Misc. II
How does scanning/transmission electron microscopy work?
uses high velocity electron beams focused on the sample rather than lgiht
deletion mapping
uses the presence or absence of expected banding patterns on a chromosome to determine chromosomal location of a gene
motor unit recruitment
usually asyncronous but resitance trainig can improve syncrouns recruitment which imporves strength gains
How are the design of steroid superfamily nuclear receptors similar?
variable region, DNA binding domain (=68 aa), hormone-binding domain
Fartlet traiing
vary pace from sprint to job at discretion continuous+interval elements primary for distance runners
Sequence of wound healing
vascular inflammatory granulation (fibroblast and blood vessels enter wound, secretion of new ECM,) contraction of wound wound remodeling
breakdown wound healing
vascular response inflammation response granulation contraction of wound wound remodeling
resistance in the vascular system?
vasodilation/vasoconstriction
idioventricular rhythm
ventricular mycardium iteself becomes the pacemaker slow rhythm originating in the ventricules, no P waves, QRS wide, poor output
omega figures
vesicle fuses with membrane
how do we find out what stage they're in
visually BrdU-labeling and flow cytometry
pore
void space within a scaffold
the ion gradient is equal and opposit to
voltage
Why is there an overshoot when the nerve cell is repolarizing?
voltage gated K+ channels are still open
VCO2 rate
volume o fCO2 produced per minute -rate of CO2 production -(volume of expired CO2-volume of inspired CO2)
VO2 rate
volume of O2 consumed per minute -rate of O2 consumption -(volume of inspired O2-volume of expired O2_
plasma consists mainly of ....
water (92% of mass), electrolytes, and proteins
Does Pi cause fatigue?
when PCr goes down fatigue onsets as Pi goes up contractility force goesdown (Pi prevents muscle force-->myosin powerstroke onactin occurs when Pi is relased..high cytosol Pi decreases tendency for it to be released)
hemosiderosis
when erythrocytes are phagocytized heme is removed from hemoglobin and iron is removed from the heme...it gets recycled (20-30 mg each day) cells also import iron from the blood (Fe-transferrin complex) no excretory pathway for excess iron accumulates in liver and destroys organ
dominant epistasis
when the dominant allele at one locus (AA or Aa) prevents expression of one or more alleles at another locus (homozygous or heterozygous); 12:3:1 ratio
internal cartoid
which brings oxygenated blood to the brain
sliding filament theory
widely accepted theory of muscle shortening during contraction, thick & thin filaments slide past one another
why is AB the universal recipient
will not agglunate from A, B, or O
why is O the universal donor?
will not agglunate in A, B, or AB
How can you get from using inserting electrodes in EMG to surface electrodes?
with better decomposition electrodes, up to engineer to make better ones
When is and isn't the plasmalemma wrinkled?
wrinkled->muscle contracted or at rest no folds->when muscle is stretched
Does creatine suplementation work?
yes
do all cells need to undergo the same processes
yes
Risks and benifit of creatine supplementation?
yes it is safe, it is effical, it is effective but that depends on what you are using it for
Does ATPase perform both hydrolysis and phosphorylation?
yes, but there are different types for different rxns
How can you tell from and SDS page that internal carbohydrates were added (n-linked glycosylation)?
you should see some deacreas in comparison to the one in the absence of the microsomes..both exposed to detergent and endoh
How does GTP-binding proteins function as switch proteins?
• GTP-bound form is active and GDP-bound form is inactive • Activity regulated by GEFs (activate) and GAPs (inactivate) • Two classes: large heterotrimeric G proteins and small monomeric Ras-family proteins
Arrangement of intermediate filaments?
• Individual subunits have a central a-helical region and head groups on each end • Subunits form parallel coiled-coil dimers (have polarity) • Antiparallel association of 2 dimers results in staggered tetramer which is symmetric (no polarity)
Classes of Enzym-linke receptors?
• Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTK's, major class) mediate signaling by: - most growth factors - NGF, EGF, PDGF, insulin, etc... - certain developmental signals: e.g., Boss ("bride of sevenless") binds to the Sevenless RTK • Tyrosine-kinase-associated receptors: - functionally analogous to RTK's, but receptor and enzyme are on separate proteins (non-covalent association) - include growth hormone and cytokine receptors (e.g., immune function) - kinases include "Src" and "Jak" proteins • Receptor tyrosine phosphatases • Receptor serine-threonine kinases (e.g., TGF-beta receptor superfamily): mediate a variety of important developmental signals • Receptor guanylyl cyclases
How does the ECM play a role in cell signaling?
• Some proteoglycans function in the binding/presentation of diffusible ligands to cell surface receptors (eg. FGF receptor). • Matrix components themselves can trigger signal transduction pathways within the cell following binding to integrins, resulting in a change in gene expression and cell behavior.
flow-cytometry
•cell-counting, surface marker detecto
fovea
"Point of central focus". Spot on the back of the retina that has more cones that anywhere else. Helps us see fine detail
phasic response
"Type of response to mechanical energy where a nerve impulse is generated when deflected, but not when constantly deformed"
design for manufacturing & assembly
"integration" of design and manufacturing -reduces production and maintenance costs
aldosterone
"salt-retaining hormone" which promotes the retention of Na+ by the kidneys. na+ retention promotes water retention, which promotes a higher blood volume and pressure
cornea
#1 Clear membrane at the front of the globe covering the iris, pupil, and anterior chamber. Responsible for 60% of the eyes focusing power. Contains 5 layer
afferent vs. efferent
Afferent or sensory neurons convey information from receptors in the periphery to the CNS. Efferent or motor neurons carry information from the CNS to peripheral areas of the body.
extracellular matrix
All tissues include this non-living portion, consisting of molecules that fill spaces between cells - composed mostly of protein fiber networks Function: structural support, seprartes different tissues, cell-cell communication.
Types of brain waves?
Alpha: 8-13 Hz; awake, rest, none during sleep. can be modulate by attention (alpha rhytme,: relaxed, inattentive) Beta: 14_30 Hz; Beta I (twice alpha; disappears during tension) and II (appears during tension) Theta: 4-7 Hz: mostly in children, and emotional stress in aadults Delta: < 3.5 Hz. Deep sleep, infancy, organic brain disease
efferent
Also known as motor neurons Carry signals from CNS to effector organs. Leads to muscle contraction
sensory potential
Amplitude of both potentials varies with intensity of stimulu
selectins
An Adhesion protein selectins hold cells together, are abundant in endothelium which is the special ling of the blood vessels of the heart
retrovirus
An RNA virus that reproduces by transcribing its RNA into DNA and then inserting the DNA into a cellular chromosome; an important class of cancer-causing viruses.
duplication
An aberration in chromosome structure due to fusion with a fragment from a homologous chromosome, such that a portion of a chromosome is duplicated.
recessive
An allele that is masked when a dominant allele is present
null allele
An allele whose effect is the absence either of normal gene product at the molecular level or of normal function at the phenotypic level.
allotetraploid
An allopolyploid containing two genomes derived from different species
ganglia
An anatomically distinct collection of sensory or motor neuron cell bodies within the PNS
hybridoma technology
An animal is immunized with an antigen and the animals B cells are taken. They are mixed with B-tumor cells and grow on a HAT medium where they are selected for hybridomzation. These colonies are then cultured in wells. technology that produces hybrid cells that can make antibodies
Static seeding
- most commonly used seeding technique. Lacks control and standardization, and is dependent upon cell migration for population.
Different functions mediated by GPCR's?
- responses to hormones - regulate ion channels (e.g. muscarinic acetylcholine receptors) - relay information on absorption of light by rhodopsin in the visual system -are responsible for perception of odors
micor or nanomachining
- techniques developed in electronics processing labs that have been utilized to etch silicon, glass, and titanium with micron-scale or nanometerscale features. -also good for makeing template for molding biomaterials with surface features ex. photolithography
autoradiography
- uses radioactive molecules to trace and identify cell structures and biochemical activit
type IIx
-25% of fibers
type IIa
-25% of fibers -believed to be the most frequently recruited type II (only type 1 recruited more)
morphoregulatory hypothesis
-3 cell phat processes (dicision, death, movement, are epigenetic driving forces
What is the nerve's resting membrane potential?
-70 mV
resting potenstila of heart cells
-85 mV
How is ATP converted to ADP and vice versa?
-ATPase -hydrolysis and phosphorylation rxn
Solution Space
-Answers -Solutions -Prod./Tech. Expertise -Engineering
receptive field
-Area in which sensation will trigger a response on either the receptor cell or any cell in the sensation path way Stimulation of 9 square mm of skin affects one Merkl disk; by contrast, stimulation of 60 square mm of skin affects one Ruffini end organ. Thus the Ruffini has a larger (what is the expression?) than the Merkl.
bone marrow cultures
-Blood perfusion through bone marrow is about 0.08 ml/cc/min. - Cellularity in marrow is about 500 million cells/cc, therefore cell-specific perfusion is about 2.3 ml/107 cells/day. -Cell cultures are typically started with cell densities on the order of 1 million cells/ml. -10 million cells would be placed in a 10 ml volume of media containing 20% serum. -A full daily medium exchange would therefore correspond to replacing the serum at 2 ml/107 cells/day.
Effective Team Building requires that the team...
-Define clear roles -Agree upon goals -Define processes and procedures -Develop effective interpersonal relationships -Define leadership roles Profesionalism at all times
types of metal plate electodes
-German silver (nickle-sliver alloy) -steel, platinum, or gold-plated. electrodes used in EMG, EEGs, or ECG, ECG larger -Ag/AGCL, disposable
cardia pacing team of channels
-HCN channels (responsible for If (inward Na+flow during diastole)) -t-type Ca2_ channels -NCX -SR Ca2+ release -voltage gated K+ channels
What are the fundamental limitations to the production of primary cells?
-Hayflic limit -different cells have different metabolic and mitogenic properties, some do well in culture while others do not -if a tissue has many cell types, so will the culture -may experience differentiationo r loss of phenotype of different cells -different cell types differentiate at different rates
advantages of tissue culture over animal studies
-control environment -homogeneous, well characterized sample -cost efficiency
cerebellum
-controls rapid, complex movements -key role in fine processing sigals after movement for tuning movement, essential for learning and predictive control -multijoint movements in particular are controlled by cerebellum
What can be sources of energy for an active transporter?
-coupling ( -ATP -light-driven
What can cells be cultured in?
-culture flasks -spinner flasks -bioreactors
Types of operational modes?
-direct/indirect -sampling/continuous -generating (photovoltaic cell)/modulating (photoconductive cell) -analog (fast-changing)/digital (accuracy and reliability) -real-time/delayed
How will an engineer do the best?
-do best with what you have (consider available resources) -examine alternatives and be open to change
How do you go about evaluating a potential solution?
-do first principal equation investigation -software simulation -build prototype, instrament and measure
Project Design Flow
-don't start building until the design is complete -don't start the design until the design and test specs are complete, don't start that until the PFS is complete, don't start that until requirements are complete, don't write those without customer input
Why is formal structure vital?
-enhances brain's creative process in large group settings -prevents aggressive individuals from dominating the conversation
4 types of neuorglia
-ependymal cells -poligodendroglial cells -astrocytes -microglia
What are some important documentation methods for the notebooks?
-every page is dated and initialed at the top -all blank pages have a line drawn across them and are dated and initialed -all pages are numbered for easy reference -loose pages are taped/pasted in the book -all information is present or referenced (documentation speeds design development)
basic required team management
-facilitator -progress reports -website (current status, work completed, current work, future work) -Gantt chart
neural transmission and fatigeu
-failure may occur at neuromusc junction, preventing muscle activation -possible causes -decrease in ACh synth and release -altered ACh breakdown in synapse -increas in muscle fiber stimulus threshold -altered muscle resting membrane potential may inhibit Ca2_ release from SR
bulk chemistry
-fibrin->make it to have covalent incorperation with other proteins, or relese growth factors when infiltrated with cells ->plasmin cleavage of plasmin sensitive site on tethered growth factor on tethered groiwth factors..causing selective release
Describe 4 types of post-translational modifications of proteins that occur in the ER lumen.
-folding -formation of disulfide bonds -addition of glycophosphatidyle ionositol (GPI) anchors -N-linked glycosylation
post-tranlational modificiations of proteins that occur in teh ER lumen?
-folding (with help of chaperones) -proteins don't get translated folded, so have to fold on other side -formation of difsulfidd bonds between cysteinses (requires enzye->protein disulfid isomerase) -addition of glycophosphatidyl inosital (GPI) anchors (for proteins destine for extracellular surface of plasma membrane) -n-linke glycosylation -misfolded proteins get transported out of the ER and degraded
Customers Where do requirements come from? How are they gathered?
-from person that uses the product (operator, maintainer, bill payer) -marketing personnel (surveys, focus groups, experience)
How is endurance increased?
-gains in muscle strength -changes in local metabolic factors
measurements of tissue characteristics
-general appearence -cellular component -ECM componet -function -mechanical measurements
What are the 3 processes for oxidation of a carbohydrate?
-glycolysis -krebs cycle -electron transport chain
gyri
-gyrus: elevated ridge (wrinkle of the brain
How do Type I fibers behave during exercise?
-high aerobic endurance -very efficient at producing ATP from oxidation of carbohydrate and fat
mycocardium
-high capillary desnity -high number of mitochondria -striated -type I myosin great oxidative capacity...limited anerobic capacity held together with desmosome gap junction rapidly conduct action potentials
fatigue factors in prolonged exercise
-hypoglycemia -glycogen depletion -decrease in krebs cycle intermediates -structural damage to SR and Ca2+ leakage -eccentric fiber damage (myofibril diruption)
4 major causes of fatige
-inadequate energy delivery/metabolism -accumulation of metabolic by-products -failure of muscle contractile mechanism -altered neural control of muscle contraction
total daily metabolic activity
-includes normal activitys -1,800-3,000 kcal/day
mainenace of sv
-increase venous return -inotropism ->increase contractility --sypathetic greatercontraction for given load
How are antibodies made for biochemical assays?
-inject what the antibody is against into the animal -harvest the animals serum, purify, obtain the polyclonal antibody -monoclonal anitbodies can be obtained with hybridoma technology
Different ways to deliever cells?
-injection -gel encapsulation -scaffold embedded -whole organ
What are the causes of fatigue?
-inorganic phosphate -impaired calcium handling (impaired ability to relax) -decline in pH (lactic acid!!!!! causing pH decline!!!!) (AMP, norepinephrine and epinephrine, goes up under fatigue but is not a cause of fatigue)
Name 3 methods of transmitting signals across the membrane.
-ion flow (channels; restricted to excitable cells) -allosteric changes (G-protein linked receptors are "7 pass transmembrane domain"proteins) -receptor dimerization: "auto"-phosphorylation involves association between two intercellular domains. (Single transmembrane domains of enzyme-linked receptors do not readily transmit allosteric changes.)
methods drugs are filtered in the body
-kidney (nephron) -liver (detoxification and exretion)- major site for drug metabolism
type II motor unit
-larger cell body -inervates >300 muscle fibers -collectively generate more forced than type I and faster
design quality
-leads to greater consumer safety and satisfaction -lower costs overall
current design practives
-life-cycle design -design for quality -design for manufacturing & assembly
What are the 3 general receptor classes?
-ligand-gated ion channels -G-protein linked-receptors -enzyme-linked-receptors (Note that G-protein-linked receptors are ultimately linked to enzymes, and that enzyme-linked receptors can interact indirectly with small, monomeric GTP binding proteins.)
photolithography
-light sensitive polymers, photoresist, spin coated on flat surface -positive photoresist soluble b exposure' -negative photoresist more stable from uv exposure
a good team leader...
-listens -does real work -monitors time and schedules -create opportunities for other -manage relationships with others -keep purpose, goals, and approach relevant and meaningful
What can signals (ligands) induce or inhibit?
-metabolic changes -growth/cell division -differentiation/cell-fate specification -movement/shape changes] -mating (ex. yeast) -cell death -electrical stimulation (ex. action potentials), etc. So, about everything!
stratigies to reduces DOMS
-minimize eccentric work early in training 0starte with low intesity and gradualy increase -state with high-intesity, ehaustive training (soreness bad at firs and much less later on)
isokinetic training
-movement at a constant speed (alter resistance to compenste for weak and strong force inorder to maintain speed) theorectically allow max contration at points in rang eo motion Resistance exercise in which the resistance varies throughout the ROM, thereby ensuring a constant rate of speed. This training requires specialized equipment and is typically done in a rehabilitation setting.
team sucess factors
-multifunctional involvement (customers, suppliers, engineer, etc.) -simultaneous full-time involvement -co-location (doesn't separate y function) -communication (regular team meetings) -shared resources -outside involvement
interface control document
-nearly every system (function) interfaces with another system (function) defines relationships betwen modules and systemes (functions)
Parts of the iterative process include:
-needs assesment -problem formulation (specs, restraints, goals, resources) -abstraction & synthesis (brainstorming alternatives) -analysis (narrowing selection) -implementation (building, testing, producing)
immunoglobulin superfamily proteins
-neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) -intercellular cell adhesion molecules (ICAM) (like a Y cahind di)
brainstorming ground rules
-no holding back (any & all ideas) -no boundaries (no idea is too outrageous) -no criticizing -no dismissing -no limit (the more the beter) -no shame addition of formal structure -enhances creative process in large groups -prevents aggresive individuals from dominating the conversation
Types of filaments?
-nuclear (laminins A, B, and C) -Vimentin-like (vimentin, desmin, glial fibrillary acidic protein) -epithelial (type I (acidic) & II (basic) keritins) -asonal (neurofilamnts (L, M, and H))
What factors determine the amount of force generated?
-number and type of motor units activated -frequency of stimulation per unit -size of muscle -muscle fiber and sarcomere length -speed of contraction
Where does the oxidative system take place?
-occurs in mitochondria (anerobic processes occur in cytoplasm) -mitochondria in muscles adjacent to myofibrils, scattered throughout sarcoplasm
Which microsomes don't have proteins in them? How would proteins that do end up in the microsomes compare to one sith no microsomes added?
-ones that are translated before the microsomes were added -they're larger because the signal sequence isn't getting clipped of
core product team
-performs research required to reduce risks and unknowns to a manageable level -develope product specification -prepare the project plan -responsible for admin. decision of the project
How do Type II fibers behave during exercise?
-poor aerobic endurance -better suited for anerobic
things you can alter at cellular scale
-pore size -micromachining, -micromolding -surface chemistry (patterns & materials affecting adhesion)
function of membrane carbohydrates?
-protection (from harsh conditions) -cell-cell recognition events
cell scale surface chemistry
-protein localization on gold monolayers (via protein stamping, microcontact prinintg, microfluidic patterning)
3 types of ligands
-protein/peptide: bind cell-surface receptors -small organics -steroids, thyroxine, retinoids: diffuse -amino acids and derivatives: signal at synapses -inorganic
surface chemisty
-proteins can be immobilized by adsoprtion -used to coat a surface in vitro -dependent on temp, pH, and physiochemical factors
3 ways proteins can help the membrane curve?
-proteins insert between phospholipids -curved proteins that bind to phospholipids head groups (ex. BAR-domain proteins) -proteins cluster phospholipid head groups, especially large ones like PI
How is the heart a dual pump?
-pulmonary circulation -pumping to and from lungs -systemic circulation -in series with pulmonary circulation -vessel arranged in parallel to allow for independent regulation of blood flow dual, but simultaneous
minimum energy requirement for living
-related ot fat-free mass -affected by body surface area, age, stress, hormones, body temperature
What happens to cells at the Hayflick limit?
-replicative senescence -loss of genetic material -apoptosis
Test Spec
-required for each function -describes EXACTLY how the test is performed -lists equipment and facilities -record reults -list acceptable limits -should eb writen before design
What are the key elements of the reflex arc?
-sense organ -sensory nerve -CNS -motor neuron -effector organ
muscle spindles
-sensitive to mucle length, rate of length change -sense muscle stretch
golgi tendon organ
-sensitive to tension in tendon -sense strength of contraction -protective control *remember golgi tendon reflex->when placing excessive load relfex will cause relaxation to prevent damage
resting metabolic rate
-simailar to BMR (within 5-10% of BMR) -doesn't require stringent standardized conditions to measure -1,200-2,400 kcal/day
What types of information are included in the project notebook?
-sketches -thoughts -rough calculations/mathematical developments -external information -weekly status reports -team meeting notes
Team Characteristics
-small number -complementary skills (technical, problem solving/decision making, interpersonal skills) -common purpose -clearly define roles -mutual accountability -clearly defined procedures -develop interpersonal relationships -leadership
disadvantages of tissue culture over animal studies
-small sample size of cells, reduced sensitivity -difficult to scale up results -culture cells may not function the same as in vivo
type I motor unit
-smaller cell body -inervates <300 muscle fibers
proteolysis process
-specific E3 ligases -ubiqutination of proteins -destruction in proteasomes
PEGylation
-stabilizes proteins -increase water solubility of drugs -makes molecules soluble over wide pH range -increase water solubility of proteins ex. paclitaxel
How do you determine 1 RM
-start with known easy weight -warm up -if able to execute multiple repetitions, add weight..do this until last weight can only be lifted once (when talking about an 8 RM..it's a weight you can lift 8X but not 9+)
What type of phosphorylation requires oxygen?
-substrate level phosphorylation -independent of oxygen -oxidative phosphorylation -produces ATP with aid of oxygen
What does it mean to draw sketches in an Electrical Design Space?
-supporting functional decomposition -rough block orientated schematic -wired set of functional blocks sontaining words like LPF, amplifier, etc lines are quoted with: -power loading -voltage -current -power -frequency content -bus bandwidth -bus type/width -data structure/type -required EM field strength -bit rate
things you can alter at subcellular level
-surface chemistry-protein adsoprtions -bulk chemistry-fibrin & growth factors -surface topography->molecular imprenting & micromachining
floating electrodes
-susceptable to motion artifacts -no direct contact with skin TOP hat electrode, electrode in cavity filled wihth gell -disposable
Are there any other important things to note about project notebooks?
-team members have separate notebooks -all ideas, calculations, experiments, tests, mechanical sketches, flow charts, circuit diagrams, etc. should be included -project goals should clearly be stated -subjective conclusions should be avoided -write so ideas can be understood by another person -never erase, obliterate w/ ink, ect. do a line through errors
production considerations of scaffolds
-technical procedure (doing it doesn't change properties) -fabrication accuaracy -automation
Types of single-neuron computations?
-thresholding -coincidence detection -summation.subtraction -multiplication.division (shunting inhibition)
anticoagulants of the blood
-thrombin inhibitors -antithromboplastin (tissue factor pathway inhibitor-TFPI) -heparin (produced by basophils an dmast celsl, increase activity of anti-thrombins)
What drives passive transport across a membrane?
-to decrease free energy -uncharged solutes: chemical (conc.) gradient -charged solutes: electrochemical gradient and membrane potential
electron transport chain
-two for 1 glucose (2 pyruvate from glycolysis) -protein complexes in mitocondrial membrane->contain series of enzymes and iron-containing proteins called cytochromes -pumped to outer compartment (against gradient, energy transferred to form ATP using ATP synthase) -H+ combine with 2 coenzymes -nicotinamide adenine dinucleotien (NAD) -flavin adenine dinucliotide (FAD) -Krebs->3 NADH and 1 FADH2
What's the point of all these Documents?
-understand the Customer's Requirements -minimize misucderstanding -provide direction (designers, buiders, vendors,, buyers) -history of decisions (traceability), work progres -legal protection
What are the sense organs?
-vision -hearing -touch (somatosensory) -small (olfactory) -taste (gustatory)
concept maps
-visual learning -aids group brainstorming -refine creative/critical thinking
How can you measure anerobic acitivity?
-windgate test
reversion
., Alteration in DNA that reverses the effects of a prior mutation
name all types of synapses locations
...
outer hair cell
...
type C
...
What is the practical limit of resolution of electron microscopy?
.1 nm
EMG amplifier
.1 to 1 mV (low source impedance need high gain)-surface electrodes needle elcectrondds 1 to 10 mV large, high source imepednandjasd around 100 to 100 (overlap)
EEG Amp
.1 to 100 Hz 25 to 100uV
naked eye vision size scale limit
.2 mm=200 um
What range can the brain waves bein in freq?
.5 to 100 Hz
dieatary protein reccomentation
.8 g/kg absolute necear to increase muscle size 1.2-1.7
size ranges of light
0.4 um (violet) to 0.7 (red)
What is 1 calorie?
1 calorie=heat energy needed to raise 1g of water 1 degree C from 14.5 to 15.5
How is fat broken down?
1 glyceral + 3 fatty acids (FFAs primary energy source for fat metabolism)
a- helix structure
1 turn=3.6 amino acidsd=.54 nm transmembrane proteins of a-helix struct-tyepiucalally has 20-30 non-polar amino acids -transmembrane typically non-polar (FCWPMGAVIL but may contain some polar (DERKSTQSTN)
mechanism of neurotransmission
1) AP arrives at synapse 2)Ca2+ volatage gated channels open 3) increase in cytosolic Ca2+ 4)Ca2+ binds to synaptotagmin, causing fusion of vesicles with pre synaptic membrane 5) neurotransmitter diffueses across the gap 6) binds to post synamptic membrae receptors
to tailor suface chemistry one may...
1) Add surface moieties to a biomaterial that will promote protein or cell adhesion, 2) add surface moieties that will deter protein or cell adhesion, 3) a combination of both.
there are 3 primary functions of bioreactors in the TE world:
1) Bioreactors designed for cell seeding 2) Bioreactors designed for enhanced mass transport 3) Bioreactors designed for physical conditioning
TE bioreactors should be designed to:
1) Enable the application of multiple regulatory signals (e.g. growth factors, hydrodynamics, mechanical or electrical stimuli). 2) To accommodate replicates via modular design. 3) Provide biosensor or imaging compatibility
What are the two main clases of ECM molecules?
1) Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) 2) Fibrous proteins
componetnts to better endurance
1) high VO2maxr 2) high lactate threshold (%VO2maxr) 3) high economy effort 4) higer % type I muscle fibers
full-field ERG
1) high-steady background illumination (for the whole retina to adapt, less scatter) 2) low-and localized stimulus (less scatter 3) averaging
List all 10 organ systems
1) inegumentary 2) skeletal 3) muscular 4) digestive 5) circulatory 6) respiratory 7) nervous 8) reproductive 9) urinary 10) endocrine
Ways to solubolize membrane?
1) ionic detergents (SDS) 2) non-ionic detergents (ex. triton X-100, B-octylglucoside) -detergents are cone shaped and form micelles in water
Delineate the steps involved in the sliding filament theory.
1) myosin cross bridges active (tropomyosin removed) 2) myosin binds actin 3) conformational change occurs in the cross bridge 4) these cause myosin head to tilt (power stroke) 5) contraction->breaks away and attaches to new active site not contracting->myosin still in contact with actin but molecular bond becomes weakened or blocked by tropomyosin (which is moved by presence of Ca2+)
Surface recordings are possible whe...
1) neurons are aligned, and 2) the input is synchronized (evoke potentials)
diodes that helpo protect amplifier
1) parallel silicone diodes 2) 2 zener diodes 3) gas-discharge tube
factors that regulate CdK
1) partialy activated by binding to cycling, fully when also phosphorylated by CAK 2) inactivated by phosphorylation by Wee1 kinase 3) kept inactive by binding CKIs, like p27
3 types of lipid components of membranes
1) phospholipids 2) glycolipids 3) cholesterol
How does the ELISA work?
1) plate is coated with the antibody 2) sample added and present antigen binds to antibody 3) detection antibody added 4) enzyme-linked secondary antibody added to detection body 5) add substrate which the enzyme converts to the detectable form 6) colorimetric chang is detected via spectrophotometer
What makes a good engineer?
1) problem solving skills 2) effective communication skills 3) highly ethical and professional 4) open minded and positive attitude 5) proficiency in basic math & science 6) technical skills 7) motivation to continue learning 8) knowlege of buisness & management 9) computer literacy 10) understanding world affairs & culture
What 2 things do intracellular signal cascades do?
