modern indian history

Bengal army

largest of imperial armies, center of dissatisfaction on eve of revolt due to annexation of Awadh + lack of proper pay

Indian Councils Act of 1909

legislative outcome of Morley's proposed reforms; create Indian majorities in provincial legislatures, full election; specific allocated seats for Muslims

civil lines

lines of demarcation that became norm in colonial cities, separating colonial buildings and European populations; church, club, polo, minimal interaction with Indians; military cantonments.. evidence of growing racial division

Great Trigonometrical survey

massive undertaking in 1818, map entirety of Indian subcontinent, largest such undertaking ever at the time

Ramsey

(1848-56) Marquis of Dalhousie, governor general dedicated to unifying, consolidating British control territorially and legally; pursued policy to augment networks of communication, transportation across India; exerted control over Punjab/Burma through effective military campaigns; implemented Doctrine of Lapse; expanded railroads to advance British political/economic interests; built Ganges canal; introduced postal service, telegraph lines, physical and legal infrastructure of modern state

rajputs

"sons of kings" aristocratic landed Hindu elite of Northern India, prominent players in society economically and politically through Mughal and imperial periods

Akbar

(1542-1602) Mughal ruler, grandson of Babur, ruled for 50 years, expanded empire both geographically and administratively; embraced diverse inclusive ruling elite to maintain power, incorporated Rajputs and other local elites in system dedicated to fostering loyalty in emperor; extremely well-cultured, period of religious and philosophical openness in royal court; created administrative system based on mansabs- expected to provide certain amount of tax $ or soldiers

Jahangir

(1569-1627) son of Akbar, became Mughal emperor upon father's death, continued many of the same policies (small ruling loyal elite, open culture court, mansabdari)

Shah Jahan

(1592-1666) son of Jahangir, ruler of Mughal empire; continued territorial expansion, built Taj Mahal and many gardens and cities

Aurangzeb

(1618-1707) last of great Mughal emperors; criticized in recent scholarship for bankrupting the empire and exaggerating rebellions; maximum extent of empire, large scale invasion of Deccan plateau

Bhonsle

(1630-1680) Marathas General who led forces against invading Mughal emperor, came from farming background, evidence of social mobility amongst castes in Mughal period

Waliullah

(1703-1762) Muslim thinker who played prominent role in Delhi court, focused on study of Prophet's sayings/teachings in hadiths, spiritual founder of Islam in North India

Clive

(1725-74) British officer with reputation from numerous conflicts marched on Calcutta from Madras, retook city in 1757

Hastings

(1732-1818) first governor general for company raj, appointment accompanies by Regulation Acts that attempted to subvert company to British control by doing away with private trading by individuals; he believed there existed a fixed body of laws created during antiquity that was corrupted by 18th century; believed in distinct codes of law for Hindus & Muslims; instituted 'collector' position to gain revenue, relied on Indians due to small civil service; dramatically increased recruitment of Indian soldiers; set about collecting knowledge of geography, culture, language, people

war of Austrian Succession

(1744-48) military conflict initiated in Europe buy played out on Indian soil- French intervened in succession, disputes with Indian states to gain favorable position over English, who retaliated-- in doing so, began long history of intervention in domestic affairs of local states/rulers

Cornwallis

(1785-93) successor to Hastings, governor general who dismissed all Indian tax collectors and blamed them for fiscal chaos; reform guaranteed that collectors would be incorruptible through higher payment and monopoly on civil servant positions; condemned concubine relationships between British men and bibis, implemented Bengal Permanent settlement

Wellesly

(1798-1805) governor general, created college of Fort William in Calcutta as place for incoming civil servants to learn local languages before their appointment, initiated 20 years of conquest by directing NW conquest along Ganges against Marathas

Bentinck

(1828-35) governor general that focused on reforming raj policy along liberal lines; abolished practice of sati through legislature in 1829 despite it being uncommon

Battle of Plassey

1757 General Clive defeated Nawab with assistance of Bengali General Jafar who defected in the middle of the battle for promised Nawab position; he was removed, left power vacuum

Battle of Buxar

1764 final battle for control of East India, dissastified Bengali Gerenal, Mugahl emperor, nawab of Awadh defeated by British in hard-fought battle

Bengal permanent settlement

1793 reform in an attempt to create fixed land owning class, based on the belief that land was the key to wealth/stability in society; vested in province's zamindars full property rights along with fixed revenue requirements; misconceived system of land-use right that existed prior to colonization; peasants lost land-use rights and became tenants; zamindars defaulted on payments, forced to sell land to civil servants and wealthy merchants, Bengali landowners became class of renters not investing in agriculture

