examples.

The mean is the average of a group of numbers, e.g., scores within a group of students taking the same test. Among six students, if one scores 50%; one 60%; one 70%; one 80%; one 90%; and one 100%, the sum of scores = 450; divided by 6 (students/scores) yields an average/mean of 75%. The median is the center most score in a group. For example, if the range of student scores on a test is 65%, 75%, 80%, 85%, and 95%, then 80% = the middle/median. When there is an even number of scores, the median is the average of the two most central scores. For example, with four scores of 50%, 60%, 70%, and 80%, 60%, and 70% are averaged for a median of 65%. The mode is the most frequent score in a set. If in a group of students, one scored 100% on a test; one, 95%; two, 90%; three, 85%; four, 80%; three, 75%; two, 70%; and one, 65%, the mode = 80%.

Summarize some minimum competencies for those administering standardized tests to students with mild to moderate disabilities and in general.

Those giving students tests should establish a rapport with them in order to ensure accurate scores. They should scrupulously guard against scoring and recording errors. They should not make their own scoring sheets that do not match the test's official scoring sheets, and they must protect test material's and scoring keys' security. They should provide settings (as possible) to assure students' best test performance, like sufficient space and lowest noise levels. As far as possible, they must assure every student understands and follows all test instructions for accurate scores. However, they must not coach or train students, individually or in groups, on test items, which would misrepresent students' abilities. They should be willing, though, to provide guidance and interpretation in counseling situations to test takers. Test administrators should not answer test takers' questions in more detail than allowed by test manuals. They also should not assume a norm for one student group or sub test applies to a norm for another group or sub test.

Compare and contrast interpretation features of the Woodcock Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities and Wechsler intelligence scales in terms of developmental and proficiency levels, peer comparisons, and co-norming with related achievement tests.

To determine developmental levels, the Wechsler scales a Composite Test Age while the WJ tests give an Age Equivalent and a Grade Equivalent. Wechsler does not score proficiency levels in his tests. The WJ test five Instructional Ranges, Developmental Level Bands, and a Relative Mastery Index to assess proficiency levels. The Wechsler intelligence scales give Percentile Rank and IQ/Index for peer comparisons. The WJ cognitive tests give Percentile Rank, Standard Score, T Score, Normal curve equivalent, stanine, and CALP for peer comparisons. In addition to providing age norms, which include students in the same age range whether they are enrolled in colleges and universities or not, the WJ tests give separate grade norms for post secondary students, while the WAIS does not. The WJ cognitive tests are co-normed with the wWoodcock Johnson Tests of Achievement (WJ ACH), and the WAIS is co-normed with the Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS).

Describe the (modified) Angoff method for determining a pass/fail cut score for a multiple choice test.

To determine which scores on a given test are passing or failing educators can use several established methods. In the Angoff method, one or more assessors select a group of "borderline" students (i.e., those not always passing or failing but with equal chances of either) and estimate which choice(s) in a multiple choice test item these students could eliminate as an incorrect answer and what percent of the choices left these students would guess as correct. For example, if they might eliminate one choice of five as wrong, their probability of guessing the right choice from the four choices left is 25% (1/4). The assessors add up the percentages for all of the test items and round the sum to an integer, which would be the cut score for that test. In the modified Angoff procedure, the assessors also estimate how many of the students would fail the test, and if they deem it necessary, they modify their estimations to produce a number of failures they find more reasonable.

Summarize how the adaptive behavior of a student with mild to moderate disabilities can be informally assessed. Explain why this informal assessment informs and supplements formal adaptive behavior testing.

To make an informal assessment of adaptive behavior, that is, how functional the student's behaviors are, the assessor should interview the student, and also separately interview a reliable adult third party who knows the student very well. This may be a parent, teacher, therapist, babysitter, neighbor, family friends, or other individual who is very familiar with the student. This adult should know about things like self care routines the child can perform independently, amounts and types of assistance are needed with various activities, how the student communicates and interacts with others socially, degrees and types of motor control the child does or does not display, whether the student displays maladaptive behaviors, and if so, what types. Most formal standardized adaptive behavior scales depend strongly on how well the third party knows the student and the third party's response style. Therefore, multiple information sources, including both formal and informal assessments and more than one third party respondent, are advised.