1) relay signals from the membrane to other parts of the cell, and 2) provide amplification of the original signal
3 types of transmembrane proteins
1) single a-helix memprane-spanning domain: hydrophobic a-helix (ex. glycophorin) 2) multiple a-helix membrnae spanning domains (ex. bacteriorhodopsin) 3) B-barrel (ex. porins)
PDR
1) title page 2) executive sumary 3) introduction 4) market/social/ethical 5) Design paramenters and primary specifications 6)technical analysis 7)imploementation plan 8) refrences 9) appedix. specifications 10 apendix-recources 11) apendix testing 12 apendix-personel
4 main functions of vascular system
1) transfer pulsatile flow from heart beat to continuous flow 2) dribute bloo to various organs 3)exchange material in the tissues 4)veins serve as a volume reservoir
Hit validation
1) validatea acitivty using a different source of compound 2) using screening assay 3) other orhtogonal or complementary assays
sequence of events that underlie wound healing
1) vascular response 2) inflammatory response 3) granulation tissue formation 4) contraction of the wound 5) wound remodeling
implantable electrodes
1) wire-loop electroed (no silver) 2) platinum/Ag-shpere cotical surface electrode (in brain) 3) multi=element depth electrode
major areas of the CNA
1)fore brain: berebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbit 2) dienchepalon: thalamus and hyupothal 2) brain stim: midbrain, pon and medulla oblongotta 4: hind brain: brian stem and cerebellom 5)spinal nerves
req of biopential amplifiers
1)high input z 2) pretection to the organism 3)limit bandwidt to e match signal frew, obtain optimal SNR 4)bipolar electrodes 5) quick calibration
delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS)
1-2 days after exercise major cause; eccentric contractions other causes Structural damage -indicated by muscle enzymes in the blood -sarcomeer Z-disks: anchoring points of contact for ctonractile proteins damage after eccentric work inflammation-wbc increase with soreness -substances resleated to initiat inflammation-damaged muscle attract neutrophils which releas chemicals (free radical) that stimulate pain nerves, also macrophage cell debri removal incolved in inflammation reseponse -calcium mishandeling
Most human tissues have a cell density of ______ cells per mL.
1-3 billion (whole organs, 100-150 billion)
What are the 3 metabolic pathways? Which are a part of the anerorbic/aerobic metabolism.
1.) ATP-PCr syste -anerobic 2.) glycolytic system (glycoslysis) -anerobic 3.) oxidative system (oxidative phosphorylation) -Aerobic
Prevelancy of cystic fibrosis?
1/3000 infants
typical animal cell diameter
10-20 um
muscle fiber diameter range
10-20um
myofibrils
100's to 1000's per cell; cylidrical (1-2 mm in diameter); attached to sarcolemma at each end; contraction shortens entire cell; made of myofilaments (protein fibers); 2 types actin and myosin
Collagen chains contain ____ amino acids with repeats of ___-__-___.
1050 Gly-Pro-X The structure of these amino acids allows collagen chains to form helices. Three helices wrap around one another to form a molecule of collagen.
There are at least __different types of collagen in mammals, but ____% of the collagen is Types __, __, and __ (which form fibrils) and Type IV (which forms a twodimensional reticulum, or mesh).
16 80-90% I, II, III, and IV collagens are flexible molecules yet have tensile strength greater than steel
trisomy 21
1st most common cause of mental retardation-down syndrome-etiology(cause): chromosomal nondisjunction during meiosis; an increased risk of having child with DS in older mothers > 45 yrs; mental retardation, IQ 30-70, flat nasal bridge, epicanthal folds, low set ears, short stature, short neck, hypotonia, protruding tongue, congenital heart disease, increased respiratory infections, alzheimers, most males are sterile, some females can reproduce
How much energy does the ETC produce from the products of gylcolysis and the krebs cycle (from 1 glucose)?
2 NADH (glycolysis) + 2 NADH (oxidation of pyruvate) + 6 NADH (krebs) + 2 FADH2 (krebs)=10 NADH +2 FADH2 NADH->3 ATP FADH2->2 ATP (skips first complex, skip 1 source of H+ for ATP synthase) BUT, crossing mitochondrial membrane requires energy so... 1 NADH=2.5 ATP 1 FADH2=1.5 ATP Thus, krebs and glycolysis products produce net of 28 ATP
area of cerebral cortex
2.2 m^2
Proteins have to have a stretch of _____ amino acids in order to be transmembrane protein.
20 (polar amino acids in helices could help form proteins as they are engeretically unfavorable isolated in the membrane)
The proteasome has a ____ core and ___ caps on each end. The caps contain ____ that unfold proteins to be digested.
20S, 19S, ATPases
diameter of cytoskeleton microtubules
25 nm
trisomy
2n+1; less drastic phenotype for sex chromosomes than autosomes but are often lethal
What is the structure of clathrin cats?
3 heavy chain s and 2 light chains
Length of EEG waves?
30 to 500 ms, synchronized responses of many neurons
Hayflick limit
30-50 limit to the number of cell divisions that a primary cell undergoes primary human cells can undergo about 30-50 doublings in culture (produce 10^10 to 10^15 cells) dependent upon the age of the donor
mid point for cold and warm recepetors
35 deg C
example of solid free-form fabrication
3D printing
doral column pathway
4': somaotosens cortex 3':relay info up cerebral cortex 2'cross to opp side of medulla and got thalamus 1' makes synaps with card and send
speed of conductio in neuron
40 m/s
How efficient is substrate metabolism?
40% (of substrate energy-> ATP) (60% of substrate energy->heat)
The number of cells that will survive a cryopreservation can vary from ___%.
40-95%
speed of axon transport (of vesciles in synampes)
400 mm/day
1 L O2 consumed is equivalent to...
5 Kcal
Epithelial layer of small intestin undergo complete turnover every __ days and takes place in the ___.
5, crypt crypt-about 20 stem cells -nondiv -rapid div -slov dive -nondiv
In order to control the pH of the medium, cells are typically grown in humidified incubators that maintain a gas phase CO2 of ___% together with sodium bicarbonate as a medium additive.
5-10%
Protien can provide ____% energy needed for prolonged exercise.
5-10%
RBCs in mm3 of blodo
5-5.5X10^6 RBCs (only 2-11K WBCs)
reccommended macronutrients
55-60% carbs <35% fat 10-15% protein
trigeminal nerve
5th cranial nerve - the chief nerve of sensation for the face and the motor nerve controlling the muscles for chewing. 3 divisions - ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular.
How many layers are there in the human cortex?
6
planks constant
6.626x10^-34=h
blood ratio
600 RBCs:40 platelets:1 WBC
G-protein-coupled receptors are _-transmembrane proteins with the _-terminus on the extracellular
7, N
bacteriorhodopsin
7-pass transmembrane protein with multiple a-helix -photons cause conformational change that pumps H+ to outside, creating a gradiant that drives ATP production
Normal cellular pH?
7.2 (7.4 for extracellular)
cerebrum
80% of Brain mass
PCr taken up ___% in skeletal muscle.
95%
topography of a biomaterial can be modified by:
:1) Use a mold to guide the surface topography, 2) add material, 3) remove material, 4) a combination of these
By what degree does exercise (training) affect muscle fiber type composition?
<10%, mostly it's genetically determined
When is TPA effective?
<3 after stroke
coefficient of coincidence
=(# of observed doubles)/(# of expected doubles)
type IIc
=1-3% -least recruited
immune surveillance
A 2nd function of the lymph nodes besides filtering. It's the body's defense system against foreign bodies. Monitors body fluids. Provided by lymphocytes and macrophages. Along with red bone marrow, lymph nodes are centers for lymphocyte production. Attack viruses, bacteria etc. that is brought to the lymph nodes. Macrophages engulf and destroy foreign substances, damaged cells, and cellular debris.
TATA box
A DNA sequence in eukaryotic promoters crucial in forming the transcription initiation complex.
GPI anchors
A GPI anchor is attached to some proteins as the signal sequence is clipped off Glycosylphosphatidylinositol. Attach to C-terminus of protein, fatty acids anchor protein to membrane. Critical component of lipid rafts, involved in signaling.
thalamus
A Subcortical structure that relays and filters information from the senses and transmits the information to the cerebral cortex.
glomerulus
A ball of capillaries surrounded by Bowman's capsule in the nephron and serving as the site of filtration in the vertebrate kidney.
What bands of a sarcomere include myosin?
A band, H zone
epithelial
A body tissue that covers the surfaces of the body, inside and out
reciprocal cross
A breeding experiment in which the mother's and father's phenotypes are the reverse of that examined in a previous breeding experiment.
confocal microscopy
A laser-based method for obtaining fluorescent micrographs of objects in a single focal plane. A series of confocal images can be combined to create a 3D image. It's better than deconvolution for thicker samples. Uses a laser focused at a specific point and depth and detects the light emitted from a single focal plane.
Steven's power law
A law of magnitude estimation that is more accurate than Fechner's law and covers a wider variety of stimuli. It is represented by the formula S=kI^a, where S=sensation, k=constant, I=stimulus intensity, and a=a power exponent that depends on the sense being measured
graded potential
A local change in membrane potential that varies directly with the strength of the stimulus, declines with distance.
complementary gene interaction
A phenotype requires a dominant allele on both locus.
measurand
A physical quantity, property, or condition that the system measures
coronal
A plane that divides a structure into anterior and posterior parts
Ti plasmid
A plasmid of a tumor-inducing bacterium that integrates a segment of its DNA into the host chromosome of a plant; frequently used as a carrier for genetic engineering in plants.
iterative process
A process based on repetition of steps and procedures.
lateral inhibition
A process in which lateral connections allow one photoreceptor to inhibit the responsiveness of its neighbor, thus enhancing the sensation of visual contrast
electrophoresis
A process where DNA fragments are separated according to size using electrical charges
antigen
A protein that, when introduced in the blood, triggers the production of an antibody A substance capable of inducing the formation of antibodies.
fluoroscopy
A radiological technique that provides real-time images of an anatomical region.
integrins
A receptor protein built into the plasma membrane that interconnects the extracellular matrix and the cytoskeleton
occipital
A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information
reflex arc
A relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement.
Iris
A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.
notochord
A rod of tough, flexible material that runs the length of a creature's body, providing the majority of its support
titin
A series elastic component protein responsible for allowing the sarcomere to stretch and recoil
pleiotropy
A single gene having multiple effects on an individuals phenotype (more than one phenotypic expression)
pseudostratified
A single layer of tightly fitting cells that have nuclei at various heights, giving the impression of several cell layers present. This tissue has cilia (hair-like projections). Located in the upper respiratory tract. The function is secretion and absorption.
receptor potential
A slow, graded electrical potential produced by a receptor cell in response to a physical stimulus
second messengers
A small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecule or ion, such as calcium ion or cyclic AMP, that relays a signal to a cell's interior in response to a signal received by a signal receptor protein. cAMP, cGMP, IP3, Ca2+
dynein
A special motor protein that moves along the microtubule toward the negative end; responsible for rentrograde axoplasmic transport
locus
A specific place along the length of a chromosome where a given gene is located.
striatum
A structure within the forebrain that is involved in the smooth initiation of movement.
sympathetic nervous system
A subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that activates nerves, glands and visceral muscles in times of stress or threat (prepares the body for action)
parasympathetic
A subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body after action and also retains the body functioning at is normal state (homeostasis)
autonomic
A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Controls involuntary activity of visceral muscles and internal organs and glands.
autonomic nervous system
A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Controls involuntary activity of visceral muscles and internal organs and glands.
somatic nervous system
A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Enables voluntary actions to be undertaken due to its control of skeletal muscles
chemical synapses
A synapses that is specialized to release and the reception of chemical neurotransmitters. signal amplification, reliable, slow (1 ms), and enables complex computations
x-ray crystallography
A technique that depends on the diffraction of an X-ray beam by the individual atoms of a crystallized molecule to study the three-dimensional structure of the molecule.
conjugation
A temporary union of two organisms for the purpose of DNA transfer., In bacteria, the direct transfer of DNA between two cells that are temporarily joined.
myofibril
A threadlike structure, extending longitudinally through a muscle fiber (cell) consisting mainly of think filaments (myosin) and thin filaments (actin, troponin, and tropomyosin)
lemniscus
A tract that meanders through the brain like a ribbon.
adaption
A trait that helps an organism survive and reproduce
retrotransposon
A transposable element that moves within a genome by means of an RNA intermediate, a transcript of the retrotransposon DNA.
nicotinic receptor
ACh receptor, more sensitive to nicotine Acetylcholine-binding receptors of all autonomic ganglionic neurons and skeletal muscle neuromuscular junctions; named for activation by nicotine.
nicotinic
ACh receptor, more sensitive to nicotine Found at the skeletal muscle NMJ
gain-of-function mutation
A mutation that causes an altered gene product with a new and different function from the original gene product., Results in increased levels of gene expression (increased # or activity) or new function of the gene product
conditional mutation
A mutation that results in a characteristic phenotype only under certain environmental conditions.
action potential
A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
passive potential
A neuronal signal that is proportional to the stimulus, diminishing with distance.
cofactor
A nonprotein molecule or ion that is required for the proper functioning of an enzyme. Often inorganic, nonprotein helpers such as zinc, iron, or copper
medial forebrain bundle
A bundle of neurons that runs from the midbrain to the basal ganglia and other forebrain areas Contains mesocorticolimbic dopaminergic fibers and elicits the strongest reinforcement of self-stimulation behavior.; contains neurons that are most crucial for the liking and wanting of a reward
temperature-sensitive mutation
A cell expressing a protein that is functional at one temperature but not at another, whereas the normal protein is functional at both temperatures.
cyclin
A cellular protein that occurs in a cyclically fluctuating concentration and that plays an important role in regulating the cell cycle.
bradykinin
A chain of 9 amino acids that causes histamine-like effects such as vasodilation, contraction of non-vascular smooth muscle, and an increase in capillary permeability.
covalent bond
A chemical bond that involves sharing a pair of electrons between atoms in a molecule
aneuploidy
A chromosomal aberration in which one or more chromosomes are present in extra copies or are deficient in number
monosomic
A chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has only one copy of a chromosome, instead of the normal two; the cell is said to be monosomic for that chromosome.
Turner syndrome
A chromosomal disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing, making the person XO instead of XX, or part of one X chromosome is deleted.
Klinefelter syndrome
A chromosomal disorder in which males have an extra X chromosome, making them XXY instead of XY.
phosphoglycerides
A class of phospholipid consisting of a glycerol molecule, 2 fatty acids, and a phosphate group. Synthesized from glycerol. phosphoatidyl(choline.serine.ethanolamine.inositol)
ganglion
A collection of nerve cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system
deconvolution
A computer-based method for subtraction out-of-focus light from a series of flourescent micrographts to yield a sharper 3D picture. It basical studies the effects of blurring inorder to deblur it. It's good for speciemens that can be damaged by light because it is good at collecting small amounts of light.
codominace
A condition in which neither of two alleles of a gene is dominant or recessive.
Down Syndrome
A condition of retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.
Barr body
A dense object lying along the inside of the nuclear envelope in female mammalian cells, representing an inactivated X chromosome.
corticospinal tract
A descending somatic motor tract. Cell bodies in the primary motor cortex. Most fibers cross to opposite side in the medulla and synapse in spinal cord. Responsible for voluntary refined movements of distal extremities.
Superconducting quantum interference device
A device that allows for the creation of magnetic fields from currents. Work at ridiculously low temperatures-- they are kept at -269 degreeC using liquid helium. a brain-imaging technique that uses changes in magnetic fields to trace pathways of brain activity associated with processes such as hearing or movement
voltage clamp
A device that enables an investigator to hold the membrane potential constant while transmembrane currents are measured.
gene
A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses).
fragile x
A disorder produced by injury to a gene on the x chromosome, producing mild to moderate mental retardation.
thrombolytic
A drug that breaks up a thrombus or clot.
allopolyploid
A fertile individual that has more than two chromosome sets as a result of two different species interbreeding and combining their chromosomes.
F factor
A fertility factor in bacteria, a DNA segment that confers the ability to form pili for conjugation and associated functions required for the transfer of DNA from donor to recipient. It may exist as a plasmid or integrated into the bacterial chromosome.
non-crossover gamete
A gamete whose chromosomes have undergone no genetic recombination, Gametes which result in the same chromosomal genotype as the parental generation
episome
A genetic element that can exist either as a plasmid or as part of the bacterial chromosome.
proteasome
A giant protein complex that recognizes and destroys proteins tagged for elimination by the small protein ubiquitin.
What's the difference between a proteoglycan and a glyoprotein?
A glycoprotein is a protein is a protein with oligosaccharide chains (glycans) covalently attached to their polypeptide side chains. A proteoglycan is a subclass of these and has a core protein with one or more GAG attachments. Proteoglycan chains are longer.
fibronectin
A glycoprotein that helps animal cells attach to the extracellular matrix.
syndrome
A group of symptoms typical of a particular disease or condition
Cystic Fibrosis
A human genetic disorder caused by a recessive allele for a chloride channel protein; characterized by an excessive secretion of mucus and consequent vulnerability to infection; fatal if untreated.
types of reflexes
1. Withdrawal reflex, or flexion withdrawal reflex 2. Crossed-extensor reflex, or extension reflex 3. Myotatic reflex 4. Inverse myotatic reflex
2-hit model
1. mutation in one copy of RB gene is inherited in all body cell
What adapter proteins are in volved in the steps for a clathrin vesicle?
AP2: Plasma membrane->endosome AP1: Glogi->endosome AP3: Golgi->lysome, vacuole, melanosome, or platelet vesicles
Summarize how oxygen is involved in substrate metabolism.
ATP-PCr system->in cytoplasm and no oxygen required oxidative phosphorylation->in mitochondria and oxygen is required carbs and fats can be converted to Acetyl CoA only in the presence of oxygen->pyruvate oxidation and B-oxidation
resolution
Ability of a microscope to distinguish two objects as separate
absence
Absence seizure, nonconvulsive generalized seizures with cessation of all motor activity, loss of consciousness, no aura and no postictal period (5-20 s unconscious, spike and dome pattern)
competence
Acceptable levels of achievement, Basic need to be effective in dealing with the environment.
nicotinic receptor
Acetylcholine-binding receptors of all autonomic ganglionic neurons and skeletal muscle neuromuscular junctions; named for activation by nicotine.
specific immunity
Acquired or adaptive immunity: recognize specific agents, adapt/respond and target these agent
monocytes
Actively phagocytic cells; crucial agianst viruses, intracellular bacterial parasites, and chronic infections.
guillain-barre syndrome
Acute inflammatory demyelinating disorder of the peripheral nerve PNS myelin immune attack comes after illness
adaptation
Adaptation is the decrease in sensation that occurs when a stimulus is continually applied.
By what primary mechanisms doe ADH, aldosterone, and EPO respond to low blood volume (directly or indirectly)?
(water) ADH: change in osmlarity stimulates water retention in renal tubules (Na+) Aldosterone: low blood volume (low Na+) stimulate Na+ retention which also promotes water retention (oxygen) EPO: low blood volume stimulate new blood cell formation which increase oxygen delivery to cells
endocrin response to overtraining
+blood urea +catecholamines over train suppreses immune functio
acute overlad
+phys adaptiona nd mino performance adnapt
action potential threshold
- -50 to -40mv reached by an increase in membrane curren
How gene instability of immortal cultures impact it?
- Aberrant growth control and chromosomal number - Potential loss of anchorage dependence and contact inhibition - Reduced need for serum growth factors - Potential to undergo further transformation to tumorigenic cells
proteoglycans
- Gylcosaminoglycans attached to extracellular proteins A glycoprotein that weaves a network of collagen fibers.
EEG montages
Bipolar: pairs Referential: common reference Average: all releative to average Laplacian: relative to weighted local average
blood brain barrier
Blood vessels (capillaries) that selectively let certain substances enter the brain tissue and keep other substances out, pereable to gas, water, lipid soluble materials such as alcohol and anesthetics (does not allow plasma proteins)
arterioles
Blood vessels that are smaller branches off of arteries.
gray matter
Brain and spinal cord tissue that appears gray with the naked eye; consists mainly of neuronal cell bodies (nuclei) and lacks myelinated axons.
gray matter
Brain and spinal cord tissue that appears gray with the naked eye; consists mainly of neuronal cell bodies (nuclei) and lacks myelinated axons. A zone or layer of tissue in the CNS where the neural cell bodies, dendrites, and synapses are found; forms the core of the spinal cord, nuclei of the cerebrum, cerebral cortex, and cerebellar cortex.
cortex
Brain areas where neurons are organized into thin, layered "sheets Gray matter of Cerebrum
allocortex
Brain tissue with three layers or unlayered organization.
retrograde transport
Backward moving products from distal to cell body, brings back products/waste to cell body, slower, less common
F+ cell
Bacterial cells that possess a plasmid called the F factor, which includes a gene for a sex pilus.
substantia nigra
An area of the midbrain that is involved in motor control and contains a large concentration of dopamine-producing neurons
heterozygous
An organism that has two different alleles for a trait
homozygous
An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait
desmosomes
Anchoring junctions that prevents cells subjected to mechanical stress from being pulled apart; button like thickenings of adjacent plasma membranes connected by fine protein filaments
leukemica genes
Bcr-Abl translocation imatinib (Gleevec) inibit this
caudal
At the rear or tail end Away from the head (the back of the head)
purkinje fibers
Atrioventricular bundle; many mitochondria and glycogen; some peripheral myofibrils
temporal
Auditory Cortex
small-molecule transmitter
Belongs to a class of quick-acting neurotransmitters synthesized in the axon terminal from products derived from our diet. Packaged ready for use in the axon terminals. Examples are Acetylcholine, Amines, and Amino Acids.
axosomatic
Between axons and neuronal cell bodies, between the axon of one neuron and the soma of another
cerebral cortex
Outermost sheet of neural tissue of the cerebrum of the brain. (same as neocortex)
key design challenges to scaling up ex vivo cultivation
Oxygenation, providing adequate flux of oxygen at a physiological concentration and removal of CO2. - The provision and removal of cyto- and chemokines and other important macromolecules. - Overall physiological perfusion rates and uniformity in flow distribution down to the dimensions of a functional subunit.
4 classes of ATP-Powered Transport Proteins
P-type (ions, so NBA/K, Ca2 atpase, fungal H pump) ABC transporter (largest family, MDR protein, small molecules) V-type (H+ pumped out using ATP) F-type (pumps in H to create ATP)
What are the rate limiting enzymes for the 3 systems?
PCr -creatine kinase Glycolytic -PFK Oxidative -PFK -isocitrate
PCR and fatigue
PCr depletion coincides with fatigue Pi accumulation may be a potential cause of fatigue (product of PCr rxn) pacing helps defer PCr depletion
Why is there lots of cGMP in a rod in the dark?
PDE is not activated
capacitance
C=Q/V, in Farads, 1 F=1C/V
astrocyte
CNS cells responsible for physical support and maintaining blood brain barrier, GFAP marker (glial fibrillary astrocyte protein) Glia cells that provide structure and support; form vascular feet around blood vessels and next to pia mater (blood brain barrier); form scar tissue after CVI or TBI. Control the environment surrounding neurons: ions, neurotransmitters, control flow in and out of capillaries.
myelin makers in the CNA and PNS
CNS oligodendrocyte PNS Schwann cell
waste products of the blood
CO2, urea, ammonia, uric acid, metabolites (ex. lactic acid, acetone, etc.) and enzymes
perimysium
CT sheath covering fascile
endomysium
CT sheath that covers each muscle fiber
it mediates muscle contraction by binding to troponin C
Ca2+
How does Ca2+ affect calmodulin?
Ca2+ also binds to and activates calmodulin, a protein that binds to and activates many target proteins and enzyme complexes in the cytosol.
How does contraction end?
Ca2+ i s pumped back into SR when contraction ends->tropomyosin returns to resting conformation, blocking myosin cross-bridge and actin
What other neural ions are there and what are their concentrations inside/outside?
Ca2+--->higher outside Cl- --->higher in net negative charge of macromolecule inside
Product Function Specs
PFS Quantitatively defines how the product must function or perform (not how it should be designed) traceable to requirements -should also derine the condition of environement test (environemental qualfication testing) -may define testing required for quality assurance during manufacturing -may have EMI/EMC testing requirements
How does the clathrin coat know where to assemble?
PI(4,5)P@ anchors AP2 to the membrane, allowing the cargo receptors to bind to the AP2...thus helping introduce curvature to the membrane
polio damages...
PNS myelin
Cells undergo apoptosis by flipping ___ to the extracellular leaflet of the plasma membrane, triggering phagocytosis by other cells.
PS
projected surface area
PSA=4*pi*A/P^2 index of cell spreading P=perimeter provides measure of shape...perfect circle=1, line=0
Activated receptors also signal indirectly through adaptor proteins; these proteins have domains that bind at distinct sites which are?
PTB or SH2 (src-homology-2) domains bind P-tyr - SH3 (src-homology-3) domains bind proline-rich regions
___ and ___ recognize a single terminal glucose on incompletely folded proteins and retain them in the ER.
Calnexin, calreticulin
oncogene
Cancer causing genes
oncogen
Cancer-causing genes that are formed due to mutations
____ are the only energy source used by the brain.
Carbs
Carrier and channel proteins
Carrier and channel proteins - larger molecules <1000 Da (ions, glucose, nucleotides, amino acids) -Carrier proteins undergo series of conformational changes to carry cargo through membrane - active transport (requires ATP) -Channel proteins create hydrophilic pores (open vs close) - passive transport (requires a gradient)
afferent
Carry impulses from the body parts to the brain and spinal cord.
afferent neuron
Carry info towards the CNS. At their end there is a sensory receptor that detects the stimulus and generates Action potentials
micelle
Casein is insoluble in water and forms small aggregates
clostridial toxins
Cause cell destruction with Alpha toxin, collagenases, hyaluronidase, protease and lipase
cri du chat syndrome
Caused by absence of the short arm of 5th chromosome (5p), high-pitched cry of long duration, like a cat, low-set ears, narrow oral cavity, laryngeal hypoplasia, microcephaly, hypertelorism (wide-set eyes), micrognathia, oral clefts, intellectual disability
CKI
Cdk inhibitory protein
lateral inhibition
Cell activity resulting in release of inhibitory NT to cells orthogonal to info pathway
sarcolemma
Cell membrane of a muscle cell
chemotaxis
Cell movement that occurs in response to chemical stimulus. (soluble signals)
integrin
Cell surface receptor proteins that are built into the plasma membrane. They span the membrane and bind on their cytoplasmic side to associated proteins attached to microfilaments of the cytoskeleton.
laminin
Cells adhere to basal laminae by binding of membrane integrins to laminin molecules. • Laminin molecules are large, cross-shaped heterotrimers, with the long arm being an alpha-helical coiled-coil domain. Laminin molecules also have multiple binding domains, which bind to different kinds of matrix components and to integrins
Hfr
Cells contain an F factor that is integrated into the bacterial chromosome, integrated F plasmids integrated into the host chromosome
Fovea
Center of the macula "Point of central focus". Spot on the back of the retina that has more cones that anywhere else. Helps us see fine detail has high density of cones
telencephalon
Cerebral hemispheres
translocation
Change to a chromosome in which a fragment of one chromosome attaches to a nonhomologous chromosome
brownian motion
Chaotic movement of colloidal particles
heat shock protein
Chaperones are also called (ex. hsp70)
half cell potential
Chemical reactions within half cells momentarily pump electric charges between the electrode and the electrolyte, resulting in a potential difference between the electrode and the electrolyte. The electrolyte acquires a net positive charge while the electrode acquires a net negative charge. The growing potential difference creates an intense electric field within the half cell layer, and the potential rises in value until the field halts the net charge-pumping reactions. E^0
complete linkage
Complete linkage describes the inheritance patterns for 2 genes on the same chromosome when the observed frequency for crossover between the loci is zero.
white matter
Composed mostly of myelinated axons that carry information from the grey matter to the brain or other areas of the spinal cordThe colour derives from the presence of the axon's myelin sheaths. The portions of the central nervous system that are abundant in axons rather than cell bodies of neurons.
Km
Concentration at which 1/2 Vmax is reached. This is a measure of potency. Concentration of substrate required for enzyme to achieve 1/2 Vmax. This is a measure of potency (amt of drug needed for a given effect). lower Km = higher affinity of enzyme for substrate; L-W burke: -1/Km = x intercept - further right is higher km
arcuate fibers
Connect neighboring gyri within a single cerebral lobe
corpus callosum
Connects the left & right hemispheres. A thick band of axons that connects the two cerebral hemispheres and acts as a communication link between them.
current clamp
Constant Current fixes the current of a neuron to study the change in voltage in response to stimulation
transgenic
Containing recombinant DNA incorporated into the genetic material.
junctional complex
Contains desmosomes, tight and gap junctions
wernicke's area
Contorls language reception. Damage creates inability to comprehend language; usually in the left temporal lobe
vagus nerve
Cranial Nerve X Function- Motor- Swallowing, visceral muscle movemen Conveys info about the stretching of the stomach walls, providing a major basis for satiety
laminin
Critical adhesion glycoprotein in the basement membrane
Whoes H+ potentially inhibit?
