MKTG 310 Exam 2 Chapter 10 - Motivation, Personality, and Emotion

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

1. All humans acquire a similar set of motives through genetic endowment and social interaction. 2. Some motives are more basic or critical than others. 3. The more basic motives must be satisfied to a minimum level before other motives are activated. 4. As the basic motives become satisfied, more advanced motives come into play. Maslow's theory is a good guide to general behavior. It is not an ironclad rule, however. Numerous examples exist of individuals who sacrificed their lives for friends or ideas, or who gave up food and shelter to seek self-actualization. However, we do tend to regard such behavior as exceptional, which indicates the general validity of Maslow's overall approach

Need for Consistency (active, internal)

A basic desire is to have all facets of oneself consistent with each other. These facets include attitudes, behaviors, opinions, self-images, views of others, and so forth. Cognitive dissonance is a common motive of this type. For example, making a major purchase is not consistent with the need to save money. This inconsistency motivates the individual to reduce it

Avoidance-avoidance conflict

A choice involving only undesirable outcomes. When a consumer's old washing machine fails, this conflict may occur. The person may not want to spend money on a new washing machine, or pay to have the old one repaired, or go without one. The availability of credit is one way of reducing this motivational conflict. Advertisements emphasizing the importance of regular maintenance for cars, such as oil filter changes, also use this type of motive conflict: "Pay me now, or pay me (more) later."

Approach-avoidance conflict (instant bronzer)

A consumer facing a purchase choice with both positive and negative consequences Consumers who want a tan but don't want to risk the skin damage and health risks associated with extended sun exposure face this situation. Neutrogena's Instant Bronze sunless tanner resolves this problem by allowing consumers the aesthetic and social benefits of having a tan (approach) without the risk of skin cancer (avoidance).

Approach-approach conflict

A consumer who must choose between two attractive alternatives The more equal the attractions, the greater the conflict. A consumer who recently received a large cash gift for graduation (situational variable) might be torn between a trip to Hawaii (perhaps powered by a need for stimulation) and a new mountain bike (perhaps driven by the need for assertion). This conflict could be resolved by a timely ad designed to encourage one or the other action. Or a price modification, such as "buy now, pay later," could result in a resolution whereby both alternatives are selected.

Involvement

A motivational state caused by consumer perceptions that a product, brand, or advertisement is relevant or interesting. For example, watches may be involving because they tell time (utilitarian need), because they allow for self-expression (expressive need), or because they provide a way to fit in (affiliation need). In addition, the situation itself may influence involvement. For example, some consumers may be involved with computers on an ongoing basis (enduring involvement), while others may only be involved in specific situations such as an upcoming purchase (situational involvement).

Need for affiliation (active, external)

Affiliation refers to the need to develop mutually helpful and satisfying relationships with others. It relates to altruism and seeking acceptance and affection in interpersonal relations. As we saw in Chapter 7, group membership is a critical part of most consumers' lives, and many consumer decisions are based on the need to maintain satisfying relationships with others. Marketers frequently use such affiliation-based themes as "Your kids will love you for it" in advertisements.

laddering/constructing a means-end or benefit chain

Beyond projective techniques, a popular tool for identifying motives is laddering, or constructing a means-end or benefit chain. A product or brand is shown to a consumer, who names all the benefits that product might provide. For each of these benefits, the respondent is then asked to identify further benefits. This is repeated until no additional benefits are identified.

Teleological Need (passive, internal)

Consumers are pattern matchers who have images of desired outcomes or end states with which they compare their current situation. Behaviors are changed and the results are monitored in terms of movement toward the desired end state. This motive propels people to prefer mass media such as movies, television pro- grams, and books with outcomes that match their view of how the world should work (e.g., the good guys win). This has obvious implications for advertising messages.

Need for assertion (active, internal)

Many people are competitive achievers who seek success, admiration, and dominance. Important to them are power, accomplishment, and esteem.

manifest motives

Motives that are known and freely admitted several reasons, such as "They're in style," "My friends wear them," "I like the way they fit," or "They look good on me." However, there may be other reasons that the consumer is reluctant to admit or perhaps is not even aware of: "They show that I have money," "They make me sexually desirable," or "They show I'm trendy and urbane." All or any combination of the above motives could influence the purchase of clothes or many other items. The first group of motives mentioned above were known to the consumer and admitted to the researcher.