Asiatic society of Bengal

1804, leadership of Sir William Jones, dedicated to study of religious texts of ancient India, worked with Sanskrit scholars to create a history for Indians, linked with Greeks and Romans through Indo-European language and Aryan invasion

Government of India Act

1858 House of Commons passed statue officially dissolving BEICo and transferring administration to government; company raj to crown raj; created Secretary of State advised by Council, authority in India to Viceroy

Municipal Council Act

1882 act that gave the responsibilities of sanitation, education, police, tax collection to local bodies

Indian National Congress

1885, political organization founded by English-educated Indian lawyers, foundation of like-minded individuals interested in nationalism; from onset attempt to include Muslims but many rejected, argued identity based on religion; originally did not challenge British rule, advocated for greater Indian role in governance, ICS

Indian Councils Act 1892

1892, allowed for limited election for legislative councils, opened up provincial councils to discussion of annual budget

Punjab Land Alienation Act

1901 statute passed by imperial government that prohibited the sale of land to 'non agricultural' classes, aim of act was to relieve often debt-ridden tenants but actually strengthened landlords and Muslim interests against urban Hindu moneylenders; prevented investment in new agricultural practices

Petition of Bengal

1905 split between W and E Bengal, Muslim majority in East and non-Bengalis majority in West- infuriated middle class; boycott of British made goods, terrorist activities, Hindu middle class led movement, rallying cry for Indians, revitalized National Congress, split Congress between moderates and extremists, Muslims alienated and supported petition

3 boons at imperial durbar

1911 1. moved capital from Calcutta to Delhi in attempt to identify British rule with traditional Mughal authority 2. revocation of partition of Bengal, reorganization of provinces of Eastern India 3. Bengal raised to status of governor's province, on par with Bombay and Madras, recognize importance to imperial governance

print culture

19th century, publications of various resources disseminated widely; fostered public debate; developed in Calcutta and spread to urban centers then countryside; prominent means of fostering national identity, mobilizing individuals

Ramakrishna

Bengali religious leader who advocated for more modest reform than arya samaj; follow divine within, did not criticize idol worship or caste, inspired Ghandi

Rudyard Kipling

British author, wrote extensively about India, novel Kim depicted India as populated by groups of distinct and unchanging castes, significant in shaping perception of India in UK and world

Brahmanization of Indian law

British insisted that there existed a fixed set of laws to govern Hindus from ancient texts; relied upon learned Brahman scholars to translate Sanskrit text into Persian, then to English; Brahman upper class able to shape the nature of ancient law

Tilak

Hindu nationalist who celebrated Hinduism and called for end to colonial rule; news and publications, forcefully critiqued imperial governance; celebrated Ganesh to separate nationalism from Islam, protected cows

sepoys

Indian soldiers recruited into the Imperial army, made up vast majority from 18th century on; originally high caste Hindus in UP; post-1857 recruited primarily from Punjab and Sikh populated areas; position was a way for young men to earn substantial income, crucial group in conflict

Sahib

Queen regent of recently annexed Awadh, rose up against British and attempted to take control of mass uprisings; killed in battle

British East India Co

company chartered in 1600, purpose of trading in India/S Pacific, initially had no products desirable so traded goods for bullion, heavily monetarizing the Indian economy; initially couldn't challenge Mughals so pursued profitable trade in indigo/textiles; after 1617, established trading houses in specific cities along the coast (Surat); by 1700, 3 trading capitals in Calcutta, Bombay, Madras defended against military invasion

Dutch East India Co

company chartered in 1602, powerful monopoly in profitable trade of spice in Indonesia and islands, had prominent foothold in India before British arrived

durbar view

concept of Indian society prominent after 1857, perceived to be static, many social groups, consolation by British with natural leaders was key to maintaining peace/stability, largely ignored social mobility and dynamic nature

triptych of history

conception by British that divides into 3 categories: hindus (great ancient society) Muslims (intro of despotism, religious tension), British (foreign rule characterized by benevolence, modernization)

Deb

contemporary of RM Roy, founded dharma sabha as counter weight to brahmo samaj, advocated for more traditional form of Hinduism, rallied support around conservative agenda, opposed colonial gov involvement in daily life

aftermath of Plassey

initially did not seek conquest but power vacuum necessitate that British assume governance; became sovereign rulers of Bengal, ability to collect taxes meant British received massive cash payments -- used tax money to pay for goods, no longer needed to import bullion

zamindars

land-owners, local rulers, homogenized under Mughals, received a plot of farmland for temporary use in return for collecting taxes for the central government; would later be wrongly conceived as middle class by British

vernacular

langauges included Hindi, Bengali, Tamil, Urdu.. cultural explosion following 1857 as increased communication and transportation networks allowed the diffusion of ideas/publications; vernacular newspaper, journalists, novels