Crossbridge formation or force Ca2+ binding to troponin Na+,K+ ATPase SERCA glycolysis ( may also cause same inhibitiion tendency as Pi)
name vertebrate cyclins and cdk their partners
Cyclin D-CdK 6 and 4 Cyclin E-CdK 2 Cyclin A-CdK 2 and 1 Cyclin B-CdK 1
cdk
Cyclin-dependent kinases. A protein kinase that is active only when attached to a particular cyclin. Activity rises and falls depending on the concentration of the cyclin partner.
Both _______ work to activate protein kinase C, aka PKC
DAG and IP3
myotonia
DELAYED RELAXATION OF A MUSCLE AFTER A STRONG CONTRACTION
other methods to count cell number and viability
DNA content, protein content, metabolic activity, enzyme conversion by mitochondrial activity (MTS/MTT)
heterochromatin
DNA that is densely packed around histones. The genes in heterochromatin are generally inaccessible to enzymes and are turned off.
pacinian corpuscle
Deep pressure
innate immunity
Defenses against any pathogen
dominant
Describes a trait that covers over, or dominates, another form of that trait.
hemizygous
Describes an individual who has only one member of a chromosome pair or chromosome segment rather than the usual two; refers in particular to X-linked genes in males who under usual circumstances have only one X chromosome
synesthesia
Describing one kind of sensation in terms of another "a loud color, a sweet sound"
foxglove
Digitalis purpurea Poison used in small doses to treat congestive heart failure. contains heart drug, digitalis
DMSO
Dimethyl sulfoxide cryoprotectant solution to prevent ice formation
Direct passage
Direct passage through membranes - small non-polar molecules (O2, CO2); small polar molecules <~100 Da (water, ethanol, urea); large hydrophobic proteins (hormones)
How would you construct a small molecule chemical library
Diversity -chemical diversity (structural diversity) -biological diversity (based on known activites) Other types o flibraries -fragment library -peptidomimetic library methods of constructing libraries -collecting chemical compounds -natural sources, followed by partial or full purificaiton library of natural compounds
Diversity-oriented drug discovery
Diversity-oriented synthesis aims to make many structurally varied, drug-like compounds for screening, using modular syntheses that involve few steps
somatic
Division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles.
nigrotriatal
Dopamine Tracts
dsDNA
Double stranded DNA.
matrix DDS
Drug is dispersed uniformly in non-degradable marix.
reservoir DDS
Drug reservoir is saturated (unit activity) Rate-controlling membrane has constant thickness (x), diffusivity (D) and solubility coefficient for drug.
How does the speed of contraction affect force generation?
During concentric contraction, max force decreases at higher speeds. (meaning you should lift heavy weights slowly) Opposite is true for eccentric.
psudeogene
Dysfunctional relatives of a genes that have lost their protein or coding ability or are no longer expresses.
How does ubiquitin bind to proteins?
E1 covalently binds to ubiquitin in the cytosol inorder to transfer it to E2. The E2/E3 complexes add the ubiquitin to the target protein.
What are the functions of E1, E2, and E3 in ubiquidation of misfolded proteins?
E1=ubiquitin activating enzyme E2=ubiquitin conjugating enzyme E3=ubiquitin ligase
HPV oncogens?
E6 and E7 y disrupting p53 and Rb tumor suppressors
nernst equation
E=(61.5/n)* log* (Kout)/(Kin) An equation used to determine a cell's electromotive force when conditions are not standard. Ecell = E˚cell - (0.0592/n) log Q. (n = mol e⁻ transferred in the redox reaction).
What were suctio electrodes used for?
ECG, only for short time, small contact area, and thus high R
Phospholipid synthesis takes place on teh _____.
ER membrane (cytosolic side)
Proteins destined to reside in the ER will have...
ER signal sequence which is a string of hydrophobic amino acids (usually at n terminus) (transmembrane proteins, secreted (int ECM) proteins also have these sequences)
Where does COPII become involved in transport?
ER-Golgi
half cell ciruit
Ehc=half cell potential Rd=impedence of the electode-electolyte interface -impedance of the eletrode (R=1/wC) is freq dep High freq: R<<Rd, R=Rs Low freq: R>>Rd, R=Rd+Rs Cd=polarization effect Rs=series resistance in the electode electolyte
EMG
Electromyogram (Electomyography) this is a( TEST) used in a graphical record of electric currents associated with muscle contractions CONTINUOUS, not just pulses field potentials:6 to 30 Hz
receptive fields
Elicit activity in specified neuron by physical stimulus. Spatial field maintained
lac z
Encodes the enzyme beta-galactosidase which breaks down lactose to form glucose and galactose.
lac Y
Encodes the enzyme permease which transports lactose into the cell.
Endocytosis
Endocytosis - large molecules or particles (vs exocytosis) Transporters exhibit strong specificity
hysteresis
Energy loss during loading and unloading
glucosyltransferase
Enzyme detecting misfolding; attaches single glucose from UDP-glucose for second folding attempt
DNase
Enzyme that breaks down the polymer DNA into the monomer or nucleotides
ATPase
Enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of ATP to ADP which puts myosin in a "cocked" position binding it to actin
An example of enzyme-coupled receptorligand is ___.
Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF)
dosage compensation
Equalization in males and females of the amount of protein produced by X-linked genes. In placental mammals, dosage compensation is accomplished by the random inactivation of one X chromosome in the cells of females.
excitation-contraction coupling
Events that link the synaptic stimulation of a muscle cell to the onset of contraction.
EPSP
Excitatory postsynaptic potential; a slight depolarization of a postsynaptic cell, bringing the membrane potential of that cell closer to the threshold for an action potential.
Principle of Specificity
Exercise adaptations specific to mode and intensity of training Training program must stress most relevant physiological systems for given sport Training adaptations highly specific to type of activity, training volume, and intensity (strength gains tend to stay around longer than aerobic gains)
Give a simple example of design cycles.
Exploration->Generation->(<-)Evaluation-> Comunication
allopolyploidy
Extra sets of chromosomes come from different species, arise from hybridization, new chromosomes have no homologues, can create new species if followed by autopolyploidy
with glycogen depletion, ____ metabolism goes up
FFA but FFA oxidation too slow, may unable ot supply sufficient ATP for given intesity
B-oxidation
FFAs converted to acetyl CoA (chop off 2 carbon acyl) requires 2 ATP input to be activated and produces no ATP directly, produces 1 FADH2 and 1 NADH=4 ATP from ETC
multipotent
FORM MULTIPLE CELL TYPES (mscS)
optical diffraction
Factors that limit spatial resolution in light microscopy
True or False? A protein can still be functional if it in completely folded into its correct 3D structure.
False
True or False? The maximal physiological response requires binding of all receptor sites.
False
True or False? GPRC's bind a narrow variety of ligands.
False GPCR's bind a wide variety of ligands such as hormones, peptides, amino acids.
True or Fase? O2 that diffuses through the membrane does so via passive transport?
False It's via simple diffusion
True or False? ADH, aldosterone, and EPO are all directly stimulated by low blood volume.
False. Although low plasma volume would occur prior to ADH release, it is the osmolarity that stimulate the osmoreceptors. Aldosterone and EPO are directly affected by blood volume (because of Na+ for aldosterone)
True or False? The naked eye can see plant cells?
False. It can see a frog egg though.
True or False? Action potentials can travel in both directions.
False. Refractory period due to Na+ channels prevents the signal from going in the reverse direction.
True or False? Motor unit's force generation levels do not vary.
False. Force depends on the frequency of stimulation.
True or False? Norepinephrine causes vasodilation.
False. (but a little bit true) It causes vasoconstriction, but in exercising (and only exercising) muscle metabolic factors can overcome this vasoconstriction
sympathetic
Fight or flight
first pain vs second pain
First pain is immediate, sharp and localized pain (Aδ fibers). Second pain is delayed about a sec, and is a dull, aching and more diffuse pain (C fibers
P generation
First two individuals crossed in a breeding experiment
in vivo
Inside the body
spatial summation
Integration by a postsynaptic neuron of inputs (EPSPs and IPSPs) from multiple sources. Individual signals from separate synapses located at different spatial locations across the neuron, occur close enough in time that they converge and "add up" as they travel across the neuron.
population coding
Intense stimuli also excite more sensory neurons than less intense stimuli... 2nd SPACTIAL summation recruiting more sensory input... resulting in spatial summation
Ho does glycosidase become involved with protein folding?
It clips off a sugar until the n-linked oligosaccharide is left with only one and can bind to calnexin or calreticulin
How much energy does B-oxidation produce?
It depends. Fats are heterogeneous which means the amount of energy produced depends on the fat type
radioactive proline
It takes 1 week for injected radioactive proline to be absorbed into LGN; after 2 weeks it will be absorbed by layer 4, the input layer of the striate cx
Aqueous humor
It's A! Clear, transparent fluid that fills the anterior chamber
How does the presence of oxygen affect glycolysis?
It's both aerobic and anerobic. -oxygen only influences product, pyruvic acid -without->lactic acid -with->acetyl coenzyme (acetyl CoA)
How does a growing protein become associated with the ER membrane?
It's emerging signal sequence binds diretly to a binding pocket on SRP complexes.
How do we proceed with an exploration of the solution space?
Iteration between specification refinement, solution exploration, and solution evolution -functionally decompose the solution into pieces -requires brain storming -about required function and how to implement them
shaker channel
K+ channel, responsible for twitching mutation. Voltage-gated ion channel. Motif = transmembrane helices with a channel specifically the size of a potassium ion. Backbone of the channel = carbonyl oxygen cage, fits K+ ion specifically, fascilates opening of hydration cage, K+ is rehydrated after transfer into the cell
How is the membrane potential established/maintained?
K+ high inside, low outside -cell membrane more permeable to K+ than Na+ Na+ high outside, low inside Sodium-potassium pumps 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in->cell -70 mV RMP
ouabain binding site
K+ site on Na/K-ATPase key substance in sodium/potassium pump? binds to pump and block
basal ganglia
Large clusters of neurons, located above the thalamus and under the cerebral cortex, that work with the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements.
neocortex
Largest part of the human brain - where lang skills reside - contains Broca's & Wernicke's Area
LASIK
Laser In Situ Keratomileusis Laser-Assisted in Situ Keratomileusis; used to treat vision conditions, such as myopia, that are caused by the shape of the cornea
LGN
Lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus that recieves input from the optic nerve and sends fibers to the recieving area for vision.
rhabdomeres
Light is focused onto the pigmented portion of photoreceptor cells called ______________.
phase-contrast microscopy
Light is refracted differently in cells than their surroundings so denser material appears darker
FRAP
Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching -measures the rate of movement of proteins within a cell or on the plasma membrane -uses strong focused light to extinguish (photobleach) GFP and watch as it recovers its fluorescence aas a function of time
FRET
Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer -measures whether 2 proteins are in contact -the donor has an absorption spectrum of the acceptor and excites if when it is within 5 nm proximity -lets us see interactions of signaling molecues with receptors and proteins in macromolecular complexes
FISH
Fluorescent DNA or RNA probe binds to specific gene of interest - used for specific localization of genes and direct visualization of anomalies, like microdeletions, at molecular level
lens
Focuses light onto retina
junctional fold
Folds in the sarcolemma that create a larger surface area in the invervation zone at a motor end plate, allowing a larger number of action potentials to be fired
free weights vs machines
Free weights (constant resistance) -Tax muscle extremes but not midrange -Recruit supporting and stabilizing muscles -Better for advanced weight lifters Machines -May involve variable resistance -Safer, easier, more stable, better for novices -Limit recruitment to targeted muscle groups
penetrance
Frequency with which a heritable trait is exhibited by individuals carrying the gene or genes that determine that trait.
recombinant proteins
Genetically engineered DNA prepared by transplanting or splicing genes from one species into the cells of a host organism of a different species. Such DNA becomes part of the host's genetic makeup and is replicated.
trichome
Give leaf a fuzzy appearance, help reduce the evaporation of water from the plant.
astrocytes
Glia (support cells): Provide support by creating a matrix that holds neurons in place. The MOST abundant cell in the human brain, provides nourishment to cells from the blood capillaries, part of the BBB, take up GABA and glutamate neurotransmitters to shut off neurotransmission. Take up K+ from neuron during repolarization, keeping the resting membrane potential at the proper levelsz. Contain enzyme carbonic anhydrase, which speeds up the equilibrium betweend CO2 and carbonic acid, which dissociates into HCO3 and H, thereby helping regulate pH of the interstitial fluid in the CNS
psychophysics
Methods that measure the strength of a stimulus and the observer's sensitivity to that stimulus
Why do you gain 1-2 kg from creatine loading?
H2O (water weight) -not helpful to runners (VO2 max directly porportional to mass)
epigenetic
HERITABLE changes in expression of a gene that changes phenotype but not the DNA itself... just changes in chromatin structure
epigenetics
HERITABLE changes in expression of a gene that changes phenotype but not the DNA itself... just changes in chromatin structure
SDS
HOW the subsystem will be designed
VO2 max
Maximum oxygen uptake; most oxygen used when working the hardest you can
julius bernstein
Mechanism of action potential generation first addresse
dorsal column
Medial lemniscal pathway Fine touch and position sense travels in what tract of the spinal cord Medial lemniscal pathway
sustained release
Medications of various shapes and forms may also be encased in or mixed with substances that cause a delay in the active absorption of the medication to ensure slow but sustained action
What are membranes impermeable to?
Membranes are impermeable to: Ions (due to high degree of hydration); larger molecules
How are most lipids delievered?
Most lipids are delievered to ohter organelles in the cell by vesicular transport. Those that don't use vesicular transport like mitochondria can use phospholidi exchange.
fibronectin
Most non-epithelial cells link to the ECM via membrane integrins that bind to disulfide-linked fibronectin dimers in the ECM. • Each fibronectin polypeptide chain is comprised of a series of six domains, which have high-affinity binding sites for integrins and various matrix components. • The tripeptide Arg-Gly-Asp ("RGD") of fibronectin is necessary and sufficient for integrin binding to fibronectin. However, surrounding amino acid sequences determine the specificity of binding of different fibronectin molecules to different integrins.
internal capsule
Most prominent white matter tract of diencephalon. it is contnuous dorsally with CORONA Radiata and ventrally with the CEREBRAL Peduncle. It contains ascending fibers from the thalamus to cortex (thalamocortical) and decending fibers from the cortex to the pontine nucleus, brainstem, and spinal cord (corticopontine, corticobulbar, corticospinal)
What dyes would you use for acidic or basic molecules? Also, what are the acidic and basic amino acids?
Hematoylin-acidic -aspartic acid (D) -glutamine acid (E) Eosin-basic -lysine (K) -arginine (R) -histadine (H)
How does the body increase O2 delivery?
Hemoglobin is found within red blood cells and contains 4 oxygen binding sites to increase carrying capacity and thereby decrease concentration of the protein to `2.3 mM.
third heart sound
IMMEDIATE VENTRICAL FILLING sudden termination of th eprapid filing phase in ventricles low amplitude, low freq heard immediately after S2 has a gallop cadence that follows the rhythm of the word KenTUCKY can be heard in some normal people, particularly those who are thin and young. soft, low pitched ventricular filling sound that occurs in the early diastole and may be an early sign of heart failure
What are the 3 specific sensors for misfolded proteins?
IRE, PERK, ATF6
How do the 3 sensors make their IRPs?
IRE-regulated mRNA splicing initates translation of TRP 1 PERK-phosphoylation inactivates translation initaion factor spawning reduction of proteins entering the ER and selective translation of TRP 2 ATF6-regulated proteolysis releases TPR 3
true breeding
If an organism has a certain characteristic that is always passed on to its offspring, we say that this organism bred true with respect to that characteristic.
ventral spinothalamic tract
Pathway from the spinal cord to the thalamus that carries information about pain and temperature.
scala tympani
Perilymph, vibration causes movement of the round window for release; hydraulic pressure caused by oval window's movement.
Principle oF Progressive Overload
Must increase demands on body to make further improvements Muscle overload: muscles must be loaded beyond normal loading for improvement Progressive training: as strength increases, resistance/repetitions must increase to further increase strength
lethal allele
Mutated genes that are capable of causing death.
How can you get glucose into the cell against its concentration? For what organ is this essential?
Na+/glucose symporter -binding is cooperative (binding of Na icrases the carrier's affinitiy for glucose) -Na gets pumped back out with Na?K which uses ATP Intestine -needs for transcellular transport
alpha block
If we become stressed, a phenomenon called "alpha blocking" may occur which involves excessive beta activity and very little alpha. Essentially the beta waves "block" out the production of alpha because we become too aroused.
efferent neuron
Nerves that carry impulses away from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. Also called motor neurons.
ependymal cells
Neuroglia in choroid plexuses; Line brain ventricles and spinal cord central canal. Specialized versions of ependymal form choroid plexuses; Secrete spinal fluid (cilia move it)
_________ are a common method to detect and localize specific proteins, as well as Western blots, and mass spectrometry.
Immunoassays
dopamine tract
Nigrotriatal trac
Is ATP synthase a apart of the electron transport chain? What is it a part of?
No it's chemiosmosis, but it and the ETC are a part of oxidative phosphorylation
Principle of Individuality (hint: 4)
Not all athletes created equal Genetics affects performance Variations in cell growth rates, metabolism, and cardiorespiratory and neuroendocrine regulation Explains high versus low responders
temporal summation
Numerous nerve impulses arriving at a synapse at closely timed intervals exert a cumulative effect
what decreases in axonal sprouting after injury
OMgp (oligodendrocyte glycoprotein)
temporal summation
Occurs when a single synapse generates EPSPs so quickly that each is generated before the previous decays. This allows the EPSPs to add up to reach a threshold voltage that triggers an action potential.
Proces of alternating tension and relations
Phase 1: Idea Purge Phase -all relevant ideas written down -repeated again after relaxation period Phase 2: Idea Trigger Phase -phase 1 ideas read -idea modification & new ideas written down -repeated until no new ideas are generated Phase 3: -all ideas are compiled & discussed -best ideas are retained & categorized
nutrient transport in liver reactions
Inlet O2 tension is typically 90 mmHg, and the liver contains approximately 100 billion hepatocytes (which are the primary O2 consumers of the organ). • The outlet O2 tension is 35 mmHg, and the blood flow rate in the liver is 3.5 L/min. • Using Fick's law, we can calculate an O2 uptake rate of 1.2 nmol/s/106 cells in vivo. • In vitro measurements of O2 uptake rate are approximately 0.4 nmol/s/106 hepatocytes, indicating that the Fick's law provided an overestimation of O2 consumption. - This makes sense since we were assuming all O2 was consumed by hepatocytes, whereas man other cell types contribute to O2 consumption. • Furthermore, O2 consumption by cultured cells may vary with culture conditions. • In order to assemble a bioreactor of 10% of the cells in the liver, one would require O2 delivery to the reactor of 12 μmol/s.
What tra
Oct4, Sac2, Klf4, c-Myc
F1 generation
Offspring of the P Generation
F2 generation
Offspring resulting from interbreeding of the hybrid F1 generation.
bowman's gland
Olfactory secretions that absorb water and form a thick, pigmented mucus are produced by:
n-linked glycosylation
Oligosaccharide linked to amide group of asparagine before modification
contralateral
On the opposite side
ipsilateral
On the same side
Describe the properties of GAG sugars?
One sugar is usually a uronic acid and the other is an amino sugar. Sugars are often sulfates. These sulfates and carboxyl group cause GAGs to carry a large negative charge, which attracts Na+ and other cations, creating a large osmotic pressure. The resulting hydration of the GAGs creates a gel, which fills the spaces between the fibrous proteins of the ECM.
Mitochondria is approx. .2 um. Can you visualize it with a light microscope?
Only with super-resolution You cannot see it with conventional light microscopy
Pupil
Opening in the center of the iris
substantia gelatinosa
Opioid transmitters are released from the periaqueductal grey then travel to this area
peptide transmitter
Opioids are an example of a... synthesized on soma, release may require more calcium
sarcoplasmic reticulum
Organelle of the muscle fiber that stores calcium.
Osmosis
Osmosis - movement of water across the membrane due to concentration gradient Hypertonicity - more salt extracellularly Hypotonicity - more salt intracellularly Loss in energy results in osmotically swollen cells (cells accumulate ions)
What do the TRPs activate?
They activate genes to increase protein-folding capacity of ER.
What happens to the misfolded proteins after they are translocted to the cytoplasm?
They are deglycosylated, tagged with ubiquitin, and destroyed in a proteasome.
How do enzymes affect energy metabolism?
They control the rate of free energy release. -speed up rxns by decreasing activation energy -many enzymes require cofactors to function
How do coat proteins help vescile fomration?
They help concentrate lumenal and transmembrane proteins to be transported. They assemble into a basket-type confomration helping curve the membrane and form a vesicle.
The activated receptor assembles intracellular protein complex(es) responsible for further transmission of signal (e.g., to Ras and/or PLC), and some enzymes bind the receptor directly, such as...
Phospholipase C (PLC), Src, GAP (GTPase activating protein).
SNARE complex
This is a cytosolic membrane protein that promotes fusion of vesicles with target membranes 1)SNAP-25 2) synaptobrevin 3) syntaxin , v-SNARE and t-SNARE proteins mediate fusion of membrane vesicles
DINITROPHENOL
This poison that can carru protons across inner membrane; uncouples the electron transport chain from the proton gradient established across the inner mitochondrial membrane. blocks atp synthesis, pump slows a highly toxic uncoupler that was once used for weightloss
TEMPS
Tissue-engineered medical products -hybrid products consisting of biological and non biological components
tetrodotoxin
Toxin: very potent sodium channel blocker; blocks action potential propagation in nerve, heart, and skeletal muscle. From puffer fish, California newt. Tox: paresthesias, paralysis
bundles of myelinated azons
Tracts
True or False? A single signal can generate both fast and slow responses.
True
True or False? Only mammals have a neocortex.
True
True or False? Phospholipids are amphipathic.
True
True or Fasle? Collagens and hyaluronic acid are connective tissues?
True
True or Fasle? Neurotransmitters can be excitatory or inhibitory.
True
True or False? Intermediate filaments are not involved in cell movement.
True they just provide support
What are the 4 types of transmembrane proteins?
Type 1-single pass (signal sequence at N terminus) Type 2-single pass C terminus in lumen (signal sequence not at N term. end) Type 3-single pass N terminus in lumen (signal sequence not at N term. end) Type-multipass
Which is recruited first? Type I or Type II?
Type I
How is the sarcoplasmic reticulum different in fiber types?
Type II have more highly developed ST->more adept at deliverin Ca2+->faster
_____ motor units generate more force than ____ because they have more fibers.
Type II, type I
How do type IIa and type IIx differ during exercise?
Type IIa -Fatigue Resistant (FR), Fast Oxidative Glycocitic (FOG) -generate most force compared to I and IIx Type IIx -Fast Fatigueable (FF), Fast Glcocytic (FG) -not easily activated by nervous system, used infrequenly in normal activity, but dominate in high explosive events
agarose gel
Type of Chromatography, used to separate nucleic acids based on size/length of chain. The media serves as the stationary phase and the nucleic acid as the mobile phase. Negatively charged nucleic acids travel toward the anode (positive end). Smaller strands travel faster than larger chains.
snRNA
Type of RNA found only in the eukaryotic nucleus that is involved in processing of initial mRNA transcription products to a mature form suitable for export from the nucleus to the cytoplasm for translation
generalized epilepsy
Type of epilepsy caused by pathology that affects the entire cortex. (grand mal and petit mal)
microglial cell
Type of neuroglial cell that phagocytizes bacterial cells and debris Cells that provide immune functions in the CNS
Which collagens are fibril-forming?
Types I, II, III, V(with type I), and VI (with type II)
Principle of Reversibility
Use it or lose it Training -> improved strength and endurance Detraining reverses gains
subunit vaccines
Use of only a portion of the pathogen and introduce it to the body; Ex: Hepatitis B
perikaryon
Used synonymously with the cell body (soma) of the neuron cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus of a neuron
If I wished to see multiple structures labeled with difference flourescent tags, how would I do it?
Using indirect immunohistochemistry you will use different primary antibodies to
synaptobrevin
V-SNARE (vesicle associated SNARE) which mediates vesicle fusion
synaptobrevin
V-SNARE (vesicle associated SNARE) which mediates vesicle fusion Botulinum and tetanus toxins are paralytics that hydrolyzes on the ___, a SNARE protein that drives membrane fusion for NT vesicle exocytosis.
VO2 max and exercise
VO2max rate (maximal O2 uptake) -poitn when O2 consumtion doesnt increase with higher intensity -beast measurement of aerobic fitness people that train can work at higher percentate of VO2 max
VNTR
Variable Number Tandem Repeats. Contains anywhere from 20 to 200 base pairs, comes from parents. ALL humans have VNTRs
VPM
Ventral trigeminothalamic pathway: location of tertiary neuron cell body Thalamic Nuclei: Trigeminothalamic and taste pathways to somatosensory cortex
generalized transduction
Virus moves from cell to cell and carries genetic info
Resting state of a neuron?
Vrest=-40 to -90 mV (normally -70 or -65 mV) relative to extracellular fluid Leaky potassium (outward): makes it mor polarized Diusional force (outward)/electrical force (inward) Sodium-potassium pump (against concentrational and electical gradients; requires ATP)
coumadin
Warfarin vitamin "K" for "Koagulation" necessary for many coagultion factors, coumadin inhibits it
spinothalmaic
Poorly localized touch, pressure, pain (main) and temperature to relex centers in the thalamus and cerebrocortex. Crossing over happens at same level injury causes contralateral defects
Which is more important and why? Power or strength?
Power Athletic performance is directly related to power. Strength is not as important when not functionally applied to the same degree. For example, two weight lifters lift the same weight but lifter 1 is able to lift the weight twice as fast as lifter 2 over the same distance. Lifter 1 has better performance.
colloid osmotic pressure (or oncotic pressure)
Pressure that tends to keep fluid in the intravascular compartment.
precentral gyrus
Primary Motor Cortex
postcentral gyrus
Primary Somatosensory Cortex
cross
Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis., Nonsister chromatids exchange DNA segments
biotransformation
Process of drug metabolism in the body that transforms a drug to a more active, equally active, or inactive metabolite Enzymes in the SER of hepatocytes Phase I reactions (oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis) convert molecules into more polar ones with different biological activity Phase II reactions - conjugation
Raphe nucleus
Produces serotonin (5-HT modulates oain
Pros and cons of pharmacokinetics
Pros of pharmacokinetics -Minimize cost and time of drug development - difficult to administer drugs avoided earlier Cons of pharmacokinetics -some "good" drugs that have undesirable pharmacokinetic properties might be excluded Example of such drugs - proteins (large, unstable, active at non-target sites): Ways to overcome current barriers is to broaden administration techniques by: -Selecting drug candidates with "acceptable" pharmacokinetic properties -Modifying drugs to improve properties -Packaging drugs into delivery systems designed for particular agents or tissue sites
____ digest incompletely folded proteins.
Proteasomes
What gives the ECM its tensile strength?
Protein fibers (mainly collagen; other types of fibers can provide elasticity)
prion disease
Protein only infection that causes misfolded proteins; Prp (alpha-helix only) is normal protein found on extracellular side of neuronal membranes, misfolded version is PrPsc (66% Beta-sheet) is insoluble, resistant to protease digestion and forms plaques; change in tertiary structure
Nerst Equation
R= 8.31 j/(mol K) T=37 C=310.15K F=96500 C/(equialent=mole/valence)
__ induction of mesencyme and ureteric bud on one another in kidney morphogenesis
RECIPROCAL
saltatory conduction
Rapid transmission of a nerve impulse along an axon, resulting from the action potential jumping from one node of Ranvier to another, skipping the myelin-sheathed regions of membrane.
The small GTP-binding protein ____ is a key target of virtually all RTK's.
Ras
What mutation causes pancreatic canger
Ras (single amino acid residue)
How is Ras activity regulated?