Define and give some examples of vocal and spoken verbal expressive language as demonstrated by babies and young children.

Verbal expressive language can be spoken or written. In infants, early forms of verbalization also include vocalizations. For example, babies "coo" by repeating prolonged vowel sounds; "grunt" or make guttural sounds expressing satisfaction/contentedness; and soon begin to babble by repeating consonant vowel combinations like "babababa", "dadadada", etc. Babies also imitate adults' vocal sounds and facial expressions. Their first words are often parents names like "Mama" and "Dada," which coincide closely with babbling sounds. As their speech develops, they echo/repeat others' utterances. In the holophrastic stage, toddlers use single words to express phrase concepts, like "up" to mean "pick me up" or "look at the bird up there." They combine pointing with nouns to identify people, animals, and things, like "baby," "doggie," or "car." They soon learn to use the socially conventional utterances "thank you" and "please". Toddlers then learn to combine two words to express phrase concepts like "Daddy go" or "Mommy shoe" which can also convey a variety of meanings.

Identify which subtest of the Wechsler intelligence scales measure visual processing, including a definition of this cognitive ability.

Visual processing is the brain's ability to interpret signals received through the sense of vision (eyesight). Six Wechsler sub scales measure this area: the Block Design tests visualization, or the ability to match objects in space, including mentally manipulating them three dimensionally more than once, regardless of response speed; and spatial relations, or the ability to perceive objects in space, their orientation, and visual patterns; and to maintain and manipulate these rapidly. The Object Assembly sub scale also measures spatial relations, plus closure speed, the ability to quickly identify meaningful familiar visual objects from incomplete (partial, unconnected, or vague) stimuli by fillinf in missing parts. The Mazes sub scale measures spatial scanning, that is, the ability to quickly and accurately identify paths through complex or large visual/spatial fields. The Picture Completion and Picture Arrangement sub scales measure general information. Picture Completion also measures flexibility of closure - recognizing a figure or pattern within a complex or distracting background. Picture Arrangement also measures visualization, as does the Geometric Designs sub scale.

Discuss some ways that disabilities can affect family resources, social roles, lifestyle, leisure time, and the family's interactions with the community.

When a family member has a disability, it can deplete the family's resources in terms of money, time, and energy far out of proportion to other demands. This often detracts from meeting other needs of the family and its other members. The family members find they must change their lifestyle, for example, spending less money, time, and energy on leisure activities and staying at home more. Families may abandon their plans and dreams for the future because they no longer have enough of these resources to pursue them. Community members may exclude the disabled member and family; avoid them; and/or denigrate them with looks or comments. Though federal legislation mandates inclusion, many communities do not have the resources facilities, and programs to enable full inclusion. Many families state they feel burdened not by the disabled member, but by rejection, judgment, stigmatization of the member and family, and other negative behaviors and attitudes - from not only strangers, but also service providers, friends, and relatives.

Summarize how an adult should make a referral of a child for assessment of disabilities.

When a parent, teacher, counselor, other school staff member, or other familiar concerned adult believes a child should be referred for assessment, he or she should write a referral letter to the school's principal or other designated administrator. Educators estimate it should take roughly 30 minutes for most adults to write a referral letter. Letters should be typed or neatly handwritten, using business letter style or a district form if the school district uses forms. Letters should include the child's name, birth date, school name, and grade, plus the sender's mailing address, phone numbers, e-mail address, and any additional relevant information, including relationship to the child. In addition to contact information, the writer should describe as specifically as possible what kinds of learning or functioning problems he/she has observed in the child. The letter should state that the writer is referring the child for evaluation and requesting an Individual Education Plan (IEP) meeting to discuss this referral, providing several dates and times he/she is available to meet with school personnel.

Summarize what a pre-referral screening is, what it can determine relative to students with mild to moderate disabilities and the legal requirement for screening.

When adults suspect deficits in a child's ability to learn, speech language development, or school achievement, qualified educators can give the child brief screening tests. Screenings are made prior to making referrals for formal evaluation to determine if there is a need for special education services. Screenings may determine whether a student has academic weaknesses that would affect formal response to intervention in regular education programs. They can determine whether or not the student has any learning disability in addition to or instead of mild to moderate intellectual disability. They can determine whether the student has a visual and/or hearing disability instead of, or in addition to, intellectual disability. Emotional and/or behavioral disability can also be ruled in or out as compounding, creating, or mimicking intellectual disability. The IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) requires schools to rule out instruction or other variables addressable in regular education as causes for learning problems before conducting full assessments.