Malaviya

prominent Indian nationalist, voiced criticism of system of indentured servitude whereby Indian peasants were sent to do labor in other colonies, founded BHU, fostered idea of greater India as one unified nation

Khan

prominent Muslim leader and reformer, pioneered new education for Muslims, create Anglo Oriental College, remained loyal to British; expressed skepticism about nationalist movement

Faraizi

a religious movement centered in East Bengal led by prominent Islamic scholar Shariat Allah; organized farmers and members of rural communities against Hindu elite; son led cultivators to petition directly for rights against Hindu landowners

deoband

a socioreligious reform movement amongst Muslims, rejected rationalist; sufi traditions; grew in Madras schools, Urdu language, network across north India

revenue farmer

administrative device that emerged toward end of Mughal rule in competing states- far bid to pay set level of taxes to treasurer in exchange for right to extract taxes from specific area; could be extremely exploitative but if contract was long-term, could promote growth and investment; removed Mughal system of competing civil/military lines of admin

Shah

aged Mughal emperor during 1857; coerced by mutinous soldiers to approve revolt; upon its failure he was exiled

Anglo-Indians

race of mix blood from Indian woman + British man; not accepted by either population; lived in self-contained communities along railways as a buffer population

traditionalist

reform movements both social and religious (deoband, remakrishna) advocate adherence to traditional documents, practices; aware of modern social context, response to changing aspect of society under colonial rule after 1857

hill stations

communities in hilly regions where British went on vacation, favorable climate; shows degree to which colonial population sought to escape contact with Indians after 1857

collector

crucial position in British colonial administration introduced by Hastings, primary function was to collect taxes from specific area; also controlled police/court systems. "hinge piece" because they reported to British supervisor and oversaw Indian civil servants

subsidiary alliance system

diplomatic system by which British expanded political influence territorial control- housed troops in a state as protection against enemies, forced prince/ruler to finance the cost of troops and let British consultant sit on court; eventually prince could not afford housing troops and British used this as pretext to move in, gain control, led to indirect rule, prince remained nominally in power but under control of British

3 Fault Lines of Mughal rule

drained empire of resources + power -zamindars, local elites with connections to peasantry and local community -princes, remained in power under Mughal authority but retained administrative control, ended up exerting power and expanding control (Rajputs seen in national context of Hindus rising up against Islamic rulers) -provincial governors, administrators that gained hereditary control of area, developed ties

theory of martial races

emerged after revolution, idea that identified certain races to be more adept soldiers, based on loyalty of Punjabs and Sikhs during uprising. These 2 + Jats made up vast majority of imperial army by 1875 --substantial effect on Public upon independence

Vijayanagara empire

established in 1336, last over 3 centuries, height at 15th/16th when kingdom dominated most of Southern India; ruled by Hindus substantially distinguishing itself from Northern Muslim-ruled kingdoms; utilized military technology from Delhi sultanates such as mounted warriors to advance boundaries

Mughal empire

established in 1526 by Zahir Babur, Mughal stimulated a new level of settled agriculture, military capability, geographic integration

census

first official census 1872, permanent established Survey of India in 1878, indicates attempts to identify and classify various races/castes to exert greater control

ryotwari

form of settlement of agricultural land first pioneered in Southern India by Munro; alternative to reliance on zamindar class, romantic notion of the peasant; invested ownership of land with peasant cultivator (ryot); often local elites corrupted allotment but remained important

Tata

founder of corporations that now dominate India, opened mills, steel, iron companies, evidence of Indian business man who prospered under imperial rule

Naoroji

grand old man of Indian nationalism- first Indian to sit in House of Commons, pointed out exploitative nature of imperial economy and drain on Indian economy

municipal boards

growth of local government bodies after 1858 proclamation- in charge of sanitation, local tax collection, education, police force; included princes and urban elites seen as conservative bulwark against masses by British; experiment of liberal philosophy

ilbert bill

hugely controversial statute by viceroy 1883; extended policy that Indian civil servants could preside over judicial hearings involving Europeans; created outrage amongst Europeans, soon overturned, privilege inside Presidential cities revoked.. deep feelings of racial superiority, limit to which Indians could rise in ICS

conquest of Bengal

mid 18th century, Bengal was most profitable trade area for BEICo; in attempt to maximize profit, British abused fair trade policy by trading in bulk goods such as grain; 1756 Nawab of Bengal perceived threat to independence, marched on Calcutta, seized garrison, imprisoned survivors, "Black Hole of Calcutta" outraged British at home

mansab

military rank, compensation was by the revenue of a 'jagir', an area of land which was not given to the 'mansabdar' but he could use the revenue from the land for his expenses and compensation