Ras is a monomeric GTP binding protein: - Cycles between inactive (GDP bound) and active (GTP bound) forms. - The intrinsic GTPase activity of Ras is low - stimulation of GTPase by GAP is required for inactivation. • Ras activity is: - Stimulated by GEFs (guanine exchange factors, e.g. Sos) - Inhibited by GAPs (GTPase activating proteins)
ionotropic
Receptor type. Comprise multiple protein subunits that form and ion channel in the center of the receptor complex. Theyare permeable either to cations such as Ca++, Na+, ot Cl-.
ionotropic
Receptor type. Comprise multiple protein subunits that form and ion channel in the center of the receptor complex. Theyare permeable either to cations such as Ca++, Na+, ot Cl-. Neurotransmitter binding causes a conformational change in the receptor which leads to the rapid opening of the pore in the receptor, permitting ions to flow down their electrochemical gradients.
stretch receptors
Receptors that sense muscle stretch and contraction
DNA gyrase
Relaxes supercoiling ahead of the replication fork
SINES
Repeated DNA sequences of 300 base pairs in length that are interspersed throughout the human genome. An example is the alu sequences.
Requirement vs. Design
Requirement: WHAT has to be done Design: HOW it is to be done (some overlap)
Sequence of Documents
Requirements Document->PFS->SFS(->SDS)->Test Specification->Statement of Work
basal ganlia
Responsible postural adjustments, steadying voluntary movements, enkephalin set of structures that detect inintentional movement
parasympathetic
Rest and digest
parasympathetic nervous system
Rest-and-digest feed-and-breed From CNS: slowv A subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body after action and also retains the body functioning at is normal state (homeostasis)
amacrine cells
Retinal cells found in the inner synaptic layer that make synaptic contacts with bipolar cells, ganglion cells, and one another
B-DNA
Right-handed helical structure of DNA that exists when water is abundant; the secondary structure described by Watson and Crick and probably the most common DNA structure in cells.
shunting inhibition
When an inhibitory synapse acts as an electrical shunt and prevents current from flowing through the soma to the axon hillock which is usually inward movement of negatively charged Cl- ions.
p53
______ - This tumor suppressor gene causes cell cycle arrest in G1, providing time for DNA repair. If repair is successful, cells re-enter the cycle. If unsuccessful, apoptosis
Rous Sarcoma
______ is a retrovirus that inserts itself next a cellular growth gene (i.e. oncogene) and turns it on. Caused by Src gene
Meisner
________ corpuscles are nerve endings that are sensitive to touch.
Psychomotor seizure
Seizure in which an individual goes through a brief period of inappropriate or purposeless activity. Usually lasts 2-5 minutes
What is serum?
Serum is a fraction of whole blood; plasma is the noncellular fraction of blood, while serum is the liquid that remains after plasma is allowed to clot. Serum is typically added to medium at roughly 1-20% by volume. Serum contains important growth factors, adhesion factors, minerals, lipids, and hormones. Disadvantages: large batch to batch variation, interference with detection of cell products, potential induction of aberrant differentiation, regulatory hurdles
expressivity
Severity or extent of expression of a genotype
What are the short and long mechanisms for down-regulating signals after a period of activation
Short time scale (seconds/minutes): • dephosphorylation of proteins by phosphatases • hydrolysis of GTP on GTPase switch proteins (rate of hydrolysis is accelerated by GAPs) • endocytosis of receptors from plasma membranes leading to sequestration or degradation Longer time scale (minutes/hours): • transcription of inhibitory proteins
differential-interference-contrast microscopy
Similar to Phase Contrast in its use for differences in refractive index. DIC uses 2 beams of light instead of one. DIC microscope is higher than phase-contrast d/t prisms splitting each light beam adding contrasting colors
____ fiber type is involved in endurace.
Slow (type I)
spines
Small protrusions where synapses in CNS are located
______ muscle is composed of very high percentage of type I fibers in everyone.
Soleus (b/c of walking)
What two classes of proteins can be imported into the rough ER?
Soluble & Transmembrane
safranin
Spore Stain Secondary Dye
Le Chatelier's Principle
States that if a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system shifts in the direction that relieves the stress.
alpha receptors
Stimulation results in smooth muscle excitation or contraction which causes vasoconstriction.
3rd leading cause of death in US
Stroke
paleospinothalamic
Subdivision of the anterolateral pathwa Slow, Promiscuous (poorly mapped), Dull pain -- Perceived Pain (emotional), and Deep pain
saccharide
Sugar
corona radiata
Superior to the internal capsule (fibers run to and from the cerebral cortex)
internal capsule
Surrounds basal nucle Most prominent white matter tract of diencephalon. it is contnuous dorsally with CORONA Radiata and ventrally with the CEREBRAL Peduncle. It contains ascending fibers from the thalamus to cortex (thalamocortical) and decending fibers from the cortex to the pontine nucleus, brainstem, and spinal cord (corticopontine, corticobulbar, corticospinal)
axodendritic
Synapse between axons and dendrites
Depolarization of fiber membrane spreads action potential over network of ________ to interior of cell (2), causing adjacent _____ ______ to release ___ stores into sarcoplasma (3).
T-tubules, sarcoplasmic reticulum, Ca2+
potassium tetraethyl ammonium
TEA[10] blocks autonomic ganglia - it was the first "ganglionic blocker" drug to be introduced into clinical practi TEA has long been known to block voltage-dependent K+ channels in nerve,[5][15] and it is thought that this action is involved in the effects of TEA at sympathetic nerve terminals.[14] With respect to activity at the neuromuscular junction, TEA has been found to be a competitive inhibitor at nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, although the details of its effect on these receptor proteins are complex.[16] TEA also blocks Ca2+ - activated K+ channels, such as those found in skeletal muscle[17] and pituitary cells.[18] It has also been reported that TEA inhibits aquaporin (APQ) channels,[19] but this still seems to be a disputed issue.[20]
What is the typical way an N terminus and a C terminaus signal sequence protein inserted into the ER?
The N terminius would undergo co-translational transloaction the C terminus would use sepcial comples (using ATP) to inert the protein (ex. Get 3 targets and delivers to membrane Get-1-Get-2
stroke volume
The amount of blood ejected from the heart in one contraction. SV = EDV - ESV
How do chemical influence supracellular scale
The chemical composition of biomaterials can influence the behavior of a tissue construct at larger length scales by influencing degradation, immune response, angiogenesis, and anchorage of the graft. • Tissue constructs above 100 μm require vascularization due to diffusive barriers, constructs too large for macrophage clearance may induce a foreign body response, hydrophilic coatings will impact degradation, etc
axon hillock
The conical region of a neuron's axon where it joins the cell body; typically the region where nerve signals is generated.
decussation
The crossing over of nerve fibers of a pathway from one side of the brain to the other.
nebulin
The elongated in elastic protein which assists in anchoring the thin filaments to Z line is called what, wraps around actin, stabilizes actin and regulates its length
neural muscular junction
The gap where the synaptic end vesicle gets very close to the skeletal muscle fiber
equipotentiality
The idea that one part of the cerebral cortex is essentially equal to another in its contribution to learning. The idea that memory is distributed throughout the brain rather than confined to any specific location
inner cell mass
The mass of cells in the blastocyst that ultimately give rise to the embryo and other embryonic structues (the amion, the umbilical vessels, etc.) source of human embryonic stem cells
reversal potential
The membrane potential at which there is no net movement of an ion through open ion channels.
operational mode
The multiple environments and different ways in which the system will be used. Each constitutes a different set of requirements.
catecholamines
The neurotransmitters dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine, which are active in both the brain and the peripheral sympathetic nervous system. These three molecules have certain structural similarities and are part of a larger class of neurotransmitters known as monoamines.
ploidy
The number of complete chromosome sets present. Haploid refers to a ploidy of 1; diploid refers to a ploidy of 2; triploid, a ploidy of 3; and tetraploid, a ploidy of 4
sex ratio
The number of males per 100 females in the population.
trophoblast
The outer layer of the blastocyst, which is involved in implantation, hormone secretion, membrane and placental formation, is called what?
cable properties
The passive conduction of electrical current, in a decremental fashion, down the length of an axon. characteristics that effect how far a signal will spread
active touch
The perception of shapes and textures when the objects are actively explored; such perception is better than when the objects are passed over the passive hands and fingers. Involves the interplay of motor and sensory events
chromosomal aberration
The rearrangement of genes within chromosomes or a change in the total number of chromosomes
pharmodynamics
The resultant action of drugs on living beings
G2 phase
The second growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occurs.
gene amplification
The selective synthesis of DNA, which results in multiple copies of a single gene, thereby enhancing expression.
Y chromosome
The sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.
conduction velocity
The speed at which an action potential is propagated along the length of an axon (or section of peripheral nerve).
Holliday structure
The structure that forms during the intermediate stage of crossing over where a branch migration occurs and generates unique gametes. A key intermediate of recombination.
spacial summation
The summation of graded potentials from several sources in order to achieve threshold activation of an action potential
scala vestibuli
The superior chamber of the cochlea. Recieves sounds and is filled with Perilymph.
S phase
The synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.
periaqueductal gray
The tegmental gray matter that is located around the cerebral aqueduct; it plays a role in the suppression of pain and in defensive behavior.
bohr effect
The tendency of certain factors to stablize the hemoglobin in the tense conformation, thus reducing its affinity for oxygen and enhancing the relase of oxygen to the tissues. The factors include increased PCO2, increase temperature, increased bisphosphoglycerate (BPG), and decreased pH. Note that the Bohr effect shifts the oxy-hemolobin saturation curve to the right.
nerve tracts
White matter of the CNS that forms conduction pathways. Each funiculus consists of longitudinal bundles of myelinated nerve fibers that comprise major nerve pathways called what?
inductive coupling
Wire in the vicinity of another wire also carrying electrical current or signal; Magnetic field they produce interact resulting in noise voltage being induced in the wires; Prevented with cable shielding Resonant inductive coupling trasnmits electrical singals in response to noise used in cochlear implants
partial diploids
With rare exceptions, after gene transfer occurs through conjugation or transduction in bacteria, the recipient cells become
protenor
XX/XO a butterfly, mode of sex determination: based on how many copies of the X chromosome, two copies indicates female, one copy indicates male
Can you use a light microscope to visualize bacterium?
Yes
Can vessels alter their resistance?
Yes (series, parallel, etc)
Can proteins be drugs?
Yes, ex. human insulin, erythropeitin
Lipinski's Rule of 5
Yes, even non-oral routes need to adhere to the rule of five - 98% accuracy!
Does B-oxidation require oxygen?
Yes, it requires more than glucose because FFAs have more carbons which also means more acetyl CoA is formed which is why it also produces more energy
Trimeric G-proteins are classified by their _-subunits
alpha (a)
Phenoxybenzamine inhibits ___ ut not ___ receptors.
alpha, beta
The role of failure in engineering design?
always be willing to learn from mistakes
Where does the energy in proteins come from?
amino acids (used in glugoneogenesis) -catabolizing produces nitrogen->converts to urea (requires energy) some proteins can convert to glucose (gluconeogenesis) some converted into intermediates of oxidative metabolism (ex. pyruvate) lab COMBUSTION->5.65 kcal metabolized protein yield->4.1 kcal (same as carb)
total body water is directly related to....
amount of sodium
cholesterol
amphipathic molecule found in some membranes -polar head, rigid steroid ring structure, nonpolar ydrocarbon tail
use of liposomes to enhance solubility
amphiphilic molecules can be used to form hydrophobic and hydrophilic compartments, architecture is determined from relative size of hydrophobic to hydrophilic region
F' factor
an F factor that has incorporated part of the bacterial genome
mitogen
an agent that triggers mitosis
optic tectum
an area of the fish brain that receives and processes information from the fish's visual, auditory, and lateral line systems
sex-influenced
an autosomal trait that is influenced by the presence of male or female sex hormones
transmission EM
an electron beam is aimed at a specimen; electron-dense areas scatter more electrons so fewer can pass through, so dense areas appear darker resolution=10A or .1 nm antibodies tagged with heavy meatals (ex. gold) id specific proteins or structures in TEM
transmission electron microscope
an electron microscope that transmits a beam through a specimen, detecting its electrons and forming a highly magnified image on a screen
novel phenotype
an example of epistasis, comb on the head of chirckens governed by 2 interacting genes that indep. produce "rose" or "pea" combs, but together they produce something completely different, a "walnut"
cell-mediated immunity
an immune response in which killer T cells attack antigen-bearing cells directly
engineering
an innovative and methodical application of scientific knowledge and technology to produce a device, system or process, which is intended ot satisfy human needs
coenzyme
an organic cofactor required for enzyme activity
cells that can grow without attachment
anchorage independent
syntaxin
anchored to cell membrane, t-SNARE
actin-linked cell-matrix junction
anchors actin filaments in cell to ECM some intracellular adaptors: vinculin, FAKm pazillin, kindlin, talin
hemidesmosome
anchors intermediate filaments in cell to ECM -transmembrane: a, B integrin and type XVII collagen -intracellular adaptors: plectin, BPR230 Attaches a cell to extracellular filaments in the basal lamina. This attachment helps stabilize the position of the epithelial cell and anchors it to underlying tissues.
How do you eliminate maternal QRS in fetal EKG?
anitcoincidence detectors
cargo receptors
are transmembrane proteins specific fo rcytosolic molecules
ring scotoma
area of blindness formed between last refracted ray & first unrefracted ray at the edge of aphakic lens
lipid rafts
areas of wider membrane -attracte transmembrane proteins with longer hydrophobic transmembrane domains -important for cell signaling -tend to have more cholesteral, saturate hydrocarbons, longer chains, glycolipids
fragile site
areas on chromosome that develop distinctive breaks or gaps when cells are cultures. No relationship to disease (except fragile X)
semilunar valves
arotic valve (left), pulmonary right
Hemostasis
arrest of bleeding when blood vessel integrity is compromised
resistance of blood flow is regulated by ___.
arterioles
How long can contraction last?
as long as Ca2+ is available or as long as actin and myosin have room to slide
In an ENG the sensory fiber is ___ and the motor fiber is ___. (ascending? decending?
ascending, descending 1st responce: nerve activation 2nd potential: spiral reflex
mono-ubiquitylation
associated with endocytosis and histone regulation (gene expression)
polyubiquitylation
associated with proteosomal degradation and DNA repair
signal peptidase
associated with the luminal ER membrane, cuts some, but not all, signal sequences (usually case, but of course there are exceptions)
amphipathic a-helic
associates with both the hydrophobic lipid bilayer and the cytosol (not transmembrane, it's membrnae associated only) -have amino acids with hydrophobic side chains on one side and hydrophilic on the other
which parto f vesicle fusion is atp dependent and which is ca depend
atp-priming ca-fusion
Proteins anchored to the membrane by lipid linkages
attach to cytosol by -fatty acid chains (ic) -prenyl groups (yl) linked to exoplasm facy by -glycophosphatidylinositol anchors
basil lamina
attached to the basil surface of the epithelial tissue
Dimerization and contact between cytoplasmic tails of each recptor reults in _____________
autophosphylation of several tyrosine residues in intracellular domain. (which is really "trans"- phosphorylation, as each molecule phosphorylates the other)
Amount of carbs used relate to _______ and how well develped the muscle's carb _____ is.
availability, metabolism
propioception
awareness of posture, movement, and changes in equilibrium and knowledge of position, weight, and resistance of objects in relation to the body
AAP
axon action potential >1000Hz
synaptic knobs
axon terminals
Isokinetic training ensures that a. resistance remains constant b. angular velocity remains constant c. joint angle remains constant d. number of reps and sets remains constant
b. angular velocity remains constant
Static-contraction resistance training is most effective for a. building maximal anaerobic power b. building strength during rehabilitation c. building muscular power d. building aerobic endurance
b. building strength during rehabilitation
Static-contraction resistance training may be best suited for a. increasing power b. injury recovery c. hypertrophy d. muscular endurance
b. injury recovery
Compared to someone who can squat 75 kg, someone else who can squat 150 kg has a. twice the power b. twice the strength c. twice the muscular endurance d. twice the 5-repetition maximum
b. twice the strength
vasoconstiction and ___ ___ reduces bleeding
back pressure how fast the back pressure builds up depends on the compliance of the tissues in external wound no back pressure occurs -must rely on vasoconstriction -release thromboxan A2 (TXA2) and serotonin to cause vasoconstiction -thrombin elicits TXA2 and serotonin release
Intermediate filaments are found in all animals but not in___ or ___. Unlike microfilaments and microtubules, subunits don't bind ___ or __.
bacteria or fungi ATP or GTP
Culture contaminants to look out for?
bacteria, yeas, fungi, mycoplasma and viral detction (presence suspected with unexpected behavior)
in vitro wound healing assays
basal lamina is adhered to a well, cells are attached in a confluent layer and then gently scrapped off and rinsed, migration into wound is observed over time
sarcomere
basic functional contractile unit of muscle
The dermis and epidermis are seperated by the ____. The dermis is mad of mostly ___ while the epidermis is composed of differntiating ___.
basil lamina, fibroblasts, keratinocytes complete turnover every few weeks
Why would you choose analog over digital?
because it is better for fast-changing data
Why would you choose digital over analog?
because it is more accurate
heterotrimeric
being a macromolecule composed of three subunits of which at least one differs from the other two <heterotrimeric G proteins>
sympathetic vs. parasympathetic
belong to autonomic sympathetic->arousal, norepinephrine parasympathetic->calming, acetyl choline
autonomic vs. somatic
belong to efferent system autonomic->communicates with internal organs and glands (involuntary) somatic->communicates with sense organs and voluntary muscles (voluntary)
propanolol inhibits ___ but not __ receptors
beta, alpha
WILSON'S CENTRAL TERMINAL
between left hook ups -If you connect all the leads bipolar limb leads, this approximates the voltage at the center of the triangl
satelite cells
between plasmalemma and basement membrane (sarcolemma=plasmalemma+basement membrane) -involved in growth and development of skeletal muscle and muscle adaption to injury, immobilization, and training
overdamped
big time delay, small ampitude attenuation, caused by air bubbles or blood clots
In the cytosol how do chaperones help folding?
bind to hydrophobic regions of proteins normally exposed->ATP hydrolysis->conformational change
dystoglycan
binds ECM glycoprotein (laminin) and also binds proteoglycin (agrin)
vinculin
binds actin directl
phalloidin
binds actin filaments and prevents depolymerization
latrunculin
binds actin monomers, inhibits polymerizain
adaptin
binds clathrin and cargo receptors (an adaptor protein)
S-CdK
binds cyclin at start of S phase
signal recognition particles
binds to the signal sequence and the ribosomal subunits and transports the complex to the ER
reduction
bingin electons (current right-to-left) both ox and red are reversible reactions
How does blood plasma seal a leak?
blood plasma contians fibrinogen...its conversiton to insoluble fibrin then cross-linking fibrin produces a meshwork of filaments that comprises a blood clot clot called thrombus
afterload
blood pressure
What light excites and is emitted by the dyes flourescein and rhodamine?
blue excites->flourescein->emits green green-yellow excites->rhodamine->emits red
_____ is the most proliferative tissue.
bone marrow
What are the top 3 most prolific tissues in order of highest first.
bone marrow inestinal lining epidermis
good sources of stem cells
bone marrow (hematopeietic an mesyncheymal adipose (mesenchymal) cord blood (unrestricted somatic )
similarities between beta and alpha
both coupled ot G protein recetors
Which somatic system division can cause vasoconstriction?
both sympathetic (excitatory) and parasympathetic (rest)
CNS
brain and spinal cord
pharmocokinetics
branch of pharmacology dedicated to the determination of the fate of substances administered externally to a living organism The fate of a drug from administration to complete elimination from the body. How the body affects a specific drug after administration through the mechanisms of absorption and distribution, as well as the chemical changes of the substance in the body, and the effects and routes of excretion of the metabolites of the drug. Pharmacokinetic properties of drugs may be affected by elements such as the site of administration and the dose of administered drug.
How do scientest study the ER?
break up ER->form liposomes->separate-> -rough ER has ribsome, sec61, and SRP associated ith them (mainly just look at ribosomes -smooth ER doesn't have ribsomes associated ->scientist studied the microsomes to figure out cotranslational transloaction
bubble vs bubble free catheter sensor
bubble-free -Cc of diaphrm is larger than that of the catheter or sensor cavirty -Rc and Lc af the catheter are larger than the sensor bubble -makes the system more compiant assuming the bubble is at the distal end -Lc and Rc are negligible Ct=Cd+Cb
How do vesciles emerge from an organelle or plasma membrane?
budding
sleep spindles
burst of alpha during moderately deep sleep
Where is the typical cytosolic protein translated?
by a ribosome in the cytosol
Which intracellular change likely contributes the MOST to increases in fiber size, cross-sectional area, and strength? a. more sarcoplasm b. more mitochondria c. more actin and myosin filaments d. more connective tissue
c. more actin and myosin filaments
A low responder is someone who a. has a lower maximal anaerobic power than normal b. cannot increase power c. experiences little or no change after a change in training regimen d. loses little or no strength or exercise capacity after detraining
c. experiences little or no change after a change in training regimen
Muscular endurance as an aspect of strength could be assessed by a. running on a treadmill b. 1RM c. number of repetitions completed at 75% 1RM d. vertical jump
c. number of repetitions completed at 75% 1RM
For sprint training, the most practical way to set the intensity of an interval is to a. select a given distance b. use a fixed percentage of maximal heart rate c. set a specific duration for a given distance d. sprint for a given duration
c. set a specific duration for a given distance
Calcium fatigue
caffine causes calcium release from SR calcium release from SR decreases with fatigue...caffine can help rescue this calcium released decreased by Pi
the cell-cell connection equivalent of ECM attachment integrins is...
caherins a, B, p120, desmoglein, desmocolin
therapeutic index
calculated by dividing the 50% value on the toxicity curve by the 50% value of the efficacy curve
WBCs include
called leukocytes include [neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils], *monocytes, lymphocytes*, and platelets [grnaular leukocytes]-named for granules in cytoplams *agranular leukocytes*-lack cytoplasmic granules
green flourescent protien
can be added to other proteins to create a fusion protein it's coded by s single gene that gets cloned and incorporated it becomes fluorescent under catalyzed post-translational modification to produce a fluorochrome (shine blue to illuminate) can be used to see organelles in living state and monitor gene expression
differentiation
can be measured by ultrastructural and biochemical changes, immunhistochemistry, DNA content changes (rtPCR)
cell proliferation
can be quantified by cell number assays
Isokinetic dynamometer
can be used to generate force-velocity relationship in order to calculate velocity from distance and angular velocity it is able to compute power from F*v
heteroduplex
a DNA double helix composed of single strands from two different DNA molecules
How can you visual in vivo tissues?
a basal lamina (laminin, collagen, etc.) is adhered to a well, cells are attached in a confluent layer and then gently scraped off and rinsed, migration into "wound" is observed over time.
after the 1st passage the culture become...
a cell line
sex-limited
a characteristic controlled by autosomal genes that is phenotypically exhibited in only one of the two sexes.
dicentric chromosome
a chromosome with two centromeres caused by a terminal break
deconvolution
a computer-based method for subtracting out-of-focus light from a series of fluorescent micrographs to yield a sharper three-dimensional picture
heteroduplex
a construct that forms during genetic recombination where one strand from one parent is base paired to the complementary strand of the other parent, a double-stranded region of DNA that contains one or more base mismatches
What makes fetal wound healing unique from adult healing besides its efficiency
a ct via contraction of epideral actin pers-string minimal inflammation, low penetration, basketweave collagen, ECM is initalliy collagen II and HA instead of fibronectin
metric
a design goal that can be measured -used to determine how close a solution is to the specification
primary explant culture
a fragment of tissue is placed at a liquid-solid interface where, following attachment, outgrowth and migration of cells occurs in the plane of the solid substrate.
What is the fundamental limitation of all microscopes?
a given type of radiation cannot be used to probe structural details much smaller than its own wavelength
proteoglycan
a glycoprotein consisting of a small core protein with many carbohydrate chains attached, found in the extracellular matrix of animal cells.
EEG can diagnose epilepsey which is ...
a group of neurological disorderes characerized by eplieptic seizures, which can vary form brief and nearly undetecatble to long periods of vigorous shaking (excessive activity)
nissl stain
a histological stain that outlines all cell bodies because the dyes are attracted to RNA, which encircles the nucleus A class of basic dyes that stain the somata of neurons; named for its discoverer, German histologist Franz Nissl (1860-1919).
epitope
a localized region on the surface of an antigen that is chemically recognized by antibodies; also called antigenic determinant
metal-plate electrodes
a metallic conductor (in contact with the skin) + an electrolyte soake pad or gel -requires staps or adhesives
coincidence detection
a method for simultaneously detecting two signals at the same time
interrupted mating
a method used in conjugation experiments in which the length of time that the bacteria spend conjugating is stopped by a blender treatment or other type of harsh agitation
auxotroph
a microorganism that requires an organic growth factor
tau protein
a microtubular protein that when present in an abnormal form is associated with pathologic findings of Alzheimer's disease A protein that normally serves as a component of microtubules, which provide the cell's transport mechanism and cytoskeleton. (pg. 544)
experimental allergic encephalitis
a model of multiple sclerosis that can be induced in laboratory animals by injecting them with myelin and a preparation that stimulates the immune system. EAE-such a disorder used to happen with rabie svaccination when virus was grown in brain
motor unit
a motor neuron, and thte skeletal muscle fiber innervated by the motor neuron's axonal terminals
trophic effect
a motor unit excerts a trophic effect on muscles, so that without motor unit a muscle will degrade.
neutral mutation
a mutation that has little or no effect on the function of the encoded protein
auxin
a plant hormone that promotes root formation and bud growth (targets genes that inhibit differentiation are inactivated so that differentiation proceds
gamma globulin
a plasma protein containing the immunoglobulins that are responsible for immune responses
nuclear transfer
a process in which the nucleus of one cell is transferred into another cell whose nucleus has been removed
function
a process performed by part of a design/part of design that performs part of the solution -the sum of functions create a whole product -described by noun/verb pairs
What makes a product live or die?
a product lives or dies based on its ease-of-use -many products serve a useful functions but are never used because of a poorly designed human-machine interface
superconductivity
a property of a material that has infinite conductivity at very low temperatures, so that charge flows through it without resistance The phenomenon whereby a flowing electric current does not experience any electrical resistance.
TDF
a protein encoded by the SRY gene on the Y chromosome that turns the primordial gonads into testes, testes determining factor
v-snare
a protein incorporated into a vesicle membrane during vesicle formation that is recognized by a t-snare in a target membrane
quality
a quality product is required to meet the customer needs (id segments of a population with similar needs, target marketing) not what is put in, but what the customer get out and is willing to pay
Electoretinogram (ERG)
a recording of the bioelectric potential,t eh summed activity of the retinal cells located at the bac of teh eye, when stimulated by light may different types, inclueding contagt lens electrodes (Ag/AgCl electrodes) a single stiumulus triggers a group of responses
The hydrated gel of proteoglycans and GAGs enables the matrix to resist compressive forces. It also provides...
a route of diffusion for metabolites and migrating cells
coagulation cascade
a series of enzymatic conversions that turn inactive proenzymes into enzymes and culminate in the formation of thrombin
oligonucleotide
a short DNA fragment that can be synthesized by a machine, are short sequences of nucleotides (RNA or DNA), typically with twenty or fewer bases.