Briefly describe the process of referring a child for assessment of disabilities, including a prerequisite who can refer, under which laws, and generally what the assessment can determine.

When an adult observes and has concerns about a child's cognitive development, or about the child's level of functioning or school progress, the adult can refer the child for testing. However, one prerequisite to a complete evaluation is a pre referral screening, involving brief test to determine is full assessment is indicated. Any involved adult can refer a child, though it is most commonly a teacher or parent. The IDEA law mandates referral to ascertain eligibility for special education services, and section 504 of the ADA mandates eligibility for accommodations to be made within the regular education classroom. Following referral, the assessment can determine whether the child's intellectual ability is considered normal for his or her age/grade level or not; whether the child has any specific learning disabilities; whether there are physical, emotional, and/or behavioral disabilities; and whether the child's performance is consistent with intellectual ability.

Note a few things that adults referring children for evaluation should include or omit from their referral letters.

When an adult refers a child for evaluation to determine disability and need for special education services and/or accommodations in the general education classroom, the adult writes a referral letter. Educational experts advise that the letter should not be too long, probably less than two pages double spaced, to make it easier for the administrator to read it in a timely fashion and see the request for action. Parents or teachers should avoid complaining about or accusing the school in referral letters, keeping the tone professional. However, they should include personal details pertinent to the child's learning needs. If parents know of events that affect the child, such as a recent death in the family, divorce, relocation, and so forth, they will be able to communicate these in person to the IEP team, counselor, or school psychologist when they meet. The writer should make a copy of the referral letter and mail (registered or certified, if desired) or hand deliver it.

Describe some general characteristics of atypical social and emotional development in children, including some associated categories of disability.

When children experience developmental delays that are manifested in the social and emotional domain, one characteristic is being too trusting of others, which allows others to take advantage of them. This is often associated with intellectual disability or intellectual disabilities. Another characteristic of some children with atypical social and emotional development is not reading or understanding others' nonverbal cures indicating emotional states or social conventions, and/or linguistic cues during interpersonal interactions, preventing them from responding appropriately. This is commonly associated with autism spectrum disorders. Autistic children also may show excellent verbal skills in monologues, but be unable to initiate and maintain conversations and have difficulty with turn taking. Some children fail to develop the ability to consider others' viewpoints at typical ages, remaining egocentric; this interferes with social interaction. This is common to various conditions, including intellectual disability, autism, and behavioral disorders. Children with ADHD tend to have difficulties with impulse control, emotional self regulation, and sustaining attention, interfering with social interactions as much as with academic performance.

Comment on how the interaction of medial advances with some disabling physical conditions can affect families emotionally, ethically, and practically, including a couple of examples.

When the life expectancy of a disabled member is unclear, the family finds it harder to plan its members' future roles in life; to know future care costs; or, when the member needs help with daily living activities, to decide on optimal living arrangements. For example, individuals with Down syndrome often have congenital heart defects and died younger in the past, but with improved medical care, they now live longer. And between 1970 and 1991, the survival of American children with cystic fibrosis increased by 700 percent, from a median life expectancy of eight years to twenty six years. This opens up new questions about marriage, procreation, and other difficult family choices. Ethical problems are also presented when medical advances can extend the lives of those with serious medical conditions. Considerations include weighing benefits versus costs, when and/or why to intervene and how aggressively. Family members may disagree about these. Moreover, courts and/or hospitals may prohibit chosen family actions. Such cases provoke much controversy (witness the 1998-2005 case of Terri Schiavo).

Identify some medications prescribed in conjunction with psychotherapy to treat childhood schizophrenia, and some of the side effects of one class of antipsychotic/neuroleptic drugs.