Need for reinforcement (passive, external)

People are often motivated to act in certain ways because they were rewarded for behaving that way in similar situations in the past. This is the basis for operant learning. Products designed to be used in public situations (clothing, furniture, and artwork) are frequently sold on the basis of the amount and type of reinforcement that will be received. Keepsake Diamonds has exploited this motive with an ad that states, "Enter a room and you are immediately surrounded by friends sharing your excitement."

Need for Tension Reduction (active, internal)

People encounter situations in their daily lives that create uncomfortable levels of stress. In order to effectively manage tension and stress, people are motivated to seek ways to reduce arousal. Recreational products and activities are often promoted in terms of tension relief.

Need to Categorize (passive, internal)

People have a need to categorize and organize the vast array of information and experiences they encounter in a meaningful yet manageable way,8 so they establish categories or mental partitions to help them do so. Prices are often categorized such that different prices connote different categories of goods. Automobiles over $20,000 and automobiles under $20,000 may elicit two different meanings because of information categorized on the basis of price level. Many firms price items at $9.95, $19.95, $49.95, and so forth. One reason is to avoid being categorized in the over $10, $20, or $50 group.

Need for stimulation (active, external)

People often seek variety and difference out of a need for stimulation.

Preservation oriented motives

Preservation- oriented motives emphasize the individual as striving to maintain equilibrium, while growth motives emphasize development. These four main categories are then further subdivided on the bases of source and objective of the motive: McGuire first divides motivation into four main categories using two criteria: 1. Is the mode of motivation cognitive or affective? 2. Is the motive focused on preservation of the status quo or on growth? 3. Is this behavior actively initiated or in response to the environment? 4. Does this behavior help the individual achieve a new internal or a new external rela-tionship to the environment?

Five-Factor Model

The multitrait theory used most commonly by marketers This theory identifies five basic traits formed by genetics and early learning. These core traits interact and manifest themselves in behaviors triggered by situations. 1. Extroversion: prefer to be in a large group rather than alone, talkative when with others, bold. 2. Instability: Moody, temperamental, touchy. 3. Agreeableness: Sympathetic, kind to others, polite to others. 4. Openness to experience: imaginative, appreciative of art, find novel solutions 5. Conscientiousness: careful, precise, efficient.

Need for Identification ( passive, internal )

The need for identification results in the consumer's playing various roles. A person may play the role of college student, sorority member, bookstore employee, fiancée, and many others. One gains pleasure from adding new, satisfying roles and by increasing the significance of roles already adopted. Marketers encourage consumers to assume new roles (become a skateboarder) and position products as critical for certain roles ("No working mother should be without one").

Need for Autonomy (active, internal)

The need for independence and individuality is a characteristic of the American culture

Need for modeling (passive, external)

The need for modeling reflects a tendency to base behavior on that of others. Modeling is a major means by which children learn to become consumers. The tendency to model explains some of the conformity that occurs within reference groups. Marketers use this motive by showing desirable types of individuals using their brands. American Express, for example, used Kate Winslet and Beyonce in its "My life. My card" campaign.

Need for Ego defense (passive, internal)

The need to defend one's identity or ego is another important motive. When one's identity is threatened, the person is motivated to protect his or her self-concept and utilize defensive behaviors and attitudes. Many products can provide ego defense. A consumer who feels insecure may rely on well-known brands for socially visible products to avoid any chance of making a socially incorrect purchase.

latent motives

The second group of motives described above either were unknown to the consumer or were such that he or she was reluctant to admit them.

Need for objectification (passive, external)

These motives reflect needs for observable cues or symbols that enable people to infer what they feel and know. Impressions, feelings, and attitudes are subtly established by viewing one's own behavior and that of others and drawing inferences as to what one feels and thinks. In many instances, clothing plays an important role in presenting the subtle meaning of a desired image and consumer lifestyle. Brands play a role in this

Utilitarian Need (passive, external)

These theories view the consumer as a problem solver who approaches situations as opportunities to acquire useful information or new skills. Thus, a consumer watching a situation comedy on television not only is being entertained but is learning clothing styles, lifestyle options, and so forth. Likewise, consumers may approach ads and salespeople as a source of learning for future decisions as well as for the current one.