How do you read ERG?
a wave: receptor potential b wave: bipolar ang ganglion cells c wave: not form retina, but pigment epithelial layers d wave: offset occur in that order
Types of electrode arrays
a) 1D plunge electrode (Ag/AgCl on a thin-film plate insulation oxide layer) b) 2D electrode array, ex soc electrodes for hear surface recording C) 3D electrode array using silicon microfabrication technique
motor unit
a-motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates
If the rate of oxidative production of ATP is low, then a. aerobic power is low b. aerobic power is high c. anaerobic power is low d. anaerobic power is high
a. aerobic power is low
Who has the most power? a. athlete A (bench presses 100 kg over 0.6 m in 0.5 s) b. athlete B (bench presses 150 kg over 0.6 m in 1.0 s) c. athlete C (bench presses 200 kg over 0.6 m in 2.0 s) d. athlete D (bench presses 250 kg over 0.6 m in 2.5 s)
a. athlete A (bench presses 100 kg over 0.6 m in 0.5 s) P=f*d/t
As muscles become stronger, what is required in order to continue gaining strength? a. higher resistance and/or greater number of sets b. lower intensity c. decreased overload d. continuation of the same training program
a. higher resistance and/or greater number of sets
Who would be most likely to have similar responses to a given training program? a. identical twins b. 2 150 lb 5-foot-10-inch athletes c. 2 female swimmers d. 2 elite 10K runners
a. identical twins
Maximal anaerobic capacity would involve a. maximal ATP production from PCr, glycolysis, and the adenylate kinase reaction (2ADP-->ATP+AMP) b. maximal ATP production from oxygen-dependent pathways c. maximal ATP production from NADH d. maximal ATP production in the mitochondria
a. maximal ATP production from PCr, glycolysis, and the adenylate kinase reaction (2ADP-->ATP+AMP)
competence
ability of responder to respond to signals (necessary for induction)
endurance
ability to repeatedly develop or sustain submaximal forces or to do both capacity to perform repeated muscle contractions (or sustain a single contraction over time) (submaximual muscle indurance)-># of repetitions at given % 1RM
MW of allowed gap junction passage
about 1000 or less 1.5 nm channel diam 6 form a hemichanel that can be homo or hetero
When do motor units reach their peak power?
about 20% for all motor types
flourescence
absorbing light at one wavelength and emitting light at another (higher) wavelength
permibility
accessible pore volume
polarization potential
accumulation or disspinsatin of charges at the interference
Ion-channel-coupled receptors are ____ receptors. An example of a ligand for this is _____.
acetylcholine
_____ released neurotransmitters from the a-motor unit bind to _______ receptors. (1) If enough signal the ___ channels open and enter, depolarizing muscle fiber. (2)
acetylcholine, plasmalemma, Na+
aggregation of platelets results in
activation of mysoin light chain kinase within platelets which changes the shape and aggregation of plateletis to form a plug
How do move somehting across its concentration gradiaent?
active transport, need energy (couple to energetically favorable rxn such at ATP hydrolisis)
Perfusion seeding
actively perfusing a cell solution through the pores of a 3D scaffold can result in a more efficient seeding with uniform distributions
rate-limiting enzyme
activity determined by accumulation of substances further down the pathway that decrease enzyme activity through negative feedback
proteins that function as docking sites for the binding of other proteins
adaptor proteins and scaffolding proteins
How does collagen hydrogels respond to added cells.
added cells will result in contraction of teh hydrocel increasing ECM conc or the presence of TIMPs will reduce the rate of contraction
N-linked glycoslation is the...
additon of carbohydrates to proeins added to the NH2 on the side chain of asparagine, which iswhy it is N-linked.
APC
adds ubiq to M-phase cyclins and other proteins
SCF
adds ubiqutin to G1/S and CKIs that limit entry to S phase necessary ligase for g1->s trnasition
metabolic vasodilators
adenosine, K+, H+, ATP release from RBS, NO from endothelium NO
cell-cell anchoring junctions
adheren junctions & desmosome
Which junction acts with mysoin to develope new tissues like neural tube?
adherens...they have actingilamens bound tot he catenin via vinculin
name 5 cellular fate processes
adhesion apoptosis motility diffentiation replication
Drug effectiveness can be modulated by drug _________-optimal drug formulations of delivery systems
administration
An example of a G-protein-coupled receptor ligand is ____.
adrenaline
catecholamines
adrenaline, noradrenaline, dopamine with roles as hormones and neurotranmitters, leads to problems like hypertension and other diseases
Rank cells types based on their growth rates in culture. (doubling time)
adult hepatocytes=inf adult chondrocytes=24-48 hrs dermal fibroblasts=15 hrs hematopoietic progenitors=11-12 hr adult cariomyoctes-don't grow in culture
transient hypertrophy
after exercise bout -due to edema -disperas wihtin hours
hemoglobin and oxygen consumption
after exercise excess oxygen consumption myoglobin striped of oxygen during exercies-hemo/myoglobin reloding of myoglobin requires some omore oxygen
product definition process
after identifying the need, what does the team do next? -consumer wants, design feasibility
annotating with data flow and specification
after making tasks, you need to look at constraints, specification, and flow to ensure you have sufficient information to complete your design annotations need to be enough to know what to expect for the inputs and outputs
relative refractory period
after refractory the Na+ channels are no longer inactive, they are close and able to respond to and impulse but the voltage-gated K+ channels are still open->impulse has higher threshold for triggering an action potential
When do newly synthesized membrane proteins fold and achieve their final conformations?
after release from sec61, the tranlocator protein pore
brachium pontis
aka middle cerebellar peduncle transmits information from the cerebrum to the cerebellum
MAPKKK
aka RAF
basement membrane
aka basil lamina Layer between epithelium and underlying connective tissue composed of collagen IV, laminin, and heparansulfate
microsatellite
aka: Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs) - Polymorphic loci present in nuclear DNA and organellar DNA that consist of repeating units of 1-4 base pairs in length. They are typically neutral, co-dominant and are used as molecular markers which have wide-ranging applications in the field of genetics, including kinship and population studies
desynchronization
alert, excited aka alpha block their sleep/ wake rhythms go to hel Can occur due to jet lag, stress, and shift work.
metabolism
all of the chemical reaction in the body collectively
colume conductor
all other fibers in the same muslce active.inactive, blood vescles, connective tissue
new targets
all those targets that are not "established targets" but which ahve been or are the subject of drug discovery capaigns
neospinothalamic
allows for perception of different shades of pain and permits localization.
cytoskeleton of erthrocytes
allows it to maintain cell shape and fit through capilaries smaller than RBC diameter
multifocal ERG (mfERG)
allows local ERG responses to be recorded simultaneously from many regions of the retina 61 or 103 foacl ERG responses can be recorded form the cone-driven retina within minutes
gap junction
allows passage of small water-soluble molecules from cell to cell
How can FFAs travel in the body?
can enter blood stream then the muscle via simple diffusion or transport mediated diffusion (FFA entry into muscles depends on concentration gradient)
pluripotent
can form all 3 germ layers
Stirred-flask bioreactors
can improve the seeding process, particularly for thin and high porosity scaffolds. Less efficient with thick or low porosity scaffolds, and can result in low seeding efficiencies and nonuniform cell distributions.
`oligopotenet
can produce 2 or more types ( nueral stem cells)
totipotent
can produce entire organism
unipotent
can produce one type
Graft-versus-Host disease
can result from transplanted bone marrow that contains immunocompetent cells
square wave leads to exponential curve because of...
capacitance
Neruone are like a leaky ___.
capacitor
Nutrients are exchanged in the ____.
capillarie
Cytochalasin
caps+ ends of filaments (cause depolymerization)
How do energy stores change with increase in bmi?
carb stores don't, but fat stores increase
glycolipids
carbohydrates covalently bonded to lipids
What does the N mean in N-lined glycosylation?
carbohydrates that get transfered from dolicaol are linke to asparagines (has amino group->n-linked glycosylation (not n-terminus)) on the lumenal side of the membrane
glycoaminoglycans
carbohydrates to which other sugars and amino acids are attached
What are the 3 basic food (energy substrates)?
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
Energy substrates are composed primarily of....
carbon hydrogen oxygen nitrogen (weak bonds hold them together->little energy when broken)
What energy substrate is used during intense, short duration activity?
carbs
What energy substrate is used during less intense activity?
carbs and fat
How does eating carbs affect creatine uptake?
carbs->increase blood glucose levels->insulin levels increase->increases creatine uptake by muscle insulin increases creatine storage (suggest movement of transporters to the membrane) (amino acids activate some insulin signaling pathways)
digitalis
cardiac glycoside, in heart cells blocks the Na+ pump which slows Ca2+/Na+ exchanger...increasing Ca2+ for stronger heart contractility
scramblases
catalyze flipping of phospholipid molecules to the lumenal side of the ER membrane
cell-matrix anchoring junctions
catin-linked cell-matrix junction and hemidesmosome
How does aldosterone respond to a decrease in blood volume?
cause sodium retention increase Na+->increase water retention via osmosis
motion artifact
caused by movements at ithe interafec of the electrode and the electrolyte minimla for nonpolarizable electrodes
trinucleotide repeat
caused by slippage during replication. Leads to Huntington's disease., 3 nucleotides in tandem repeats with an abnormaly large number of insertion and causes diseases.
loss-of-function mutation
causes a complete or partial loss of function
flourescence microscopy
cell are illuminate by light at the absorbing wavelength and are viewed through filters that let emitting wavelength through
soma
cell body
F- cell
cell during conjugation that is the recipient of genetic plasmid
primary cultures
cells obtained directly from animal tissue
zigmond cchamber
cells on a coverslip are separated by a chemoattractant by a 3-10 micron bridge
Boyden filter trasmigration assay
cells separated from chemoattractant by porous filter
A tissue is a collection of ___ and __ that performs a given function.
cells, ECM
basal ganglia
cerebral white matter -clusters of cell bodes deep in cerebral cortex -help initiate sustained or repetitive movements (ex. walking, running, posture, muscle tone)
types of passice transport
channel mediated and transportermediated
hsp70
chaperon that binds hydrophobic rich regions of unfolded polypeptides, preventing aggregation called BIP, present in ER lumen
Folding of proteins during post-transltaional modifications in the ER lumen with the help of ______.
chaperone proteins
apoptosis
characterized by DNA fragmentation and assesment of those labeled with fluorescent nucleotides
residence-time distribution
characterizes non-uniformity in flow single residence time refers to the time it takes a molecule to travel through the bioreactor If there is no mixing in the system, and all residence times are equal, we have what is known as plug flow. If the bioreactor is perfectly mixed, then the outletconcentration curve is an exponential decay
how is a cycle regulated
checkpoints before entering the next phase
contrast chemical and electrical synapses
chemical -a lot more -unidirectional -selective (specific post-synaptic receptors) electrical -many fewer -bidirectional -non-selective
different types of synapses
chemical -terminal bouton -enpassant -on dendritic spine electical -bi directional chemical synapse (2 release points) -gap junctions (have connexin as bridge)
Desmoteplase
chemical in saliva of vampire bats with anitcoagulant properties (blood doesn't clot or become more solid breaks fibrin like TPA but is more potent and selective
What are the groups of the phospholipid's head?
choline-phophate-glycerole-tail
What are clinically relevent numbers of cells?
chondrocyte-10s of millions lypmphocyte therapies-500 million skin patch-10s of millions liver support-10 billion BMT-several billion
4 ventricals of head
choroid plexus, cerebellum (4th), arachnoid villi, lateral ves
sex chromsome
chromosome that determines the sex of an organism
funcation overlaod
chronic -metabolic stress & c2_ signaling resistance -mTOR
What are the 3 different coat proteins?
clatrin, COPI, and COPII
tight junction proteins
claudin occludin
single-pass "type 1" transmembrane protein
clipped signal sequence and stop-transfer sequence (hydrophobic stretch of amino acids) reaches the translocator opens up and releases it to the membrane
first heart sound
closing of AV valves occurs during contraction of the ventricles (systole) and is made by closure of the atrioventricular valves and the opening of the semilunar valves. This is the LUBB of lubb-dupp
Ca2+ plays many important roled in signaling as a ____ for proteins and enzymes.
cofactor (e.g. binding cytoskeletal proteins that trigger muscle contraction, or to specific SNARE proteins to trigger neurotransmitter secretion)
What is the most abundant protein in vertebrates?
collagen
Components of ECM
collagen elastin proteoglycans (interactions, prolifieration, cell migration) laminin (cell migration) fibronectin (structure, interactions, migration, opsonin) fibrinogen (proliferation, migration, meostastsi)
Connective tissues typically contain...
collagen I, fibronectin, elasin, and glycosaminoglycan
porosity
collection of pores
swelling/gelling hydrogel system
combination of layers, each with different rates of selling, gelling and erosion, controls teh drug release rate within the body
interval-circuit training
combines interval and continuous training into one; benefits almost any type of athlete; provides diversity to what could be a monotonous training program
What doe the presence of auxin do?
combinse with recptor which compine with ubiquitin ligase that then breaks douwn the protein and causes ubiquitylation....or combines and then activates ARF to transcribe aux target genes
High-throughput screening (HTS)
common way leads are found, 1000s of compounds tested against target using robotics & computations General flowchart of high-throughput methodology to screen small molecule libraries for inhibitors of host-pathogen interactions.
globus pallidus
component of the basal ganglia that connects to the thalamus which relays information to the motor areas and the prefrontal cortex
What can influence membrane fluidity?
composition and temperature -unsaturate chains are more fluid -short chains more fluid -more fluid at high temps
Dunn chemotaxis chamber
concentric cylinders contain cells and chemoattractant
What are the 3 types of muscle contraction?
concentric, static, and eccentric
purpose of biomaterial for TE
conduct induce or block tissue responses
Morphology is influenced by the _______, or density, of the culture
confluence
ECM varies from tissue to tissue, but gennerlly have ___ tissu and __ membrane.
connective, basement
adherens junction
connects actin filament bundle in one cell with that in the next -cadherins: transmembrane adhesion protein -p120, a and B catenin: intracellular adaptor proteins cell junctions in epithelium that reinforces tight junctions (common name)
desmosome
connects intermediate filaents in one cell to those in the next cell -desmoglein and desmocolin, nonclassical cadherins -plankoglobin, plophilin, demoplakin Anchoring junctions found in areas subjected to pulling forces
tonic response
constant feedback, always aware of stimulus
osmotic capsule
constant rate of water diffusion into the capsule, forcing an equal volume of drug solution out of the capsule through a hole
arachnoid
contains cerebrospinal fluid that bathes the entire CNS, and has the capillaries for blood supply
white thrombus
contains only platelets
The ECM is composed of proteins and ______ secreted by local cells.
polysaccharides
__________ targets a protein for degradation in the proteasome.
polyubiquitylation
pontine rectospinal tract
pons, extensor motor, excitatory
What does it mean if a blood panel shows high Cr levels?
poor kidney function (kidneys clear Cr)
intracellular glass
pot across cell memebrane 50 to 1-- mV. very high source impedence....a large shunting capactivan needs amps with high input imped
develop module layouts
preliminary layouts
Merkel disc
pressure texture discrimination two-point discrimination
terminal bouton
presynaptic ending bulge at the end of an axon from which the axon releases a chemical called a neurotransmitter
search for solution principles
principle solution
product law
probability of two independent random events both occurring is the product of the individual probabilities of the event
lipogenesis
process of converting protein or carbs into fatty acids
X chromosome inactivation
process that occurs in female mammals in which one of the X chromosomes is randomly turned off in each cell
gluconeogensis
process where protein or fat is converted into glucose
rate coding
process where tension of a motor unit can vary from a twitch to tetanus by frequency of stimulation
tissue sorting
process where two tissues incade or envelop one another
erythropoietin (EPO)
produced by the kidney; stimulates bone marrow (precurser cells) to produce (differentiate) RBC
semisterility
production of unbalanced gametes in meiosis because an organism that is heterozygous for a reciprocal translocation usually produces half as many offspring as normal
prepare production instructions
production plan
tetanus
prolonged contraction of muscle caused by repeated stimuli (that is summed)
renin-angiotensin-aldosterone
prolonged exercise without fluid replacement->dehydration->low BP->kidneys secret renin->liver secreted angiiotensinogen converted to angiotensen 1->angiotensen converting enzyme in lungs then converts to ang. 2 (also vasoconstrictor)->stimulates adrenal cortex to release aldosterone->stimulates sodium reabsorption->decrease in urine volume
_____ binding of drugs can increase their stability (enhancing solubility by non-covalent modifications)
protective in plasma -ex. binding BSA, influences their biodistribution (ex. pacliaxel) in ECM -bFGF binds to Heparin in fat tissue -lipophilic drugs accumulate (slow release reservoirs)
adipokines
protein hormones made and released by adipose tissue (fat) cells ex. leptin->hypothalymus Ob-r receptor->satiety
plakoglobin
protein in desmosome plaque that is relatively small and interacts directly with adhesion proteins
What causes cystic fibrosis?
protein misfolding results from the loss of the CFTR genes (CF transmembrane conductance regulator) -most commonly because of deletion oif F508, it don't render the protein non-functional; instead it makes CFTR recognized as misfolded so it can't go from the ER to the plasma membrane
synaptotagmin
protein present in wall of synaptic vesicle that binds calcium and helps stimulate the process of exocytosis
myostatin
protein that signals muscles when to stop growing, suppresses muscle mass a mutation in this could stop this an d lead to increase in muscle mass
The majority of targets currently selected for drug discovery efforts are ____.
proteins
What is used to amplify signals in an intracellular signal cascade?
proteins and/or chemicals
Functions studied by immunoassays?
proteins synthesis, DNA synthesis, metabolic activity, signal transducion
How does fluorescence recover after photobleaching?
protieins diffuse
ressitance trianing increase ...
protien synthesis
brainstem reticular activating system (RAS)
provides the pacemaker mechanism
cortical pyramidal cell
pyramidal set of dendrites that receive information from many layers of the cortex, and sending it to another region of the cortex or down to the brain stem or spinal cord (high integration).
In glycolysis, where do the H+ come from?
pyruvate->acetyl CoA (oxidation of pyruvate) glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate->1, 3 Bisphosphosphoglycerate NADH and FAD
migration
quantified using time lapse microscopy, migration chambers and assays
Creutzfelt-Jakob Disease
rapidly progressive dementia with myoclonus Human prion disease due to ingesting infected meat/animal parts. Blurred vision, disorientation, hallucinations
power
rate at which work is performed P=F*d/t
basal metabolic rate?
rate of energy expenditure at rest -supine position -thermoneutral environment -after 8 H sleep and 12 h fasting (b/c of thermogenic effect of eating a meal)
energy expenditure at rest?
rate of energy of use by bode based on whole-body O2 consumption and corresponding caloric equivalent -at rest, RER ~.8, VO2r~.3L/min -at rest, metabolic rate ~2,000 kcal/day
inertance
rate of flo
lactate accumulation
rate of production exceeds clearence -muscule produces lactate -liver clears lactate
aerobic power
rate of work output attributable to oxygen-dependent metabolic processes
what leads to droplet formation during electrospraying
rayleigh instability...makes varicose waves.. after this droplets fragmetnt as solvent evaporates in air
The first step in growth factor pathway activation is?
receptor dimerization
andrenergic receptors
receptors accept norepinephrine and epinephrine
Robertsonian translocation
recirprocal translocation between chromosomes 14 and 21, responsibel for familial Down Syndrome
Electoencephalogram (EEG)
recording of the waves of the electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface
post-polio syndrome
recovery motor neurons branch more and the surviving neurons are abandoned...later in life those sprouted branches are lost Pain and progressive muscular weakness developing in later life in people who have recovered from paralytic polio decades earlier and are free of the virus; the reduction in motor neurons during the original infection may leave the person with insufficient capacity to compensate for the slow loss of neurons that normally occurs with age.
tapering
reduction in training volume/intensity Most appropriate for infrequent competition Results in increased muscular strength May be associated with contractile mechanisms Muscles repair, glycogen reserves replenished
plethysmograph
refers to the various techniques for measuring changes in the volume of the blood in a partucular part of the body (Indirect)
dermatones
regions of the skeleton associated with a single spinal nerve for sensory
RGS proteins
regulators of G-protein signaling, can hydrolyze GTP and turn off pathway
immediate release
release the active drug immediately after oral administration
augmented lead
remove connection between the lim being measure and wilson cental terminal because the otherwise the it would be too small
Interval training
repeated bouts of high/moderate intensity interspersed with rest/reduced intensity -more total exercise performed in bouts good for all sports and activites
summation
repeated stimuli in rapid sequence result in greater force exerted
What defines a cylce
repeating, unidirection series of events
anchorage dependent cells
require attachment for growth
RER
respiratory exchange ratio-amount of oxygen to completely oxidize a molecule of fat/carbohydrate ex. RER for glucose=1 RER=VCO2rate/VO2rate=6CO2/6O2=1 (remember sugar and respiration) -CO2 produced may not =CO2 exhaled -inaccurate for protein oxidation -RER inaccurate for protein oxidation -RER near 1 may be inaccurate when lactate build up CO2 exhalation
Beta receptors
respond to lower conc of NE or E than alpha, characterized by a strong response to isoproterenol with less sensitivity to epinephrine and norepinephrine. For beta receptors the rank order of potency is ISO>EPI>>Norepi.
context-dependence
response of a signal can vary depending upon cell history (affects cell receptors or downstream machinery), presence/absence of other signals
Name one primary responsibility of the parasympathetic system
rest and digest (ex. intestinal movement)
What type of transprot do herpes and rabies spread by?
retrograde axonal transport
second heart sound
reversal of flow in aort and pulmonary artery (semilunar valves) causing closure...cpletion of T wave occurs with the closure of the semilunar valves, aortic and pulmonic, and signals the end of systole
B-barrel
rigid; can't undergo conformational changes like a helices -generally restricted to outer membranes of mitochondria, chloroplastss and bacteria
"Back-of-the-envelope" calculation
rough calculations intended to quickly asses the feasibility of a project or project component
What does it mean to draw sketches in a Structural Design Space?
rough idea sketch/layout (blue prints, 3D models) -approximate cross sections -approximate plan views annotations include: -dimensions -lighting conditions -chemical conditions -imposed standards -weight loading -material type -imposed standards -expected traffic volume
Why would an athlete use a blood lactate meter?
rough indicator of anerobic energy contribution to exercise metabolic rate....it can tell them if they are exercising at too high or too low a rate
muscle pum
rythemic contractions that contribute to blood flow
How does protein energy yield compare to carbs?
same, 4.1 kcal/g
SERCA
sarcoplasmic ER calcium ATPase, pumps calcium into ER
ergonomcis
science of how the body interacts with machines
tight junction
seals gap between epithelial cells Impermeable, bind cells together into leak-proof sheets
adrenal cortex
secretes minerlcorticoids (ALDOSTERONE<-major one)
partial epilepsy
seizure involving only limited areas of the brain with localized symptoms
methods to make nanofibers
self-assembly phase separation electrospining
selfing
self-fertilization in plants
nigrostriatal tract
sends dopamine from substantia nigra to striatum
joint kinesthetic receptors
sensitive to joint angles, rate of angle change
continuation of prototyping
several small parts start to function, put them together and test as a set
non-Newtonian fluid
shear stress is not directly proportional to deformation rates
graded potential
shift in electrical charge in a tiny area of the neuron (temporary); transmits a long cell membranes leaving neuron and polarized state; needs higher than normal threshold of excitation to fire
liposomes
short half-life due to phagocytosis stealth liposomes (PEGylated liposomes) evade phagocytosis
concentric contraction
shortening of muscle -considered dynamic contraction because joint movement is produced
simple vs stratified
simple 1 layer stratified multilayered
How does the rate simple diffuse differ from passive transport?
simple diffusion in lear with single slope
instructive induction
situation in which responding tissue develops along one pathway in the absence of the signal and another in its presence in one example, mesenchyme specifies developmental direction i.e. provides the signal in terms of respiratory vs. digestive development from endoder
When does the sliding in the sliding filament theory cease?
sliding continues until the ends of the myosin filament reaches the Z disks or until the Ca2+ is pumped back into the SR
Name something that flow delivery impacts uniformity.
slip condition (no flow near bioreactor walls)
i-v curve
slope is conductance is the graphic representation of all possible voltage and current operating points for a PV device at a specific operating condition early time showed negatic conductence representing sodium activation
Type I fibers
slow twitch -(110 ms to reach peak tension) -50% of fibers
When beginning to test you should test ____ by designing a test implimenting the test and anylzing the results for each prototype.
small (build small, test small)
What are the 2 types of vesicles?
small clear ves (SSV) and large, dense core ves (LDCV small-not pre-packaged, neurotransmiters that get reuptakenm further cleaved as move down azon large-pre-prackaged with protiens, processed, diffusion degrades both move from RER to golgi and down microtubles in azon
GI released hormones
small intestine: -GLP-1 (glucagon-like peptide 1)->decrease appetite -PYY (Peptide YY)->decrease apetite acute vigorous exercise increases PYY and GLP-1 reducing hunger
team
small number of people with complementary skill who are committed to a common purpose, perfomance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable (effective teams exist only if management's performance ethic supports the team) the basic unit of performance
Drw backs of collagen scaffold aided wound healing
small pores-fibroblasts can't enter big poores-surface area for cell adesion decreases ideal between 20 to 120 microns
microRNA
small single stranded RNA molecules that bind to mRNA and can degrade mRNA or block its translation
When starting a prototype you should build ____, by picking a ___ number of tasks and building a prototype.
small, small (usually 1)
M wave
smaller motor fibers, oly stimulation strong enough
twitch
smallest response to stimuli
types of phase separation
solid-liquid phase sep gas foamin
How is oxygen delivery limited in vitro?
solubility in media transport from gass to cell surface
How are soluble proteins imported into the ER?
soluble proteins -proteins destined to reside in the lumen of ER, golgi, or lysosomes, or for secretion -sythesized with N-terminal signal sequence that is clipped off -"paperclip" insertion becaouse positvely-charged end of signal sequence orients towards ctyosolic surgace of RER, alllows clivage by signal peptidase
cargo molecules
soluble proteins to be transported
integral membrane proteins
span all or part of the membrane or have a covalent attachment to a lipid group in the membrane (can't be extracted by high salt or changes in pH)
localization of function
specialization of particular brain areas for particular functions
post-synaptic density
specialized area with high density of intrinsic and extrinsic membrane proteins, located at proximal end of postsynaptic neuron and adjacent to synaptic cleft Accumulation of proteins/receptors on a dendritic spine.
humoral immunit
specific immunity produced by B cells that produce antibodies that circulate in body fluids...coating of fb init phagocyt
clarify and define
specification
confocal microscope
specimens are stained with fluorochromes (fluorescent dye) that emit light when illuminated with short wavelength blue light. one plane of a specimen is illuminated with a laser and emitted light is returned through a pinhole aperture. each plane corresponds to an image of a fine slice that has been cut from a specimen and succesive planes are scanned.
Where can you have sensorimotor inegration?
spinal cord (mediates reflexes) or brain (can further modulates activity for those reflexes)
antereolateral
spinal cord (sensory pathway decussates) pain, temperature, crude touch, pressure (pathway)
freeze-fracture
splits a membrane along the middle of the phospholipid bilayer. When a freeze-fracture preparation is viewed with an electron microscope, protein particles are interspersed in a smooth matrix, supporting the fluid mosaic model.
What metabolic systems should be targeted for sprinter, long sprin/middle distance runners, and long distance runners?
spring: ATP-PCr (anerobic) long sprint/middle distance: glycolytic (anaerobic) long distance: oxidative (aerobic)
taxol
stabilizes microtubles by binding along filamnets
fast green
stained the cellulose walls gree
intravascular sensors
couple the vascular pressure to a sensor placed in the tip of the catheter in the cscula system a) catheter-tip pressor sensor (straing-gage sytemsn; expensive, short lived) Lc (inertance), Rc (resistance), and Cc (complinance), each segment has its own lc, rc, adn cc b) fiber-optic sensors: measures displacement of diaphrma by varying refletion of light from the back of the deflecting diaphragm (imexpensive; long lived) (newborn intracranial)
lactose permeae sympoerter
couples H+ and lactose to move them both down the gradient of H+
clathrin
creates coat that aids in deforming the membrane
engineering design
creative process where you identify needs and devise a product/device to meet those needs
fixation
cross-links adjacent proteins so everything in the cell stay in the same place (ex. with formaldehyde)
unequal crossing over
crossing over between homologs that are not perfectly aligned
solutes that contribute to osmotic pressure
crystalloids and colloids
Epithelial cells grow in contiguous 2D sheetw with __ geometry.
cuboidal
Electrons and anionmove opposite to the ___ while cations move in the same direction as it.
current
What makes a perfctly nonpolarizable elctrode?
current passes freely across the interface no energy needed (0 Rin) (Ex Ag/AGCl--which is found in ERG)
coronal section
cut in a vertical plane, from the crown of the head down
proteins regulating cell cylce
cyclin which bind to activate cycln-depndent protein kinases (CdK) activation of cdks triggers phosphorylation and activation of specific proteins needed for the cycle
Disulfide bonds form between ____ during post-translational modification of proteins in the ER and requires the enzyme protein ____ _____.
cysteines, disulfide isomerase
Signaling Kinetics "Fast" (seconds/minutes): confined to _____, changes... "Slow" (minutes/hrs.): _____, changes...
cytoplasm, activities of existing proteins nucleus/cytoplasm, genes expression affecting synthesis of new proteins
positively charged amino acids are always going to face...
cytosol
disulfide bond modification
cytosol is a reducing environment so disulfide bonds arent usually made there
How are phospholipids distributed in the bilayer (cytosolic vs extracellular)?
cytosolic -PS -PE extracellular -PC -SM
By inserting rest intervals into anaerobic or aerobic power training programs, athletes a. accumulate more lactate b. sustain less muscle damage c. build muscle strength faster d. can perform a greater volume of work in a session
d. can perform a greater volume of work in a session
The loss of exercise capacity, strength, and performance after cessation of training is called a. progressive underload b. periodization c. microcycling d. detraining
d. detraining
The explosive aspect of strength is a. muscular endurance b. aerobic power c. maximal anaerobic power d. power
d. power
Who would benefit the most from high-intensity upper-body free-weight resistance exercise? a. 1,500 m runner b. soccer player c. cyclist d. shot putter
d. shot putter
A Tour de France winner may not be a great marathon runner due to the principle of a. progressive overload b. reversibility c. individuality d. specificity
d. specificity
reactions occur spontaneously when dG is
dG (free energy) is negative (decrease)
buffer capacity
dacid/dpH
signal averager
deal with poor sinal to noisr raition (SNR) average to get rid of noise limited by available memory
lipolysis
decomposition of fats (controled by enzymes->lipases)
How does confocal microscopy extend images from a 2D projection to a 3D representation?
deconvolution
An increase in dissolved CO2 in the media leads to a _____ in pH.
decrease If medium formulated for 5% CO2 is placed in a 10% CO2 incubator, the pH will drop from 7.4 to 7.2.