Ram Mohan Roy

most influential Bengali scholar of the period; attempted to come to grips with colonial rule and traditional practices/norms; attempted to create philosophy of rationalist and monotheist modern India; founded Brahmo samaj, promotion of improvement and enlightenment drew him to English liberals, did not repudiate Hindu past, found a doctrine of pure Hinduism, against idolatry and sati

military fiscalism

new form of governance pioneered by cash hungry states in 18th century, highly monetized system, states turned to private financiers (bankers, wealth merchants) for cash loans, money used to pay growing standing armies of mercenaries-- led to downfall of many states, became heavily indebted to European trading companies

Sir Lawrence

newly appointed chief-commissioner of Lucknow, secured lives of loyal Indians + English during seige; killed in battle, martyr in England, tomb decorate, mutiny tours; 1857 also shaped English identity

Gokhale

one of the first nationalists, professor, served on regional and local councils.. example of incorporation of Indians into decision making bodies

sabhas

organization, began to be formed after census as pseudo interest groups, organized along caste or SE status, evidence of growing identification, crystallized caste identities and lessened social mobility; treatment of women common shared identity

cow societies

organizations dedicated to formally petitioning the government to legislate against cow slaughter; protection showed strength to Europeans; not originally linked toward Muslim antagonism

Orientalist

philosophical, ideological approach to Western interactions with Asia, sympathetic to their achievements, pioneered by Jones and Asiatic society, perceived West as superior but saw connections between great ancient civilizations

liberalism

philosophy, ideology generated during Enlightenment that was rigorously applied to the management of India, opposed to Romantic/Orientalist; emphasized getting rid of despotism, priest-craft, superstition

Doctrine of Lapse

policy implemented by Dalhousie, formerly 'independent' principalities seized by BIECo upon death of a ruler-- gained control of 7 states in 7 years, final annexation of Awadh was catalyst for 1857 conflict

sedentarization

process undertaken early 19th century by BIECo to force nomadic/unsettled people into permanent lots; focused on pastoral forest people, tribal groups treated as bands of thieves, hunted down, thagi (thugee)

Macaulay

prominent English liberal working in India, publish Minute on Education 1835, addressed need to reform education of Indians to a more Western format; epitomized the Anglicist position; wanted to create a class of Indians scientifically/culturally trained in Western fashion

Birlas

prominent Indian business family that started a trading house, traded textiles and steel, prospered on producing goods that the British did not pursue (cheap cloth)

diwani

right of administration granted to British by Mughal emperor treaty following victory at Buxar; nominally Bengal remained province of empire under tax collection of British (reality: British were sovereign power in Bengal) company remained hesitant to take on diwani responsibility until 1772, realized huge commercial potential and stepped up to exercise full control

Delhi sultanate

series of Afghan/Turk invaders that dominated political life of North India beginning in 13th century, foreigners but part of larger Persian speaking community of central Asia that made them familiar. Sought military conquest + land rights to extract taxes from peasantry; Muslim but not religious leaders-patronized arts as well as holy men, did not convert nor military conscription, allowed people to be ruled by own customs, law; culturally pluralistic; by 15th/16th centuries, many regional kingdoms

arya samaj

socio-religious reform movement, 1857 founded by Saraswati; defiantly Hindu, Vedas as seminal texts; criticized idol worship and polytheism; advocated women's rights, opposed child marriage, supported widow marriage; evidence of growing reform within society as opposed to legislation-based

Indian civil service

the administrative structure that ruled India both under the company and crown raj; famed for efficiency, impartiality, incorruptibility; access to jobs in the ICS for Indians was a major point of contention (test was in GB, English), appointment replaced by exams 1853

home charges

the expenses of running the BIECo generated in England, pensions for workers, debt service, army supplies, maintaining offices in London; facilitated drain on Indian economy; would later become nationalist symbols of British exploitation

Lord Curzon

viceroy, convinced that effective administration was by autocratic government; did not include Indians in governance; initiated partition of Bengal

Lee Enfield rifle

weapon issued to sepoys; cartridge supposedly covered in pig/cow fat, required biting into which offended religious customs of Hindus & Muslims; degree to which rifle set off mutiny debated