Need for expression (active, external)

This motive deals with the need to express one's identity to others. People feel the need to let others know who and what they are by their actions, which include the purchase and use of goods. The purchase of many products, such as clothing and automobiles, allows consumers to express an identity to others because the products have symbolic meanings. For example, fashion-oriented watches such as Swatch satisfy more than the functional need to tell time they allow consumers to express who they are.

Need for attribution (active, external)

This set of motives deals with our need to determine who or what causes the things that happen to us and relates to an area of research called attribution theory.

brand personality

a particular type of image that some brands acquire. Brand personality is a set of human characteristics that become associated with a brand. Sincerity: down to earth, honest, wholesome, cheerful Excitement: daring, spirited, imaginative, up-to-date Competence: reliability, intelligent, successful Sophistication: upper class, charming Ruggedness: outdoorsy, tough

consumer emotional intelligence

ability to effectively cope with stressful situations. A person's ability to skillfully use emotional information to achieve a desirable consumer outcome. It is an ability variable rather than a personality trait. Consumers higher in emotional intelligence are better at perceiving, facilitating, understanding, and managing emotional information. For example, a consumer with higher emotional intelligence may understand better how to channel his or her feelings of anger over a service failure to obtain a solution that is desirable to the consumer. A failure to appropriately channel such feelings can result in "rage episodes," which appear to be on the increase in the United States. In response, firms need to better understand what triggers rage episodes and train their employees so they can (a) engage in behaviors to minimize their likelihood and (b) train their employees to effectively and safely handle such rage episodes when they do occur.

personality

an individual's characteristic response tendencies across similar situations. Thus, two consumers might have equal needs for tension reduction but differ in their level of extroversion, and, as a consequence, engage in very different behaviors designed to satisfy that need.

Affective motives

deal with the need to reach satisfying feeling states and to obtain personal goals.

projective techniques / motivation research

designed to provide information on latent motives. One example is the third-person technique whereby consumers provide reasons why "other people" might buy a certain brand. Oreo used projective techniques and was surprised to find that "many regarded Oreo as almost 'magical.'" As a result, "Unlocking the Magic of Oreo" became a campaign theme.

Cognitive motives

focus on the person's need for being adaptively oriented toward the environment and achieving a sense of meaning.

coping

involves consumer thoughts and behaviors in reaction to a stress inducing situation designed to reduce stress and achieve more desired positive emotions. Avoidance is a common mechanism. EX: when a decision involves a trade-off that evokes strong negative emotions (price vs. safety), consumers will often delay the purchase to avoid making a decision.

emotion

refer to the identifiable, specific feeling, and affect to refer to the liking-disliking aspect of the specific feeling. Emotions are generally evaluated (liked and disliked) in a consistent manner across individuals and within individuals over time, but there are cultural, individual, and situational variations EX: few of us generally want to be sad or afraid, yet we occasionally enjoy a movie or book that scares or saddens us.

Consumer ethnocentrism

reflects an individual difference in consumers propensity to be biased against the purchase of foreign products. Consumers low in ethnocentrism tend to be more open to other cultures, less conservative, and more open to purchasing foreign-made products. Consumers high in ethnocentrism tend to be less open to other cultures, more conservative, and more likely to reject foreign-made products in favor of domestics. As a consequence, Lexington furniture is tapping into pro-American sentiments by actively promoting the "Made in America" status of its Bob Timberlake line to retailers and consumers. Consumer ethnocentrism is a global phenomenon, thus also affecting perceptions of American brands doing business in other countries.

Promotion-focused motives

revolve around a desire for growth and development and are related to consumers' hopes and aspirations.

prevention-focused motives

revolve around a desire for safety and security and are related to consumers' sense of duties and obligations

Regulatory focus theory

suggests that consumers will react differently depending on which broad set of motives is most salient.

gratitude

the emotional appreciation for benefits received.

Motivation

the reason for behavior

Demand

the willingness to buy a particular product or service. It is caused by a need or motive, but it is not the motive. EX: a mouthwash ad might use a theme suggesting that without mouthwash people will not like you because you have bad breath. This message ties mouthwash to an existing need for affiliation in hopes of creating demand for the brand.

Motive

why an individual does something. a construct representing an unobservable inner force that stimulates and compels a behavioral response and provides specific direction to that response.