How is aldosterone release stimulated?
decrease plasma Na+->decrease blood volume and BP->release renin, increase Na+ retention in blood, K+ excreated (high K+ stimulates aldosterone)->sodium channels reuptake Na+ from urine this also pulls water into the blood because of Na+ concentration in the peritubular capillary salt retention and increase BP from vasoconstriction caused by renin
stimuli ADH release
decrease plasma volume->increase hemoconcentration->increase osmolarity->stimulation of osmorecptors in hypothalamus (activity causing sweat)
variable-resistance training
decrease resistance in easiest rang of motion, increse in strongest range of motion free weights
overtraining syndrome
decreases strength, leads to increase in corotosl slight decrease in testonterone and thyroxine This is the condition resulting from overtraining; it is sometimes referred to as staleness. This syndrome may include a plateau or decrease in performance.
G1/S-CdK
start point It's within G1 phase
M-CdK
start point of mitosis
Jacksonian epilepsy
starts in a specific area of the somatomotor cortex, spreads along motor cortex, and has muscle spasms
making of WBCs
stem cells in bone marrow produce myeloid (diff into granulocyte/macrophage progenitor->granulocytes and monocytes) me megarkaryoctye-decintigrate and produce platlets) and erythocytesoceb(and lymphoid progenitors (produce lymphoscytes( Tcells, b cells, natural killer cells))
Give some example of gene abnormalities in collagen formation.
steogenesis imperfecta (brittle-bone disease, Type I collagen mutations) spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia (a form of dwarfism, Type II collagen mutations)
What is the effect of norepinephrine on hepatic glucose?
stimulates glycolysis in adipose and muscle and also glycogenolysis
Where are triglycerides stored?
stored in fat cells and between/within skeletal muscle fibers
laminar flow
streamlined flow
lenticular nucleus
striatum-caudate + putamen lenticular nucleus=putamen + globus pallidu
lac A
structural gene of lac operon, gene that encodes for the enzyme transacetylase, which may be involved in the removal of toxic by-products of lactose digestion from the cell
triskelion
structure formed by clathrin molecules consisting of three polypeptides radiating from a central vertex; the basic unit of assembly for clathrin coats.
SAR
structure=activity relationship
cis-retinal
default bend shape of retinal rods (In Dark)
Requirements Document
defines the requires for the product from the customer's perspective (not engineer) -NOT a design specification -reviewed with the customer by engineering What should it do/how should it perform? Under what conditions? cost? How reliable? Maintainability? EMI/EMC requirements? interface with other equipment?
compile overall layout
definitive layouts
dendrodendritic
dendrite to dendrite, Synapse between dendrites and dendrites.
What affects rest intervals
depends on how rapidly athlete recovers based on HR recovery (dependent on fitness and age) <30: HR doul drom to 130-150 >30: subtract 1 beat for every year over 30 (so ifi you're 60 it should rcover to 100)
What happens when the action potential reaches the axon terminal?
depolarization of the terminal open voltage-gated Ca2+ channels on the terminal->causing ACh vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane->and release ACH into the synapse-> that bind to membrane receptors-> which open channels for Na+ to propagate the action potential throughout the
synaptic potential
depolarization to threshold caused by synaptic input to the neuron
cochicine
depolymerizes by caping filament ends of microtubules.
nocodazole
depolymerizes microtubules by binding tubulin subunits
suculus
deppression or groove in the surface of the cerebral cortex
How is poiseuille's law not valid in circulation?
describes laminar flow, but has a steep dependence upon the caliber of the tube-applies only to long, straight tubes under conditions of laminar flow
restenosis
describes the condition when an artery that has been opened by angioplasty closes again happens in 15-30% of bare metal stent
constraint
design goals (restrictions) specified by the requirements
task division
design tasks should happen at the function level
Keratin filaments attache to ___ and ___ of epithelial sheets.
desmosomes (sides) hemidesmosomes (bottoms)
What makes the cycle unidirectional?
destruction of key proteins as a phase ends
complementation analysis
determines how many genes are represented in collection of independent recessive mutations affecting same process, each mutant isolated mated to every other isolate to produce diploid cells, whole pheno reveals whether 2 mutant isolates carry a mutation in same or 2 diff genes
erythropoiesis
developin from hematopoietic stem cells and mature in about 7 days live for 100-120 days
sorting out phenomenom
different types of cadherins sort seprately if different types go from high to low inside to out for levels of E cadherins
Michaelis-Menten kinetics and dissolved gas
diffusion rate=(VmPc)/(Km+Pc)
passaging
diluted and plated into new flasks The process of transferring a fraction of cells into a new container to provide space for the cells to continue to divide.
With receptor tyrosine kinase, ligand binding induces receptor ______.
dimerization
drawback of the two types of calorimetry
direct -exercise equipment gives off it's own heat that need to be accounted for -not all heat is liberated from the body (rising body temperature) -sweating affects measurements and calculation constants indirect -for oxygen consumption to reflect energy metabolism accurately, energy production must be almost completely oxidative -limited to steady state aerobic activities -CO2 produced may not =CO2 exhaled -inaccurate for protein oxidation -RER inaccurate for protein oxidation -RER near 1 may be inaccurate when lactate uildup CO2 exhalation
What type of operational mode is temperature?
direct, sampling
The engineers first problem to any design is...
discovering what the problem really is. (who, what, when, where, why?) NEEDS ASSESSMENT
solvent casting
dissolution of polymer in solvet and casting in insoluble containter....evaporate solvent..forms polymer to container shape
profilin
docs with formin dimers to effectively raise the local + end concentration of G-actin monomers
recessive epistasis
dog color dominant allele necessary for other gene to be expressed in phenotype; ee is epistatic to B; 9:3:4; Bombay phenotype, when the recessive geneotype (ee) masks another genetic phenotype (bb/Bb/BB) regardless if it has a recessive or dominate alleles
lemniscal system
dorsal column of somatosensory system AKA
Drug delivery is a concept heavily integrated with ____ ___ and _____ ___ ___________.
dosage form, route of administration
methods of screening compounds
dose response curve
Efficency increases with __ ___, but so does the probability of adverse events
drug dose
Ex. surface-controlled drug delivery?
drug eluting stents
zero order release
drug released at constant rate
Endodermal-mesenchymal interactions lead to the formation of ___ structures such as...
ducted lug, pancreas, thyroid
What supports the ECM's compression resistance?
due to hydrated GAGs binding to integrins in plasma membrane
When is fat primarily metabolized?
during prolonged less intense exercise
Dynamic Eccentric Training
eccentric->more force, cause more damage->important in remolding->hypertrophy theoretically->more gains vs concentric though, ECC+CON workouts maximize strength gains
compliance
elasticity/ability to expand
What is the important part of the ECM that allows it to stretch so well?
elastin collagen lends strength, elasin lends stretchiness to elastic fibers major ECM protein in arteries
hoffman's reflex
electrically elicited tendon jerk, often used in conjunction with EMG readings
EOG
electro-oculogram use steady corneal-tetinal poteinatl ot measure ipoential beweeen .1 and 10
scanning EM
electrons bounce off the specimen are detected giving an image of the outside of the specimen resolutions=10 nm=.01 um
ruffini
encapsulated receptors found in the dermis, subcutaneus tissue and joint capsules; they respond to deep and continuous pressure
How is endocrine similar to synaptic signaling?
endocrine->targeted using ligand binding specificity synaptic->specificity via proximity
multi-ubiquitylation
endocytosis
germ layers
endoderm -epithelim GI, gland cells of liver an pancres, repiratory passages, glands mesoderm -cariovascular -lyphatic skeletal and muscle -dermis, connective tissues ectoderm -epidermis o fskin -CNS/PNS -rentina and lens of eye
VE-cadherin
endothelial cells -abnormal vasculature
blood brain barrier components
endothelium, basement membrane, astrocytes
benifit of enzyme labels
enzyme labels can be used to generate a color change in a substrate and make immunohistochemical stains...fluorescent coupling lead to immunofluroescent labeling
ELISA
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay A test for antibodies that uses secondary antibodies tagged with an enzyme marker
From outside to in, state the order of skeletal muscle organization.
epimysium->(fascile), perimysium->(muscle fiber), endomysium->(myofirbil)
sympathetic
epinephrine (Adrenalin
EPOC
excess postexercise oxygen consumption
eccentric contraction
exert force even while lengthening -dynamic contraction
mesenchymal cells
exist alone or as small, loosely connected cells typically bipolar shape ex. fibroblast growth is typically contact inhibited
grand mal
extreme discharge oof neurons originatin in the brainstem of the RAS. Then cortex the deeper and even spinal cord, up to 4 min. EEG: high-am, periodically like alpha waves. symmetrical across cortical hemispheres (lower origins)
objective tube condenser These are lenses of a microscope. Order them correctly and indicated any other significant dividers.
eye piece tube lens objective specimen condenser
true or false Apoptosis is the only method of programmed cell death
false
In the EEG the the differential amplifier cancels out the ___ common activity.
far-field
Type II fibers
fast twitch -(50 ms to reach peak tension) (inlcudes IIa, IIx, and IIc)
How does energy from fat and carbs compare?
fat->9.4 kcal/g carbs->4.1 kcal/g
preventing calcium leak ca prevent ___
fatigue
Type I and II differ in ____ per unit and ____. For Type I and II with the same diameter, the same force is generated but ____ tend to be larger.
fibers, size, Type II
accessory cells
fibroblasts-connective tissue cells monocytes-tissues with different morphologies, can differentiate into growth factors and create macrophages which release growth factors endothelial cells-associted wiht vasculature lymphocytes and neutrophils-defense respone make up about 30% cellularity of tissues
sympathetic nervous system
fight-or-flight homeostasis From CNS: fast A subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that activates nerves, glands and visceral muscles in times of stress or threat (prepares the body for action)
preload
filling of heart
sarcoplasma
fills space between myofibrils (cytoplasm of the cell) -contains dissolved proteins, minerals, glycogen, fats, necessary organells
laeral cotircospinal tract
fine motro skills, distal extremites
sulcus (sulci)
fissure
name different types of nonclassical caherins
flamingo fat (longest) fat1 Ret (2 motifs of cadherins) desmocolling demoglein T-cadherin (short and no intracellular)
flippases
flip them to the correct side of the plasma membrane
How is phospholipid asymmetry established?
flippases flip specific phospholipids to the correct side of the membrane
emitting wavelength
flourescent light emitted after light absorbing light
pressure
flowXresistance
How does fluorescent/confocal microscopy work?
fluorescent label that stain particular elements of the cell and these fluorescent labels absorb light from the confocal micrsocope lasers at specific frequenceis and emit them back at their own frequency of color software can combine focal planes into a z-stack image deconvolution is a computer method that sharpens the image
life-cycle design
focus on the entire cycle from conception to manufacturing to disposal (pakaging, maintenance, recyling)
flexible electrodes
for irregular body surfaces imortant for infants such as -nylan fabrig with silver particles -thin enough for x ray -carbon-filled siliocone ruber -thin film neonatal electrode
Possible to determine the forces exerted by the cells on their surroundings through load cells in a ___ ___.
force grid
fiber processing
form from individual layers of fibers
gastrulation
formation of embryonic mesoderm and endoderm In animal development, a series of cell and tissue movements in which the blastula-stage embryo folds inward, producing a three-layered embryo, the gastrula.
inversion loop
formed in the cells of an inversion heterozygote when the inverted region rotates to pair with the similar region in the normal homolog
major dense line
former cytoplasmic surfaces of schwann cell membranes separation btw inner surfaces of cell membs dark regular lines of myelin; represent fusion of cytoplasmic surfaces of Schwann cells
lampbrush chromosome
found especially in amphibian oocytes; chromosme in diplotene stage of first meiotic division characterized by paired lateral loops
saxitoxin
found in red tides, blocks Na+ chans
fragment based drug discovery (FBDD)
fragment-based ligand design involves screening small molecules that aren't intrinsically durg-like, but that might become subunits (fragments) of drug-like compounds
hydropathy index
free energy change that occurs when a segment of a peptide chain is transferred to water 9how hydrophobic ehte amino acid in the segment is) (+=hydrophobic)
lateral vestibulospinal tract
from lateral vestib nucl, balnce, respone of muslce to gravity, pster
rurospinal tract
from midbrain, freciev infout for motor corte and terminates at interneurons
ventral corticospinal tract
from premotor and motor, controls motor neur for aial and proximal muscles, posture and gross movements
antereolateral
frontal and outside pain, temperature, crude touch, pressure (pathway)
primary motor cortex
frontal lobe -VOLUNTARY -consious control of skeletal muscle movement -pyramidal cells->corticospinal tract-spinal cord
function of 4 primary lobes
frontal-planning behavior parietal-attending to stimuli temporal-recognition occipital-visual analysis
determine functions and subfunctions
function structure
metabotropic
g-protein coupled reveptors
Give the layers of cell from where light enters the retina to the rods and cones.
ganglion cells->acmarine cells->bipolar cells->horizonatl cells->rods and cones not order of connection, amacrine and horizonatl just layer that way and don't really connect with bipolar ganglion and bipolar are involved in singal integration
channel-forming junction
gap junction
electrical signal spread via...
gap junctions
redundant genes
gene sequences present in more than one copy per haploid genome (ex. ribosomal genes)
static muscle contraction
generates force without moving or changing length -considered isometric because joint angle does not change
How can cell lines vary after culturing?
genetic and phenotypic drift Continuous cell lines have a tendency to become aneuploid...with more sets of chromosomes than the two sets in diploid cells so standardize method, track passage numbers, store seed
syngeneic
genetically identical to donor (i.e. homozygous twin)
ampk
gets stimulates by resistance exercise a ctivation suppresses protein synthesis decreases mTOR
Hodgkin Huxley model
giant squid I is the total membrane current per unit area, Cm is the membrane capacitance per unit area, gK and gNa are the potassium and sodium conductances per unit area, respectively, VK and VNa are the potassium and sodium reversal potentials, respectively, and gl and Vl are the leak conductance per unit area and leak reversal potential, respectively. The time dependent elements of this equation are Vm, gNa, and gK, where the last two conductances depend explicitly on voltage as well.
2 most abundant plams protein
globulins -y-globulins synthesized in lyph nodes dna reticuloendothelial cells -called immunoglobulins or antibodies -80% are IgG -80% all by liver a1->HDL, transport lipids a2->macroglobin, prothombin, etc. B->include transfirin which binds and trnasports iron, also includes LDL
What must protein be converted to in order to use?
glucose -only amino acids can be used for energy -during severe energy depletion or starvation proteins can be used to generate FFAs
All carbs are ultimately converted to ____.
glucose (a monosaccharide)
types of ionotropic recepoter
glutamine-astpartamine -GABA -seratoninc
GAGs
glycoaminoglycans -unbranched polysaccharides -usually linked to proteins unbranched chains of repeating disaccharides where one sugar is usually a uronic acid and the other is an amino sugar
carbohydrates abundunt on membrane?
glycocalyx (made of glycolipids, glycoproteins, and proteoglycans)
During rest carbs are stored as ______ (a polysaccharide) in ____ and _____.
glycogen (limited stores), muscles (cell cytoplasm), liver
glycogen fatigue
glycogen reserves limited and deplete quickly depeletion correlated with fatigue -related to ttoal glycogen depletion -unrelated to rate of glycogen depleation depletes mroe quickly with high intensity depletes more quickly during first few minutes of exercies vs later stages as it goes down exercise getts much harder
Glycolytic System
glycolysis -breakdown ("lyis") of glucose -glucose -accounts for 99% of all sugars circulation in the blood -comes from carbs and breakdown of liver glycogen (synthesized via glycogenesis) -glucose converts to glucose-6-phosphate to begin, cost 1 ATP (reverse no energy cost) -cost 2, gains 4=net 2 ATP gain -glycogen converts to glucose-6-phosphate, no cost -cost 1, gains 4=net 3 ATP gain -pyruvate converts to lactic acid (reversible) -produces NADH->electron transport chain
What is the total and net energy produced from the oxidative phosphorylation metabolism system (from 1 glucose)?
glycolysis->+4 ATP-2 ATP=2ATP krebs->+2 ATP electron transport chain=+34 ATP (+6 from glycolysis, +6 pyruvate oxidation, +22 krebs)- 6 ATP (from crossing mitochondrial membrane)=+28 total=+40 cost=-8 net=+32 *remember glycogen used +1 ATP, because no ATP cost when converted to glucose 6-phosphate, FFAs can be converted to acetyl CoA (via B-oxidation) but costs 2 ATP but produces H+'s for net 3 ATP....B-ox also can produce more acetyl CoA than glucose
Why is basal ganaglia a misnomer?
gray matter in the CNS is nuclei while ganglia is gray matter in the PNS
hemapoietic growth factors stimulate...
gromatio of white blood cells
clustering, sub-functioning
group tasks by sets of likeness
biological casting
has been used to generate polyurethane replicas of endothelial basement membranes in blood vessels. A decellularized structure is filled with a PMMA polymer cast, which is then used to generate a template, characterize the topographical variations in the template, and modulate responses of endothelial cells
heterogametic sex
have different gametes (in mammals, males = XY; bird, females = ZW)
homogametic sex
have the same gametes (in mammals, females = XX; birds, males = ZZ)
What 2 things control rate of energy production?
substrate availability & enzyme activity
benifits of resitance triaining
high strength gains via neuromuscular changes critical fro athletic training programs can improve strenth without muscle mass (during training your gains are largerly influenced by this) after 3-6 months -25-100% strenght gain improves efficiency strength gains resul from muscle size and altered neural control
How does the RER change with sources (fats vs. carbohydrates)?
higher RER for carbohydrates (advantage to burning carbohydrates)
What is the exception to the translocation across the ER membrane?
highly conserved across secpcies -exception to rule->some proteins have signal sequence at C terminus->need post transnational translocations because it gets translated before the signal sequence arises
zonule fibers
holds lens stretched out into a disc-like shape which allows for far-focusing
4 points of wound healing
homeostasis inflammation proliferation remodeling
3 dynamic states of tissue
homeostasis repiar fomration
renin
hormone secreted by the kidney; it raises blood pressure by influencing vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels)
hTERT
human telomerase reverse transcriptase, what gene controls telomere maintenance pathway can be retrovially introduce to extend life of cells
All GAGs except ___ are covalently attached to a core protein in the Golgi to form a _________.
hyaluron (hyaluronic acid/hyaluronate) proteoglycan
Strands of aggrecan, the major proteoglycan in cartilege, assemble along a ________ molecule to form a huge aggregate
hyaluronan
Give examples of teh types of GAGs.
hyaluronan chondroitin sulfate haparan sulfate keratan sulfate
simple diffusion
hydrophobic molecules can pass from areas of high conc. to low conc.
What molecules can always diffuse across the membrane?
hydrophobic molecules such as -O2 -CO2 -N2 -steroid hormones
How can folding occur spontaneously in a mutlipass transmembrane protein?
hydrophobic side chain interact to help fold correctly
Chaperone proetins bind to _____ regions of proteins that aren't normally exposed; ___________ promotes conformational changes that help the protein fold correctly
hydrophobic, hydrolysis o fATP
HCN channels
hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels -responsible for If (inward flow of Na+ during diastole) -action potential-->hyperpolarization->activates inward calcium flow->depolarixae cell->threshold->voltage gated calcium channels (transient) open up_>inward flow of calcium -sodium potatisum exchanger (3Na+ in, 1 Ca 2+ outy)->accelerates depolarization
overtraing primary affects
hypothalmaci signal ins SAM and HPA
absorbing wavelength
illuminates the cell
z-stack
images taken at different focal planes and stacked on top of each other to create image
phonocardiography (PCG)
imaging technique that provides a graphic display of heart sounds and murmurs during the cardiac cycle
cell lines that grow continusously
immortalized cell lines -arise from tumor cells or embryonic tissues -easier to maintain in culture
High-intensity interval training (HIIT)
improves mitochondrical capacity, dramatically improves aerobic capacity in untrained people, but low energy expenditure during workout train people can benifit from replacing with 10-15% of their training volume with HIIT
Lyon hypothesis
in 1/2 somatic cells in a female embryo, the maternally derived X chrom is inactivated and in other 1/2 of somatic cells inactivation silences paternally derived X chrom.
It might be better to say that "Light stops photoreceptor depolarization" than to say "Light causes photoreceptors to hyperpolarize." Justify.
in the dark, cGMP keeps sodium-calcium channels open
What is fatigue?
inability of a muscle to maintain power or force that is reversible with rest decrements in muscular performance with continued effort, accompanined by sensations of tiredness reversible by rest
waveform disotriton
inadequate frequency response of teh catheter-sensor system: serious consequences
molecular markers
such as SNPs, that dont produce visible phenotypes. use to locate genes of interest in the genome through linkage. localize disease genes: test for association between any SNP marker and the presence/absence of disease
glycoside
sugars combined with other organic structures (aglycone or genin)
carbohydrate glycosilation
sugars tacek from dalicol and ransfered by oligoscharyl transferase to aspargine to proteins in the lumen of the ER
M line
supporting proteins that hold the thick filaments together in the H zone
Passive mechanical probing
surface - Indentation with a pipette or atomic force microscope tip, aspiration by negative pressure at the end of a micropipette , compression with optical tweezers, or detachment by shear stress.
contact guidance
surface topolgy
Action of GPCR's activated G-protein subunits?
surface(s) used to activate nearby effector proteins (ex. adenylyl cyclase, phospholipase C, cGMP phosphiesterase)
transdifferentiation
switch from diff cell to different diff cell without necessarily using rediff and diff can be cause by sudden change in gene expression (ex. panc to hepato)
symmetic vs asymmetric stem cell divisionq
symmetric-both diff or undifferentiated asymetric-on of each
axoextracellullar
synapse between axon and extracellular fluid
axosecretory
synapse bewteen axon terminus onto a blood vessel
identifying components/system partitioning
system partitioning-the assignment of function to solution domains component identification-designing/purchasing of domain specific parts to impliment certain functions under constraint
sphingomyelin
sythesized from serine
Examples of design failures
tacoma narrows bridge -scaled up unverified hartford civic venter -relied on computer models of unverified rod loads space shuttle chalenger -o-ring failed under cold temps -political pressure kansas city hyatt -speedy construction and did not consider loading properly 3 mile island -no indication to user of relief valve position hubble space telescope -system never tested in complete form -
EMG integrators
take abs value of EMG and integrat it reset after treshold
How would someone interval train using HR?
take best time at a set distance and adjust duration based off that (this could be problimated since intesity would rely on a multitude of factors) not good for aerobic train, need lab to find HRmax ATP-PCr=90-100%HRmax Anaerobic=85-100%HRmax Aerobic=70-90%HRmax best for PCr
Where is Ca2+ stored in the cell for rapid mobilization in response ot intracellular signals (ex. IP3)?
the ER
What is Kd the measure of? (general & specific)
the affinity of a receptor for a ligand It is the concentration of free ligand at which 1/2 the total receptor sites have bound ligand.
thallamus
the brains sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla,
how doe protein supplements help
inclusin activated MTOR which activates MRNA that leads to skeletal usle prot syntesis improves protein synthesis in muscles amino acids (diet) procue leucie which activates MTOR (resistance traing (whcih also + amino acids)and insulin also do this) leucine is where prot suppliemnts get their magic
hypertorphy
increase in size
hyerplasia
increase in the number of muscle ANIMCAL only (fiber hyperplasia does not occure in human) can occure through satellite cells (satellie cells activated after injury)
Collagen fibers are arranged at right angles to one another in some tissues to....
increase tissue strength or form a uniform mess in other tissues
undeamped
increased paks and time dealp...high freq response is amplified...this error is sever when being used asses aortic calve stenosis
frequency coding
increased stimulus intensity = increase in AP frequenc, 1st TEMPORAL summation a stronger depolarizing stimulus above threshold causes the action potential frequency to increase; controlled by the refractory period bc more stimulus or larger stimulus is now needed to get a response
ADH release
increasing water retention by kidnes, minmizing water loss (deacrease urine output)
__ __ uses an unlabeled primary antibody that is detected bound to its antigen with labeled secondary antibodies
indirect immunohistochemistry
mass action effect
influence of substrate availability on rate of metabolism
How does Round up kill?
inhibitins EPSPS, a chloroplast enzyme
The cell has more K+ ___ the cell and more Cl- and Na+ ___ teh cell.
inside, outside
haptotaxis
insoluble concentration gradient cell movement influenced by spatial gradient of adhesive (insoluble) signals
resistence trainnig improvements related to
intensity, repetiions, frequency
desmoplakin
intracellular plaque protein found in desmosome (1st alphabetically)
What type of organisms would have unmylinated neurons?
invertebrates
IND
investigational new drug application
design
involves devices, processes, re-engineering, systems, optimization, regulations, finances, innovation, invention, entrepreneurship, etc.
What can't diffuse through the membrane?
ions: H+, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Cl,-, Mg2+, HCO3-
tissue plasminogen activator (TPA)
is a thrombolytic that is administered to some patients having a heart attack or stroke. If administered within a few hours after symptoms begin, this medication can dissolve the damaging blood clots.
What is the rate limiting enzyme of the krebs cycle?
isocitrate dehydrogenase -inhibited by ATP, activated by ADP -excess Ca2+ also stimulates rate-limiting enzyme
If you have a misfolded protein ith a lot of hydrophaobic residues exposed to the aqueous environment what happens?
it aggregtes and forms globs (is reason/mechanism of some disease...ex. alziehmers)
XIST
it encodes an RNA which binds to the inactivated X chromosome, X-inactive specific transcript, (which is in the Xic) is only expressed on the inactive X chromosome, it doesn't encode a protein in codes for a long RNA which coats the inactive X chromosome... other proteins will then bind to promote chromosomal compaction into a Barr body
What happens to the Mutant CFTR in a cell?
it gets transported out of the ER, but can't reach the plasmas membrane because it is degraded by proteosomes in the cytosol
How does sarcoplasma differ from typical cell plasma?
it has large stores of glycogen.
G-protein structure
it is a G- protein consisting of three subunits (alpha, beta, and gamma). When a hormone binds, a GDP bound to the alpha subunit dissociates and a GTP associates, and the alpha subunit dissociates from the beta and gamma subunits.
commisure
joining together, one side to another band of fibers joining corresponding opposite parts of the brain and the spinal cord
Reversible phosphorylation and dephosphorylation is performed by _____ and ____ respectively.
kinases, phosphatases • Protein kinases usually specific for tyrosine residues or serine/threonine residues. • The negative charge of PO4 - causes changes in protein conformation or affinity for other molecules • Provides a mechanism for signal amplification • Protein kinases play a key role in all signaling pathways.