While the symptoms of childhood schizophrenia can differ from adult symptoms, the same antipsychotic medications are prescribed to children as adults (though in different dosages), in conjunction with psychotherapy. A few of these drugs include Haldol, Thorazine, Stelazine, Mellaril, Risperdal, Loxitane, Moban, and lithium, which also often prescribed for bipolar disorder. Antipsychotics in the phenothiazine class, such as Thorazine, Stelazine, and Mellaril, have significant risks of side effects like tardive dyskinesia, which refers to repetitive, involuntary movements that can be irreversible even upon discontinuing treatment; dystonias, like involuntary tongue thrusts, muscular rigidity, etc.; and extrapyramidal syndrome, involving muscle spasms, which are usually reversible on discontinuing treatment but may need other treatments to resolve when they are serious or interfere with breathing. Another side effect is pseudoparkinsonism, which mimics the symptoms of Parkinson disease including "pill rolling" finger tremors, "mask like" flat facial appearance, a shuffling gait, and muscular rigidity. A very serious side effect is neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Thorazine and other phenothiazines can also themselves cause psychiatric side effects.

Identify the potential attendees at a student's IEP team meeting and the purposes for their attending.

Who attends the IEP meetings will vary depending on the reason for the meeting. Attendees may include the principal or other school administrator to manage the meeting and assure that the IDEA's requirements are satisfied; a special education teacher to give information on instruction suitable for the student's disability; a regular education teacher to give information on general education requirements and how the school will meet the disabled student's needs; a school psychologist or another evaluation professional to address suitable evaluations for the student, explain evaluation results, and give information on the student's various abilities; related service providers if the student needs their services to benefit from the special education program, such as a speech language pathologist, physical therapist, occupational therapist, and/or mental health professional; a guidance counselor to help with counseling and curriculum matters; and an advocate or support person. Doctors or others who cannot attend may submit important information in writing or by telephone or video conference.

Explain some applications of fine motor skills for young children, including oral/motor skills. Describe some early indicators that a baby or toddler has atypical development in the area of fine motor skills.

Young children need fine motor skills to play with toys, ear meals, turn lights on/off, and hold crayons, paintbrushes, spoons, etc. During evaluations, many children perform poorly on certain tasks, from delays not in cognitive development but in fine motor development. Oral/motor skills, like the control of jaw, lip, mouth, and tongue movements for eating and speaking, are included in fine motor skills. While occupational therapists work with other fine motor skills, speech language pathologists and occupational therapists may both work to remediate oral.motor skill deficits. If a baby has trouble orally grasping the nipple or bottle to nurse, this can indicate delayed fine motor development. Babies whose hands are in fists more often than open may have fine motor delays. A baby having problems manually bringing toys to his/her mouth and/or mouthing them can have atypical fine motor development. Difficulty holding small objects with a pincer grasp or with a thumb and a forefinger is another sign of delayed fine motor development.

Identify several fundamental needs for students with disabilities as they grow up, in terms of understanding, communication, and disclosure of disability. Name an example of one resource that has published a guide on disability disclosure for youth.

Young people with disabilities will benefit by learning to understand themselves more fully; to understand their disabilities more completely; and to explain their disabilities more effectively to others. They will often need help from experts to make decisions whether to disclose their disability to others and to become more prepared for such disclosure. Even more importantly, young people with disabilities need to gain a better comprehension of how their opportunities in social, educational, and employment contexts can often be enhanced by disclosing their disabilities in certain situations. Where appropriate, disclosure of disability can given them access to services and accommodations they would not be entitled to if they were not disabled. Experts have prepared informational publications to support them in this issue. For example, the National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability for Youth (NCWD-Y) has published The 411 on Disability Disclosure: A Workbook for Youth with Disabilities to help youth and parents make informed decisions about disclosure and its various impacts.

Describe some differences in the language development of students with autism spectrum disorders from more typical language development.

an estimated one half of those on the autism spectrum never develop verbal language skills. The other half range from echolalia as their only speech production to perfectly functional, high level speech, and everything in between. Some autistic students display advanced vocabularies and fluent speech in long monologues about topics interesting them, often including the high specialized and/or technical, but are unable to initiate or maintain two way conversations with others. These individuals have difficulty with turn taking and the give and take of verbal interactions. Some high functioning autistic persons can conduct normal conversations with others, but their speech patterns may sound a bit sing song, odd, or quirky. Many autistic students have difficulty understanding emotional overtones in others' speech, such as sarcasm or humor. Additionally, they often cannot understand nonverbal cues like facial expressions, gestures, and body language indicating emotions or social customs, though many can learn this through explicit training.