The route and method of drug administration influences the ____ of biodistriction and elimination=>effectiveness
kinetics (drug administration ifluences drug concentration)
Besides glucose, what other energy source can the brain consume?
lactate
How does lactate build up affect RER?
lactate buildup increases pH dirves bicarbonate (HCO3) to be changed in CO2->increase in CO2 exhalations-> RER=VCO2r/VO2r H-+HCO3- ->HzCO3->H2O + CO2
How is lactic acid a source of energy in the muscle?
lactate produced by glycolysis in the cytoplasm of muscle can be taken up by mitochondria in some muscle fiber and directly oxidized (mostly in cells with high mitochondrial density like type I (high oxidative))
Cori cycle
lactate sent to the liver is converted back to pyruvate and then back to glucose
How is lactic acid a source of energy in the liver?
lactate shuttle -can fuel other cells besides muscle -primarily produced in type II muscle fibers (can in type I) by diffusion or active transport mostly, lactate doesn't leave muscle but the shuttle is used at times
contact inhibition
lamellipodium inhibited by neighbor adjacency
pyramidal cells
large multipolar cortical neurons with a pyramid-shaped cell body, an apical dendrite, and a very long axon
H wave
large sensory fibers from muscle spindles, then motorneuron discharge to cause muscle response; low threshold for recordings; supressed at high stimulation)
methods for solid fre form fabrication
laser-based processing printing-based nozzle-based
In the sense of touch, neural processing takes place to sharpen spatial localization of the stimulus. What kind of neural processing?
lateral inhibition
rate of lipid movement laterallly and vertically?
lateral-1 um/s vertically- once a month
ECM provides a ___ along which or through which cells can ___.
lattice, migrate
detraining
leads to decrease in 1RM -strength losses can be regained -new 1RM match or exceeds 1RM
thrombopoietin
leads to formationof megakaryocytes
frontal plnae
leads: left arm left leg, right arm, ground=right leg
Z DNA
left handed helix; may regulate of eukaryotic gene expression.
variances in bilayer structure besides chemical compound composition
length -straightness of hydrocarbon chains (cholesterol can straighten long ones) -saturation (saturated are longer)
Why does it take prolonged activity for fat to be consumed?
less readily available because it must first be reduced from triglyceride to glycerol and free fatty acids -only FFAs are used to form ATP -FFA converted to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate for glycolysis -FFA converted to Acetyl CoA for Krebs
LD50
lethal dose 50%
ionotropic
ligand gated ion channels
rhodopsin cycle
light causes a separation of rhodopsin into retinal and opsin,an active site on opsin is exposed, causes plasma membrane of discs within rod to become hyperpolarized; photoreceptor cells when inactive constantly leak Na+, influx of Na+ cause the photoreceptor cell to release the neurotransmitter glutamate, glutamate in an inhibitory transmitter, binds to receptors on the bipolar cells causing them to hyperpolarize, causes an inhibitory post synaptic potential IPSP to be generated to bipolar cell
light interferencet
light wave combine to create brighter (in phase) or darker (out of phase) regions in an image
Ion channel are ___ (7 to 15 nm).
lipoproteins
How does the body produce its own creatine (endogenous)? What foods have it?
liver and kidney meat and fish
bioreactors
living factories that will continuously make the desired protein
generator potential
local change in resting potential of recptor cell that mediates between impact of stimuli and initiation of nerve impulses
passive response
local electrical changes in which the channels involved do not change their activity in response to voltage changes
lobes
localization of function
peripheral membrane proteins
localized by non-covalent interactions with integral membrane proteins (extracted by high salt or changes in pH)
PI3P
location of phosphorylated PI on endosomes that provide a scaffold for tethers
PI4P
location of phosphorylated PI on golgi that provide a scaffold for tethers
fictive locomotion
locomotory neural activity in the complete absence of movement and sensory feedback
chronic hypertorphy
long term -reflects acutla structural chane -fiber hypertory or hyperplasia or both -maximzied by high-velocity eccentric traiing that disrupt sarcomeer x lines (protein remodlin) concentric trian may limit hypertorphy, strength gains
diff between long and short receptors
long use action potentials (olfactory, mechanorec, nocirecp, viseral, temp) short still use graded potentials,, primariyl afferent (tate, hypothalamic, some visceral, photorecep)
What affect does athlete bradycardia have on the hear
longer diastole, more filling time more filling in atria->load ventricals better more filling in ventrical->myocytes o stretch->better contractile force more stroke volume and greater ejection fraction
sarcoplasmic reticulum
longitudinal network of tubules -storage site for calcium (essential element for contraction)
oxidation
losing electrons to be passsed as currents (current left-to-right)
• Transformation to an immortalized line can occur spontaneously due to genetic instability which results in...
loss of functional p53 or Rb, overexpression of telomerase, or mutations in a group of senescence groups Transformation can also be chemically or virally induced. - Viral genes such as SV40 Large T antigen, human papilloma virus E6, and Epstein Barr Virus have been used to immortalize cells. - These genes act by blocking inhibition of cell-cycle progression by inhibiting activity of Rb, p53, p16, and others. - This inhibition leads to an increased life span and potentially an enhanced opportunity for mutations and the appearance of an immortalized derivative (1 in 107).
sarcopenia
loss of muscle mass
what would signal apopstosis
loss of tropic factors killing signals (ez. killer lymph cells that present death (Fas) ligant)
How EPO release stimulated and how does it aid exercise? How does altitude affect this?
low blood volume or low oxygen levels in kidneys->EPO->increase RBCs->increas hemoglobin->greater oxygen carrying capacity low oxygen in kidneys at higher altitudes because there is lower oxygen tension->EPO release aerobic training->increase EPO->increase RBCs & O2 delivery to muscles (reason for high altitude training)
catheter whip distortion
low frequency oscillation; when an aortic ventricular catheter in a region of high pulsatile flow is bent and whipped about by accellerating blood
negative-Input-Capacitance Amp
low gain, high impedence, noninverting amp
Magnetoencephalogram (MEG)
low mag field (.1 pT) generate by brain activity (100 times weaker than eart) use superconductivity. Superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID manetometer (liquid helium) remove baground magnetic field by gradiometer
transporters activated at different pH's
lower than 6.8--->Na+/H+ above 6.8-->Na+Hco3/cl high to low, Cl/Hco3 low to high (X) intersect at 7.2
LOAEL
lowest-observable adverse effect level
How does SRP help a protein get transloacted
mRNA exported from the nucleus->resides in the cytosol->is translated by a ribosome-as it is being translated a signal sequence arises (usually at the N terminus of protein->the first thing to come out of the ribosome)->signal regonition particle (SRP, hydrophoic binding pocket lined with methyonine-good at sheilding hydrophobic amino acid from aquesous environment) binds to the signal sequence->SRP changes shape and pauses translation->SRP associated with SRP receptor (in rough ER membrane), positioned over the protein translocator (sec61) and the translation resume->snakes through translocater->finsihes translation as it crosses the ER membrane (co-translational translocation->unique to ER, retatined from bacteria, etc.)
macro vs micro pores
macro >50 um micro <50 um
Advantages of the MEG?
mag field not influence by shell-like anisotropic inhomegeneities (skull, muscles layer) do not neet to touch the scalp, no need for electrodes
gama effernet system
make tendon reflex
sagittal
makes a division into right and left portions
sagittal
makes a division into right and left portions A vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts
perlecan
makes the fibrinonectin more sticky
molecular imprinting
making an artificial receptor, significant advantages to using a protein (can be made much more stable than a protein), can be used for therapeutic or diagnostic purposes -casting -micromachining techniques
e-cadherin
manyy epithelial -death at blastocyst stage if inactivated
name some of the important environmental factors involved in bioreactor design
max/min temperature, pH, humidity, flow rates, pressures, etc.
strength
maximal force that a muscle or muscle group can exert
How are sarcomeres involved in force generation?
maximum force where there is optimal overlap so there is max cross-bridge interation
1 repetition maximum (1RM)
maximum weight that can be lifted with a single effort
needs
maybe a redesign or brand new product
bendwith required for bp
mean; 10th harmonics of th the waveform (ex. 120 bm (2Hz) needs20 Hz bw
how can you measure permability
measure flow rate mercury intrusion image analysis
Electroneurogram (ENG)
measured conduction velocity (L1-L2)/D L1-L2: latency difference caused by two stimulating (motor) or two recording (sensory) electrodes
cardiotachometer
measures speed of heart
synergist ablasion model
mechanical overlad model remove muscle to enduce fiber type shift all the way to type i by overlading overloaded muscle lead to division of satellite cell, plaus a2_ depending signalling incgres activates mTOR
anaerobic power
mechanical power output over brief periods that rely heavily on the PCr and anaerobic glycolysis systems for rephosphorylation of ADP to ATP
medial vesibulospinla tract
medial vestib nuc, input form head and neck, contrac thoraci interneur and position torso to gravity, head movemetns
medullary reticulospinal tract
medulla, inhibitory, counter balance for pontine retro tract
What are the major division of sensory receptors?
mehanoreceptors thermoreceptors nociceptors (pain) photoreceptors chemoreceptors
types of textile technologies
melt spining, dry spinning, wet spinning ~10 um, no smaller
oligosaccaryl transferase
membrane bound enzyme and only moves sugars on the ER lumenal side from dolicol to proteins in the lumen of the ER (these sugars will be on the extracellar side of the plasma membrane eventually)
Why does asymmetry matter?
membrane charge cell signaling - protein kinase C requires PS for activity -PS on the outside signals cell death and promotes phagocytosis -PI (cytosolic) binds many proteins and is essential for many types of cell singaling
Neural induction takes place between the ___ and superficial __.
mesoder, ectoderm (contact leads to nervous system development)
Cell culture scale up techniques include..
microencapsulation, hollow fiber cartridges, roller bottles, and packed bedds
elector arrays are made using ___
microfabrication
What can be used to section tissue into thin slices for viewing microscopically?
microtome (ex. 1 um)
tecto spinal tract
midbrina, uses eyes to coordinate head position
AV (atrioventricular) valves
mital valve (left) tricuspid (right)
lygaeus
mode of sex determination: based on Y copy of the chromosome, XX/XY the presence of an x or a y from the male dictates sex humans
volume conductor fields
model for link between microscopic electrical activity generated within the bioelectric source & macroscopic potential distribution produced at the surface of the body. Describes the flow of action current through the conducting medium. Compoents are the bioelectric source (constant currents source) and conducting medium (electrical load). Lends insight to interpretation of recorded waveforms Cell-bioelectic source Bath-load resistance (usually salt solution) (use artificial cerbrospinal fluid for brianslice recordings) (ACSF) `
divide into realizable modules
module solution
energy substrate
molecules that provide starting materials for bioenergetic reactions
Patch recording
monitor behavior of specific ion channels mostly invitro, can be in vivo
MAO
monoamine oxidase, in mitochondria COMT-catechol-omethyl transferase, in cytoplasm
How is lactate transported outside of the muscle cell?
monocarboxylate transporter (MCT) proteins facilitate movement of lactate between cells and tissue during exercise approx. 80-90% of lactate gets tranfered by passive or active diffusion facilitate by MCTs lactate transport for the purpose of fuel accounts for 70-75% of removed lactate
calcium troponin myosin
more calcium in cytosol...trop and my less sensitivwe in fatigued muscle
gracile tract
more medial of the dorsal column tracts, lower body
fiber hypertrophy
more myofibril (animals, not humans so much more actin, mysosin filaments, sarcoplasm, connective tissue resistance training->increased protein synthesis (during exercise D synth I deg, after sex I synt, D deg) testosteron facilitates fiber hypetrophy
form and structure of cells is collectively referred to as...
morphology
albumin
most abundant plasma protein protein carries free fatty acids to the liver mad in liver, secreted into blood in high hydrophobic areas binds hydrophobic materials (FFA, birubin, steroid hormones) protien transporter 2.8-4.5%
B dna
most stable configuration for a random sequence of nucleotides under physiological conditions, alpha helix (right handed
autonomic vs. somatic
motor division autonomic: regulates visceral activity (ACh as neurotransmiter) somatic: stimulates skeletal muscle activity (parasympathetic->ACh, sympathetic->norepinephrine)
principle of orderly recruitment
motor units generally activate on the basis of a fixed order in which th emotor units within a given muscle appear to be ranked ex. given a muscle with 200 motor units, recruitment occurs 1, 2, 3, etc. and those are recruited each time in the same order
white blood cells originate from ___ stem celsl erythrocytes originate from __ stem cells
multipotent pluripotent pirmary deffenders
A single muscle cell is referred to as ______.
muscle fiber
fascile
muscle fiber bundles
Static-contraction resistance
muscle force without muscle shortening, aka isometric training not good for developing power/athletic performance, but useful for immobilized rehab situations
protein synthesis leads to
muscle hypertrophy
How do the energy systems compare under different levels of activity?
muscle type concentration dertermines oxidative capacity -type I->more mitochondria->higher concentration of oxidative enzymes -type II->best for glycolytic so..endurance training increases oxidative capacity (type I high)
How do energy stores (glycogen, fat) compare?
muscles and liver gylcogen stores provide only ~2,500 kcal fat stores supply at least ~70-75K kcal (although many classified as fats....only triglycerides are major energy source)
How does activity affect ADH release and what does ADH do?
muscular activity->sweating->loss of blood plasma->increase in hemoconcentration & increase blood osmololity->stimulates osmoreceptors in hypothalamus->signals posterior pituitary glad secretion of ADH->increases water perimability in renal tubules->increased water retention->decrease urine output->minimizes body fluid loses
for blood to exist left ventrical
must exceet aortic pressure (afterload)
shibire
mutation in drosophilia that is a mutation in dynamin. at high temperatures, dynamins unfold, flies use up all synaptic vesicles and can't recycle them, all empty, paralysis ensues
pidermolysis Bullosa Simplex (EBS) results from...
mutations in keratin (an intermediate filament)
properties of myelin
myelin itself has high resistance and high capacitance...capacitance adds inversely
myoclonic seizure
myoclonic (a burst of spikes for a few seconds, single jerk in arms or head; gone. remains conscious. leads to grand mal,
petit mal
myoclonic or abscense
thick filaments
myosin -2/3 of all muscle proteins is myosin -each filament has 200 myosin molecules -stabilized by titin
_____ ________ are attracted to actin bridges when ________ is removed myosin heads can attach to binding sites
myosin cross-bridges, tropomyosin
What catabolic process must take place for the sliding of filaments?
myosin heads have ATP binding site where -ATPase (enzyme located on myosin head) slits (hydrolizes) ATP to yield energy
quantum dots
nanoparticles that act as semiconductors and flouresce under a broad spectrum of light; potential for use in in vivo imaging and drug delivery and allow for longer fluorescence
percutaneous electrodes
needles electrodes acute recording -simple -shielded -multiple electrodes chronic recording: wire electrode; needle withdrawn later
Name and describe the 4 different types of induction
negative-collective restricts the potential of each instructive-changes cell type of responder cell due to interaction (interaction) permissive-responders contain all potential needed, only require environment that permits it (environment) reciprocal-tissue signal eachother cell population
requirement
negotiated description of the product
In terms of axon type, what is the difference in the neospinothalamic tract vs the paleospinothalamic tract?
neo A delta, paleo C
action potential
nerve impulse (from brain or spinal cord to a-motor neuron)
Z disk
networks of proteins that anchor/ support the actin filament
strength gain in humans is due to
neural efficeny and hypertrophy
hypothalymus
neuroendocrine control that maintains homeostasis, regulates internal environment (ex. BP, heart rate, appetite, thirst, breathing, etc.)
absolute refractory period
neuron will not fire another action potential no matter how favorable the membrane potential is. Na gate is closed
n-caherin
neurons, heart, skeletal, musle, lens, and fibroblasts -embryos die from heart defects when inactivated
major portions of white blood cells
neutorphils (gran) and lymphocytes (agran)
NDA
new drug application
What is released from endothelial cells that line blood vessels, entering into underlying smooth muscle cells dilating blood vessels?
nitric oxide
What makes a perfectly polarizable electrode?
no actual charge crosses the electrode-electolyte interference (no chemical reactions( like a capacitor (w/ inf. resistance) (ex. Platinum)
Besides glucosyltransferase, how else do misfolded protein get delt with?
no proteasomes in lumen means they have to be transloacted back out of the ER using transloactor (sec61) into cytoplasm her they will be taked with ubiquitin and destroyed, requires energy
NOAEL
no-observable adverse effect level
What kind of fluid is blood?
non-newtonian
Mach bands
nonexistent stripes of lightness and darkness that accentuate the perception of edges
VO2mxr
normalized by body weight (ml Ox/(kg*min) (L/min okay for non weight bearing exwercise)
fourth heart sound
not audible, recorded by phonocardigram occurs when atria caontract and propel blood into the ventricles heard immediately before s1 has a rhythm that follows the word FLOrida, S4 is best heard at the apical very soft, low-pitched ventricular filling sound that occurs in late diastole (also called atrial gallop) A heart sound produced by atrial contraction and ejection of blood into the ventricle during late diastole. Also called atrial gallop.
materials carried in the blood?
nutrients, waste products, chemical signals, and thermal energy
neuromuscular junctions
occuring at the enplat regions between neurons and muscle fibers, form of electrochemical trasmission ACh (acetylcholine) is release by prejunctionla fiber diffusion in 20 nm ACh triggers action potentials at the postjunctional membrane
homophilic binding
occurs between cells expressing the same receptor; most common intercellular adhesion mechanism cadherins are homophilic binding
aggultination
occurs when the antibodies bind to the foreign antigens causing the foreign red blood cells to clump together
Some GPCRs directly regulate ion channels through G-proteins (e.g. muscarinic acetylcholine receptors), while other GPCR's (e.g. ___________________) regulate the activity of ion channels indirectly through second messenger
odorant receptors & rhodopsin Golf Gt(transduction)
micropipette
often glass, made b micropipette puller, heated, filled with electrolyte (KCL
3 types of over potential?
ohmic (electrode resistance) concentration (ionic distribution) activation (energy barrier for oxidation and reducation)
How does creatine supplements affect vegetarian compared to omnivore creatine store increase?
omnivore->10-20% increase vegitarian->about 20-40% increase (they have half as much in their muscle compared to omnivores, so they benifit more from supplementation)
How does hsp70 help a protein fold and on what side of the ER is it?
on lumen side
psudoautosomal region
on the ends of the X and Y chromosome, make them line up in meiosis/mitosis
Ras was first identified as an ______.
oncogene (mutations in Ras gene account for ~30% of all cancers). There are many members of Ras superfamily of small monomeric GTP-binding proteins.
QT syndrome
one of the causes of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome inborn heart condition involving delayed repolarizing of the heart following a heartbeat
coupeled transport
one soulute moves down its electrochemical gradient porviding the energy to transport the other solute against its EC gradient -symport:2 move in same direction (NA+/glucose) -antiport: 2 move in oppposite directions (HCO3+/Cl-)
What membrane proteins are glycosylate?
only proteins on the extraellular face
What are the limitation to staining when using light microscopy?
only some wavelengths can pass through the stained samples
over reaching
optimal phys adamption and performance
Types of primary culture
organ primary explant cell
endosome
organelle sorts ingested molecules and recycles some of them back to the plasma membrane
epimysium
outer CT covering, holds muscle together and gives it shape
dura matter
outermost layer of the meninges surrounding the brain and spinal cord
cardiac catheterizatio
outfitted with x-ray measure pressures in all four chambers by positioning cateterd urin fluorosocopy
Polarization of the elctrode causes ___, which is the difference between the observed and the equilibrium xero-current half potentials
overpotential
What system has the highest energy level and how do you determine its potential?
oxidative metabolism using enzyme activity (usually succinate dehydrogenase and citrate synthase are used) amount of oxygen entering is directly proportional to oxidative metabolism -can estimate by measuring oxygen consumed by lungs
How is glycolysis in 2 different systems?
oxidative phosphorylation -carbs is the source -oxygen needs to be present to produce Acytel Coa glycolytic -glucose is the source -oxygen optional
cellularity
packing density-billion cells per cc tissues typically operate at 1/3 to 1/2 packing density
viceral pain
pain originating from internal organs, travels to dorsal columns
lead
pair of electrodes, or coomninati f severla through resistive netwrk that gives an ewu
HR increases when...(symp and para)
parasympathetic (high at rest) activity goes down and sympathetic (low at rest) activity goes up
primary sensory cortex
parietal lobe -regions of the cerebral cortex that initially process information from the senses
cuneate tract
part of the medial lemnsicus pathway where touch,pressure, and vibration information from the UPPER pt of the body is traveling up to VPL.
gracile nucleus
participates in the sensation of fine touch and proprioception of our lower body
electrical stimulation traiing
pass current across muscl eo r motor nerve -ideal for recovery from injury or surgery -reduces strength loss during immobiliation -restores strength and size during rehab
low pass filter
passes energy below a designated upper cut-off frequency Axons are like low pass filters
How do you tell how many times a multi-pass transmembrane proteins passes the membrane?
pay attention to: -how you count the number passing -how the positive amino acids always orient toward the cytosol -the postive charge is away from the N-terminus so the N terminus is in the lumen
economy of effort
people become economical with practice
transvers plane
percordial (ches leads), use only on at a time, chosen one is subtracte from wil cent
neuronal spines
permits dendrites to form synapses to other neurons
worn out erythrocytes
phagocutes in the reticuloendothelial system destroy worn erythrocytes ( macrophages in spleen, liver, and bone marrow)
strategies for modifying the immune response
phamocologic treatments (T-cell suppression) tissue typing genetic modification tolerance induction (block key signaling molecules) spontaneous tolerance (years of immunosup therapy contrib) physical immunoisolation (semiperm memb between host and donor)
methods for making pores
phase separation poragen leaching electrospinning 3d printing
What is the rate limiting enzyme in the glycolytic pathway?
phosphofructokinase (PFK) -increase in ADP + Pi increase PFK activity->speeds up glycolysis -ATP (and Krebs cycle products like citrate and H+) inhibits PFK
PI(4,5)P2 is cleaved by ________ to form ______ and __________, each of which activates further downstream signaling
phospholipase C, diacylglycerol and inositol 1,4,5 trisphosphosphate (IP3)
Wee1 kinase
phosphorylated the CdK and inactivates it...inhib phos process revered by dephos by cdc25 phosphatase
Which phospholipid has a negative chare?
phosphotidyleserine
Rhodopsin
photopigment localize in the compact membrane infolding of the rod's external segment (trigered by sinlge photon)
Light absorption results in breakdown or "bleaching" of _____
photopigments (rhodopsin)
Drug effetiveness depends on p____
placement The effectiveness of new drugs is limited by the: Mode of administration Duration of action Requirements for physical placement
p-cadherens
placenta, epidermis, breast -abnormal mammary glands if inactive
CO2 carry
plasma hemoglobin bicarbonate ion
What part of skeletal muscle fuses with the tendon?
plasmalemma (cell membrane)
sarcolemma
plasmalemma (cell membrane)+basement membrane surrounds muscle fiber under endoymsium
what dissolves clots
plasmin endothelial cells release inactive tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) following injury fibrin activates tPA which activates plasmin ( by proteolytic cleavage of plasminogen (in clot during formation)) which then proteolyzes fibrin and accounts for most of fibrinolysis
plant equivalent of gap junctions
plasmodesmata
Tyrosine phosphorylation of ______________________________ creates binding sites for other signaling proteins
platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGF)
lactate threshold
point at which blood lactat accumlation incrases markedly rough indicator of anerobic energy contrabution to exercise metbolic rate usually expressed ad %VO2maxr (good indicator of potential in endurance-higher the better for endurance) (2 athletes can have same VO2maxr...but the one with the better %VO2maxr will win)
___ molecules can form bonds with water
polar
What would happen if H+ didn't go through the electron transport chain?
the cell would become too acidic H+ and oxygen form water in the final step before ATP synthase, preventing acidification
genetic background
the collective genome of an organism, as it impacts on the expression of a gene under investigation, The immunity of some black Africans to malaria is probably due to this
test cross
the crossing of an individual of unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual to determine the unknown genotype
golgi technique
the first technique to reveal neurons in their entirety [Tissue slowly "fixed" (i.e. hardened) with a potassium dichromate solution is then bathed in silver nitrate solution resulting in the complete staining of a small fraction (~5%) of nerve cells while all other cells are not stained at all]
trans-retinal
the form of retinal after it takes in light (straight)
Y-linkage
the inheritance pattern of genes found on the Y chromosome but not on the X chromosomes (rare)
sum law
the law that holds that the probability of one of two mutually exclusive events occurring is the sum of their individual probabilities
What hapens to phosolipids with different lengths?
the longer ones group together to form rafts (lipid rafts
replicative senescence
the loss of the ability of cells to reproduce
size principle
the order of recruitment of motor units is directly related to size of their motor neuron
X-linkage
the pattern of inheritance resulting from genes located on the X chromosome
phosphotidylinositol
the phosphorylation of these proteins determines the address that a the transport cargo inside of a vesicle will go. 3 carbons of the ring can be potentially phosphorylated.
amphidiploid
the state of an organism produced by two diploid parental species; they contain two diploid genomes, each one derived from each parent
galvanotaxis
the stimulation of cells to move along an electrical gradient
pharmokinetics
the study of drugs within the body, absorption , distribution, metabolism, excretion
3 different length scale of biomaterials
the subcellular scale (<10 μm), -nanolithography -molecular imprinting -peptide protein grafting the cellular microenvironment scale (10- 100 μm), -pore sice -micropattern -roughness and the supracellular structures (>100 μm). -solvent casting -extrusion -insoluble gradients
Design
the systematic exploration of the problem/solution space, resulting in an optimum solution to a question -detailed descriptions (sketch drawing) of an end goal -working toward a set of parameters that describe an optimum solution to a need -generating overall requirements and specifications for those requirements
organ culture
the tissue explant retains, at least in part, its structural features. It is placed in a culture environment that favors retention of a 3D shape
cell culture and primary explant
the tissue, or outgrowth, from the primary explant is mechanically or enzymatically dispersed into a cell suspension. The cell suspension can be cultured as an adherent or nonadherent suspension.
cognition
the way in which the user learn the features and operating function of a device -a well designed system has a short learning curve -learning curve can be shortened by understanding the capabilities/experience of the target end user
substantia
the white nervous tissue, constituting the conducting portion of the brain and spinal cord, composed mostly of myelinated nerve fibers.
If you add protease to a microsome hat happen to the protein in the presence of microsomes?
there will still be some protein left because some of it as in the membraw
ATPase pumps
this type of transport protein mediates active transport by directly hydrolzing ATP
established targets
those for which there is a good scientific understanding, supported by a lengthy publication history, of both how the target functions in normal physiology and how it is involved in human pahtology
clot fomration is contolled by ____
thrombin
percentage breakdown of types of stroke
thrombus (local occlusion)-50% embolus (object in blood stream)-30% hemorrhage-20%
as HR increases...
time for filling decreases->decrease SV
G-protein coupled receptors bind to ____
timeric G-protein
During resting state, how are the myosin-binding sites?
tropomyosin cover myosin-binding sites on actin molecules, preventing binding of the myosin heads
Once Ca2+ is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum it binds to ______ on actin molecules which initiate contraction by moving ______ off mysoin-binding sites on actin (4).
troponin, tropmyosin
T or F? Ezymes are highly specific
true
synth of serotoniin?
tryptophan->5-hydroxy-tryptophan-serotonin (5-hydroxy-tryptaine)
proteins in neuronal spines?
tubulin and actin
What kind of myosin doe cadriomyocytes have?
type I
What muscle fibers get recruited during endurance activity? (not just the best suited one)
type I and some type IIa -when primary fuel source (glycogen) becomes depleted more type IIa is recuited to maintain muscle tension (recall type oxidative and glycolitic capacity) -when type I and IIa become exhausted type IIx gets recruited
As intensity o factivity increase the number of fibers recruited increases in what order?
type I->type IIa->II b
What happens to fiber type composition as we age?
type II % decreases ->type I % increases
Which fibers benifit most from resistance trainng
type IIa/IIx fast twitch fatigable
Which collagen fibers are network-forming?
type IV (sheetlike networke, basal lamina) type VII (anchoring fibrils, beneath stratified squamous epithelia)
Which collagen fibers are fibril-associated?
type IX (lateral associations with type II fibrils)
Which collagen fibers are transmembrane forming?
type XVII
Which collagen fibers are proteoglycan core proetin?
type XVIII
purkinje cells
types of neurons that populate the cerebullar cortex of cerebellum; the only cortical neurons that send axons through the white matter to synapse with the central nuclei of the cerebellum
How are dopamine and epinephrin made?
tyrosine->L-dopa->dopamine->norepinephrine->epinephrine
What tag is used for misfolded proteins prior to destruction by proteosomes?
ubiquitin
Instead of cAMP and adenylyl cyclase, plans use....
ubiquitin ligase receptors (these are ser/thre specific
proteins in the cycle are destroyed through...
ubiquitination and proteolysis
How can you visual in vivo tissues?
ultrasound planar z-rays fluorscopy CAT scan MRI micro-CT etc.
An accumulation of misfolded proteins in the ER triggers an "___________________"
unfolded protein response
Adult wound healing is __ and fetal wound healing is __. (axial?)
uniaxial, actional
derivative of the signal
up to 20 harmonics
How might you convert cell lines into immortalized cell lines?
uptake of new genetic material (i.e. gene transfection) which could also lead to aberrant growth control, or malignancy
melt processing
use temp metlting point differences to sperate phases, pressure can help extrude
osmium tetroxide
use this stain in electron microscopy because organic elements (carbon and oxygen) aren't very electron dense and therefore don't scatter that well so you stain it with this which is so that it will deflect the electrons and show up on the screen used a fixative for electron microscopy and preserves membranes
colloidal gold
used for EM, however may be used for LM in enhanced with silver salts Secondary antibodies can also be labeled with ____ for electron microscopy
preamplifier
used to adjust the strength of audio from one or more audio sources to a standard level may condition signal before it is amplified(in probe)
red thrombus
traps RBCs as well as plateltes
maximual anaerobic power
(aka anaerobic capacity) tests -maximal accumulated O2 deficit test -critical power test -Wingate anaerobic test
molecular switch proteins
are switched "on" by extracellular signals and later switched "off"
somatosensory
Area of the parietal lobe, which receives sensory infromation about touch, pressure, pain, temperature, and body position
possible states for a cell
1) dividing -1 direct -previous prepares -following destroys 2)nondeviding -quiescent, waiting to cycle -senescent -differentiated
vesicle fusion steps
1) docking (getting on) 2) priming (locking in) 3) fusing (open into synapse) 4) recyling
autopolyploidy
An individual that has more than two chromosome sets that are all derived from a single species
Wild type
An individual with the normal (most common) phenotype.
sympathetic nervous
The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.
Principle of Variation
(aka principle of period periodization) systematically changes one or more variables to keep training challenging (changes such as intensity, volume, and/or mode) ex increase volume, decrease intensity or decrease volume and increase intensity
polymorphism
(biology) the existence of two or more forms of individuals within the same animal species (independent of sex differences)
refractive index
(c in vacuum)/(c in medium)
inversion
(genetics) a kind of mutation in which the order of the genes in a section of a chromosome is reversed
transformation
(genetics) modification of a cell or bacterium by the uptake and incorporation of exogenous DNA
position effect
(genetics) the effect on the expression of a gene produced by changing its location in a chromosome
transduction
(genetics) the process of transfering genetic material from one cell to another by a plasmid or bacteriophage
segregation
(genetics) the separation of paired alleles during meiosis so that members of each pair of alleles appear in different gametes
glycoprotein
(most secretory proteins) proteins that have carbohydrates covalently bonded to them. These carbohydrates are attached by specialized molecules in the ER membrane.
paracentric inversion
An inversion where both breaks are on the same side of the centromere. Crossed over strands are directed into polar bodies in egg formation.
drug discovery and development process
(post trials->NDA and reviewing applications->post approval study->final approval) approx. 10-15 years
genetic map
An ordered list of genetic loci (genes or other genetic markers) along a chromosome.
Name 4 functions of the plasmalemma in skeletal muscle.
-allow for stretching -assist action potential transmission (junctional folds) -help maintain acid-base balance -aid transport o f metabolites from blood to muscle fiber
Maximal aerobic power
(aka aerobic capacity, max O2 uptake, VO2 max) generally refers to maximal capacity for aerobic resynthesis of ATP primary limitations are cardiovascular system and muscle's ability to extract oxygen (mitochondrial capacity) multiple lab/non-lab tests
Size of microelectord fine tips
(.05 to 10 um) the sharper the time the greater the impedance meatl, common in vivor recordeing ex. tungsten
deletion
(1) A deficiency in a chromosome resulting from the loss of a fragment through breakage. (2) A mutational loss of one or more nucleotide pairs from a gene.
The evolution of a primary culture into a cell line
(1) Growth is relatively slow in the primary culture - (2) Growth enters a "log growth phase: where the growth curve is linear on a log scale. - (3) Finally, cells reach their lifetime limit and undergo senescence and death - The lifetime limit of a cell population is the Hayflick limit (~50 generations).
cleavage
(1) The process of cytokinesis in animal cells, characterized by pinching of the plasma membrane. (2) The succession of rapid cell divisions without significant growth during early embryonic development that converts the zygote to a ball of cells.
Krebs Cycle
(2 cycles for 1 glucose because glycolysis->2 pyruvate) -original carb broken down to CO2 and H+
adenosine triphosphate
(7.3 kcal/mol from each bond)
Critical Micellar Concetration
(CMC) when micelle aggregates form
reciprocal translocation
(Cytogenic Effects) Multi-hit chromosome aberrations that require karyotyopic analysis for detection deal with this type...
VO2maxr difference between men and women?
(FFM-fat free mass lower in women) at lean mass women hav emore body fat -women have slightly less hemoglobin
phosphocreatine
(PCr or Creatine Phosphate) -not directly used for cellular work, regenerates ATP to prevent ATP depletion (Pi from PCr combines with ADP using free energy) -limited supply -substrate level metabolism (anerobic) -ATP and PCr can sustain muscle energy needs for only 3-5 seconds
Hartline
(Researcher) ___ studied the vision of crabs to determine that stimulating one photoreceptor cell causes the activity of nearby photoreceptor cells to be depressed
transverse tubles
(T-tubules) interconnected extensions of the plasmalemma that passes laterally through the muscle fiber -allows nerve impulses received by plasmalemma to be transmitted rapidly to individual myofibrils -helps with waste removal (and entering substances)
functional decomposition
(Verb-Noun pairs) need to decompose the design into blocks that have verb-noun pairs and then draw input/output relationships between the blocks as well as label with appropriate specifications
What is the importance of membrane fluidity?
-allow membrane protein diffusion -redistribution of proteins and lipids from sit eo fsynthesis to final destination and following cell division -makes membrane fusion possible (fertilization, vesicles, myoblast)
The tissue-culture environment is defined by four main parameters:
1) a number of soluble factors, such as nutrients and growth factors; • 2) the composition and geometry of ECM; • 3) cell-cell interactions; and • 4) various pysiochemical factors
two was oxygen can be delievered in culture
-Oxygen can be delivered via fluid flow. • Oxygen concentration in the incoming stream (mols/vol) is multiplied by the flow rate (vol/time) to obtain the total amount of oxygen being delivered per unit time. • If cell densities are high the fluid flows often have to become unacceptably fast given the low solubility of oxygen. • Wide variations in oxygen concentrations between the inlet and outlet of the bioreactor can occur, potentially creating microenvironments of varying characteristics. - Oxygen can be delivered in situ over an oxygenation membrane. • At slow flow rates, compared to the lateral diffusion rate of oxygen, the oxygen in the incoming stream is quickly depleted, and the bulk of the cell bed is oxygenated from the gas phase via diffusion across the liquid layer. • This leads to uniform oxygen delivery that can be controlled independently of all other operating variables. • The gas-phase composition can be used to control the oxygen delivery.
Three key technologies that stimulated development of Nano-carriers fo controlled drug delivery
-PEGylation -acive targeting with antibodies, peptides and small molecule, cell-specific ligands -the EPR effect and passive targeting
Problem Space
-Question -Problems -Problem Telling -Market Expertise -Product Management
SCID
-Severe combined immunodeficienc
electronic conduction
-Spread of voltage by passive charge movemen spread of voltage by passive charge movement
How is ATPase different in different types of muscle fibers?
-Type I have slow form of ATPase -Type II have fast form of ATPase (ATPase stain used to ID fiber type) -fibers can have a mixture of ATPase types
thin filaments
-actin (backbone, globular protein), tropomyosin, troponin -each inserted into Z disk -every actin contain active sites for myosin head to bind -nebulin is a protein anchoring acting, helps mediate actin/myosin heads to bind
How is cellular pH maintained?
-aerobic mertabolism of glucose to yield CO2, with H20 makes HCO3- +H+ -accumulation of H+ lowers pH -transporters remove H+ or import HCO3- to lower pH (NA/H, NA+HCO3-/Cl-,Cl-/HCO3-)
What can restrict protein diffusion?
-aggregation -binding to molecules in the extracellular matrix -binding to molecules in the intracellular matix (ex. cytosk.) 0binding to molecules on other cells (junctions)
What are two general structures that the ECM is important to?
1) basal lamina (mats of ECM that supports dense sheets of epithelial cells) 2) connective tissues (regions rich in ECM and occasional cells)
flowcharting
-assist understanding processes (for improvement) -broad range of charts ex. clinical, decision, product matrix, objective tree
one way to make drug hydrophobic/hydrophilic
-attached OCOCH3 (hydrophobic) -ex. asprin (low water solubility) -attached COO- (hydrophilic) -ex. sodium salicyate (high water solubility) both have similar uptake and activity (the ex. drugs)
functions of the lipid membrane
-barrier between interior and exterior -limit diffusion of hydrophilic molecules -structure -docking site for proteins -regulate ion conentrations or pH
Examples of what AREN'T functions in a functional decomposition:
-battery/motor -processors -software -motor -container -purchasing -etc.
What happens to an n-linked oligosaccharide with no sugars?
-be detected is correctly folded and exit from ER -glucosytransferase senses presence of exposed hydrophobic side and will bind inorder to add another glucose so it can bind with calnexin or calreticulin
notebook
-bound books -sign & date -ink -no black spaces -don't modify -use past tense -explain abbreviations and special terms -don't notate on other medium -include experiments, objectives, rationale -stapel attachments -don't remove originals -provide detail -track notebook -save completed notebooks
SFS
-breakdown of PFS -quantitatively defines how the subsystem must perform -traceable
What can ECM turn into?
-calcify into bone and teeth -become rope-like to form tendons -form transparent matrix in the cornea
auxilary elements of a system?
-calibration -control & feedback -temporary data storage -communication
What enzyme cataylzes PCr metabolism?
-cataylzed by creatine kinase -helps separate Pi from creatine -activity increases chen concentrations of ADP + Pi is high (intense exercise), inhibited when ATP is high -becomes inhibited as other systems generate ATP activity is inhibited
constrains of morphogenesis
-cell number -size scale -time scale -energy expenditure
Types of Receptors
-cell surface -intracellular
oxidative system
-cellular respiration process by which the body breaks down susbtrates with the aid of oxygen to generate energy -aerobic -slow to turn on -primary method of energy production -energy can come from carbohydrates or fats
What does it mean to draw sketches in a Biological Design Space?
-chemical reaction block/flow diagram -reaction diagram -contact site diagram -mass equilibrium/flow diagrams -energy equilibrium/flow diagrams -redox equations -transfer rates -product constitutes -absorbution rates -energy generation/disapation rates
Successful Designers
-clarify problem -actively search for information -summarize information about problem -Don't suppress first solution ideas -Don't fixate on early solution concepts -produce limited variation that are periodically evaluated
What are the fibrous proteins of the ECM?
-colagen -elastin -fibronectin -laminin
working design team
-composed primarily of engineers -develope more detailed design specifications from product specifications -develop designs -ensure requirements are met through testing, provide test reports -may be divided into subteams
4 modes of signaling between cells
-contact-dependent -paracrine -neuronal (or synaptic) -endocrine/hormonal
GPCR signaling is stopped using multiple mechanisms. Describe the running in the background method.
1) Running in the background: • Binding of G to some receptors decreases the affinity of the receptor for ligand (increases its Kd) • GTP bound to G is hydrolyzed to GDP; RGS proteins critically enhance this process • Second messengers are eliminated (e.g. cAMP is converted to 5'AMP, Ca2+ is pumped back into the ER, etc...)
types of bioreactors
1. Spinner Flasks 2. Rotary Cell Culture Vessel STLV HARV 3. Rotating Wall Perfused Vessel 4. Perfused Column 5. Perfusion Chambers
Gsa
Gsa binds to and stimulates adenylyl cyclase, the enzyme that turns ATP into cAMP cAMP is an important second messenger for intracellular signaling.
GABA
A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Not enough=seizures, tremors, and insomnia.
tensile strength
A measure of how much stress from pulling, or tension, a material can withstand before breaking.
direct calorimetry
A method of determining a body's energy use by measuring heat that emanates from the body.
indirect calorimetry
A method of measuring a body's energy use by measuring its oxygen uptake and then using formulas to convert that gas exchange into energy use
bright field microscopy
A microscope that illuminates the specimen directly with bright light and forms a dark image on a brighter background.
ligand
A molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule. SIGNAL
amphipathic
A molecule that has both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region.
Retina
A multilayered sensory tissue that lines the back of the eye and contains the receptor cells to detect light.
epistasis
A type of gene interaction in which one gene alters the phenotypic effects of another gene that is independently inherited., One gene masks the expression of a different gene for a different trait
incomplete dominance
A type of inheritance in which two contrasting alleles contribute to the individual a trait not exactly like either parent; blending inheritance.
operant conditioning
A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. PUNISH REWARD
classical conditioning
A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events LINK
electrical synapse
A type of syanpse in which the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing ions (and therefore an action potential) to spread easily from cell to cell, usually in smooth and cardiac muscle. - compared to chemical synapse.
neutrophils
A type of white blood cell that engulfs invading microbes and contributes to the nonspecific defenses of the body against disease.
map unit
A unit of measurement of the distance between genes. One map unit is equivalent to a 1% recombination frequency. 300 recombinant offspring, out of 2000 total offspring. Map distance is calculated as (# Recombinants)/(Total offspring) X 100. So our map distance is (300/2000)x100, or 15 LMU.
bacteriophage
A virus that infects bacteria
triploidy
A zygote with three copies of each chromosome, so with a total of 69 chromosomes.
___ i scommonly used as areference electrode (such as in pH meter)
Ag/AgCl electrolyte contain the nanion Cl- and ideally also AgCl (found in stick ons for EKG)`
scanning electron microscopy
An electron microscope used to study the fine details of cell surfaces can operate at vacuum or near atmospheric (allowing for hydrated samples)
transmission electron microscopy
An electron microscope used to study the internal structure of thin sections of cells an electron microscope that transmits a beam through a specimen, detecting its electrons and forming a highly magnified image on a screen
reverse transcriptase
An enzyme encoded by some certain viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for DNA synthesis.
telomerase
An enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres. The enzyme includes a molecule of RNA that serves as a template for new telomere segments.
plyometrics
An exercise technique utilizing a sudden eccentric loading and stretching of muscles followed by a rapid concentric contraction. proposed to bridge gap between speed and strenth triaing ex. box jumpoing
patch clamp
An extraordinarily sensitive voltage clamp method that permits the measurement of ionic currents flowing through individual ion channels.
transgenic animals
Animals that contain genes transferred from other animals, usually from a different species
kinesin
Anterograde transport to microtubule (- > +) A special motor protien that moves along the microtubule toward its positive end; in most cells this movement is from the center to the periphery, in the axon it is anterograde transport
autosome
Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome
pili
Appendages that allow bacteria to attach to each other and to transfer DNA
pyramidal neurons
Are large, common (80% of all) and have glutamate as neurotransmitter, making them major excitatory component of cortex.
anterograde transport
Axoplasmic transport from a neuron's soma to the axon terminal.
Calnexin vs. Calreticulin
Both -lectins<-proteins that bind to carbohydrates, bind to terminal glucose of glyoprotein in the ER -single gluse n linked oligosaccharide (could be result of glycosidase trimming) -cal because both activated by calcium (in ER which is a storing spot for cellular ER) Calreticulin -soluble (let loose in lumen) Calnexin -transmembrane
"type 2" transmembrane protein
C-terminus in lumen (tail)
carbohydrate
Class of organic compounds containing only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen Carbon & water compound with a ratio of 1C:1H2
liposomes
Closed Lipid bilayer spheres that encapsulate ingredients, target their delivery to specific tissues of the skin, and control their release
oligodendrocyte
Form myelin sheath in CNS
CAAT box
Found in eukaryotes, it's found 70-85 bp upstream of the initial transcription site and serves as a consensus sequence. Used as a binding site for General Transcription Factors.
frank starling effect
Frank starling's law - increased preload leads to increased contractio
example of a passive transport carrrier proteins
GLUT1 (glucose conc. higher inside the cell, moves it to outside)
What byproduct of the Krebs Cycle can be directly used to convert ADP to ATP?
GTP byproduct (transfers Pi to ADP to form 2 ATP in substrate level phosphorylation
Each ___-a-subunit activate or inhibits specific target proteins. In a few cases, __ subunits also activat target proteins.
GTP, By
inducible genes
Genes whose expression is turned on by the presence of some substance. Regulate catabolic pathways.
horizontal
Going straight across from side to side
Where does COPI become involved in transport?
Golgi->ER Retrograde transport between golgi cisternae
Know the 4 families of trimeric G proteins and their subunits.
Gs->stimulatory Gi->Gs inhibitory Golf->smell Gt(transduction)-vision
surface vs trans membrane proteins
How proteins associate with the membrane affects their function Most proteins are transmembrane - one or more α-helices; securely anchored in place Transmembrane proteins either transport molecules or form pores (channels) Surface membrane proteins - weaker lipid-protein or protein-protein interactions Surface proteins - cytoskeletal interactions, cell motility, transduction of transient signals
HERG
Human ether a go-go Retlated a gene is a potassium channel. if blocked can cause arrythmias.
How is the GAG Hyaluronan unique?
Hyaluronan is a single long unsulfated chain with no protein component Unlike proteoglycans, which are created in the ER and Golgi, hyaluronan is spun out directly into the extracellular space by enzymes in the plasma membrane
IPSP
Hyperpolarization of a dendrite by a neurotransmitter -inhibitory postsynaptic potentia
What are the types of muscle fiber? Include hybrid types.
I Ic (I/IIa) IIc (IIa/I) IIa IIax IIxa IIx
What bands of a sarcomere include actin?
I band, A band
myelin basic protein
In EAE (experimental autoimmune encaphalomyelitis), the measles virus protein mimics What antigen is involved in multiple sclerosis?
Describe the mechanism of scurvy.
In the ER/Golgi, some proline and lysine residues become hydroxylated. This allows formation of the threestranded collagen helix. When hydroxyproline can't form (e.g. lack of vitamin C) scurvy results from loss of collagen stablity
ganglion cells
In the retina, the specialized neurons that connect to the bipolar cells; the bundled axons of the ganglion cells form the optic nerve.
pericentric inversion
Includes the centromere
3 eras of drug delivery?
Macro -ex. osmotic pump capsule, swelling/gelling hydrogel system Micro -ex. PGA and PLGA degradable sutures Nano -ex. PEGylation
"type 3" transmembrane protein
N-terminus in lumen (head)
How does permabilit of K and Na change with an action potential
Na increases as rises and decreases down.. at rest and afer the potential K is higher at peak N is higher than k
metabolic By-products of exercise
Pi: from rapid breakdown of PCr, ATP Heat Lactic acid: product of anaerobic glycolysis H+ lactic acid->lactate+H+
mid-sagittal
Plane dividing the body into equal left and right halves
How does cytosolic Ca2+ compare to extracellular concentrations?
The Ca2+ concentration in the cytosol is normally kept very low (0.1M) compared to the extracellular concentration (1 mM).
cytoarchitechture
The arrangement of neuronal cell bodies in various parts of the brain.
resting potential
The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane
resting potential
The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane -70 millivolt
G1 phase
The first gap, or growth phase, of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins.
pseudodominance
The phenotypic expression of a single recessive allele resulting from deletion of a dominant allele on the homologous chromosome
white matter
The portions of the central nervous system that are abundant in axons rather than cell bodies of neurons. The colour derives from the presence of the axon's myelin sheaths
complement cascade
The process by which a set of blood proteins triggers the release of chemicals that attack the cell membranes of pathogens, causing them to rupture.
autogenic inhibition
The process by which neural impulses that sense tension are greater than the impulses that cause muscles to contract, providing an inhibitory effect to the muscle spindles. golgi tendon organs-inhibit contration if tendon tension is too high to preven damage to bones and tendons training can decread inhibitor impulses
selective breeding
The process of selecting a few organisms with desired traits to serve as parents of the next generation
trigeminothalamic tract
What carries pain & temp sensation from the face?
VPL
What portion of the thalamus relays somatosensory information from the body via the medial lemniscus and spinothalamic?
radial glial process
What structures of the brain do new neurons migrate up to the cerebral cortex?
frequency summation
When a muscle fiber is exposed to frequent and prolonged stimulation, it cannot relax. The contractions combine and become stronger and more prolonged.
How does the signal sequence get inserted into the protein translocator (sec61)?
When it gets to a very hydrophoive section of the amino acid (the stop-transfer sequence) the protein will stop translocating and the translocater will open up and release the protein into the membrane
thimerosal
______heavy metal containing mercury; found in merthiolate; also used as a vaccine preservative and in cosmetics, nasal sprays, etc an ethylmercury based preservative used to prevent bacteria/fungal growth in vaccines. Controversy over thimerosal in childhood vaccinations being the cause autism. Despite being thoroughly disproved still a subject of debate.
gene interaction
a single trait is controlled by two or more genes, each of which has two or more alleles
dark field microscopy
a special condenser is used so only the light reflected off the specimen enters the objective
antibody
a substance produced by the body that destroys or inactivates an antigen that has entered the body
thrombin
a substance that participates in the clotting of blood in vertebrates
confocal microscopy
a technique in light microscopy used to reconstruct 3-D images in successive slices. Specimen are stained with flourochromes so they will emit light. Often used when studying cancer cells.
What is a test?
a test is a set of activities conducted on a part to verify -functionality -connectability -robustness -completeness -and adherance to constraints
RNase
a transferase that catalyzes the hydrolysis of ribonucleic acid
trapezoid body
a transverse band of fibers located rostrally within the medulla, and partially formed by fibers of vestibulocochlear nerv
agglutinogens
antigens on the surface of the RBC that is the basis for blood typing A and B antigens, cause agglutination, antibodies reacting to them are agglutinins
protease
any enzyme that catalyzes the splitting of proteins into smaller peptide fractions and amino acids by a process known as proteolysis, An enzyme that digests proteins by hydrolysis.
medical device
any item promoted for a medical purpose that does not rely on chemical action to achieve its intended effector by being metabolized
engineering design tools
any process or method that speeds design development -teamwork -brainstorming -documentation -estimation -prototyping & breadboarding -project management
Drug Delivery
approaches, formulations, technologies, and systems for transporting a pharmaceutical compound in the body as needed to safely achieve its desired therapeutic effect may involve -scientific-targeting within the body -facilitiaiting systemic pharmocokinetics concerned with both QUANTITY and DURATION of drug presence
limit of resolution for an electron microscope
approx. .15 nm
limit of conventional resolution of the light microscope
approx. .2 um
limit of super-resolution for light microscope
approx. 25 nm=.025 um
Multipass transmembrane proteins with amphipathic a-helices can create an __ __ in the membrnae
aqueous pore
complementation group
are a collection of mutation that do not complement each other meaning they are on the same gene (rr) thus express the same phenotype (-)
Cell signal responses depend on ___ and ____.
context (the cells they're signaling) & combinations
What type of operational mode is an EKG?
continuous, delayed-time
erythropoietin
contorls formation of erythrocytes from pluripotent stem cells in bone marrow A hormone produced and released by the kidney that stimulates the production of red blood cells by the bone marrow.
cerebrum senses ___ while cerebellum senses ___
contralateral, ipsilateral
2 main valued traits of a bioreactor
control factors and standardize
osmotic pump capsules
controled release of drugs in the GI tract; also diffusion controlled device with RCM
broca's area
controls language expression-area of the frontal lobe in left hemisphere that directs muscle movements invloved in speech
bioenergetics
converts energy substrates to energy that can be used
gyrus (gyri)
convolution
extravascular sensors
couple the vascular pressur eot an exteral sensor element via a liquid-filled catheter 3 way stopcock->pressure sensor flush tip with salin-heparin to prevent clotting cut down or percutaneous insertion low-freq responses (hydraulic system)
What aspects of exercise do the autonomic nervous system control?
heart rate, blood pressure, lung function (sympathetic->norepinephrine, parasympathetic->ACh)
reticular theory
held that the nervous system consisted of a large network of fused nerve cells
golgi tendon organ
help prevent overcontraction from golgi tendon reglex
dynamin
helps pinch off vesicles; is GTP-dependent
Bone marrow originates from ___ stem cells.
hematopoietic
cells can be counted using a
hemocytometer known vol find cells/ml
brest cancer genets?
her2
retinitis pigmentosa
hereditary, progressive disease marked by night blindness with atrophy and retinal pigment changes
GPCR's are coupled to ____ G-proteins (a, B, y subunits)
heterotimeric
The body is organized ____.
hierarchically
key difference between electrospraying and electrospinning
high ciscosity of polymer solutions and number of chain entagle ments in spinning jet instead of droplets, the entaglement prevents droplet formation during evaporation
Large proteoglycan aggregates can result from..
the noncovalent linkage of multiple proteoglycans to asingle hyaluron molecule
patellar tendon reflex
taped tendon stretches muscle->muscle spindles send afferent signals to spinal cord->sensory neurons synapse with a-motor neurons (interneuron inhibits contraction of opposing flexor in process)->excititory signal to same extensor muscle which responds by contracting
continuous training
targeting mitocondrial capacity A type of physical training that involves activity without rest intervals
polyubiquitin chain
targets protein for degradation by proteasomes; acts a signal; ubiquitin is not degraded itself but recycled, rusls from multiple ubiquitinations inorder to from tag that signals it as a target
telomeres can be repaired throught the enzyme ____
telomerase
melting profile
temp at which dsDNA/RNA is half disassociated into ssDNA/RNA
What are the 2 ways in which nerves sum potentials?
temporal and spatial
tonotopic mapping
temporal lobe has a map where certain tones are and certain frequencies on the cochlea are translated to sound
fertility factor
term given to the pili that forms the conjugation tube through which donor DNA is passed on to recipient.
TS
testing specifications -describe each test to be performed -equipment and facilities neded -before the design
the _________ regulates detection of pain impulses
thallamus
Dose-response relationship
the degree of response in the host in relation to the amount of material or toxicant present
rod and cone structure
the discs in rod are the rhodopsin cones have their own photopigment (Red, Green, or Blue opsin)
parasympathetic
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
GPI anchors are added to proteins destined for...
the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane.
Which step of the ETC requires oxygen?
the final step with protein complex IV
target
the naturally existing cellular or molecular structure involved in the pathology of interest that the drug-in-development is meant to act on
lateral fissure
the prominent horizontal groove separating the frontal and temporal lobes in each hemisphere
sensory modality
the property by which each unique type of sensation is distinguished
co-translational translocation
the protein is being transported into the RER while it is being translated highly conserved across secpcies -exception to rule->some proteins have signal sequence at C terminus->need post transnational translocations because it gets translated before the signal sequence arises
postsynaptic density
the protein thickly accumulated on the inside of the postsynaptic membrane, contains the neurotransmitter receptors, which convert the signal from chemical (intercellular) to electrical (intracellular).
Thereapeutic range
the range of doese associate with a reasonable probability of efficacy and iwth an acceptable probability of toxicity
therapeutic window
the range of therapeutically effecitive concentrations, which incluedes most of the efficacy curve and less than 10% of the soxicity curve
first order release
the release rate is proportional to the mass of the active agent contained within the device
Solution space
the set of possible solutions that answer the question being addressed
Problem space
the set of questions & specification necessary to fully ask a specific question
SRY
the sex determining region of the Y chromosome in males. Encodes the testis-determining factor, which turns the primordial gonads into the testes
induction
tissues will not begin to develop until cells of different types come into physical contact with one another
Why does the plasmalemma have folds?
to allow for stretching without disrupting the plasmalemma
Why is it important the protein translocater (Sec61) be closed most of the time?
to prevent leakage of calcium from the ER
If size is not an issue, why would you choose flourescent microscopy over light micrographs?
to single out specific structures (ex. tubulin in microtubules)
How does cooling rate affect cell survival in cryopreservations
too slow-hypertonic extracellular solutions cause dehydration tofasst-spontaneous nucleation of ice occurs wihtin the cells
Hormone receptors act as ___ ___.
transcription factors (hormone binding promotes transcription of specific genes)
What does "trp" stand for when applied to channels?
transient receptor potential
sec61
translocator protein pore in which interaction of hydrophobic aspect of peptide signal causes an opening of the pore so the polypeptide can translocate into the ER lumen
How are transmembrane proteins inserted into the ER?
transmembrane proteins -destined to remain in ER, golgi, lysosome, or plasma membranes -arrangement of these proteins is critical to function -2 classes: -single pass (insert 3 different wasy, n-term in lumen/c-term inctosol most common); -multi-pass: orientation depends on initial transmembrane segment insertion -GPI-anchor proteins are initialy single-pass transmembrane proteins
A single ribosome is approx .2 nm. What type of microscopy would you use to visualize it?
transmission electron microscopy
What happens to proteins that don't fold correctly in the ER?
transported out of the ER and degrade
polar and charged molecules/ions can move across the membrane via
transporter and channel proteins
SERCA
transports Ca ions from the cytosol to the lumen of the ER
