Modern Middle East Final Exam

Anti-Americanism

domestic consumption propaganda item frustration around Western intervention in Middle East and on Terror - no distinctions between terror group from USA lens 2003 invasion of Iraq and USA support for Israel

Justice and Development Party (Turkey)

established 2001 platform (distinct from political Islam) - economically liberal, democratic values, Islamic values, social policy JDP Government (2002-2013) - economy grew - tried and failed for EU membership (Cyprus) - Kurdish problem (some improvement) -secular backlash organized by soldiers - democracy -> juristocracy

2500 Anniversary of Persian Monarchy Celebrations

extravagant party/display of wealth by Shah royal and religious figures from all over world show world that Iran was under Shah's rule highlight Iran's ancient civilization and history extravagance criticized

Turgut Ozal

formed Motherland Party in 1983 after military ban on political parties was lifted wins election continues economic liberalization for social change - decreased gov control, free interest rates, free foreign exchange rates, liberalized foreign trade, export emphasis, privitzation - people prosper

Muslim Brotherhood

founded 1928 by Hasan al-Banna social and political restoration of Egypt intimately tied to restoration of Islam as guiding force in national life wanted Shari'ah law help Muslims take advantage of 20th century without losing commitment to Islamic values constant conflict and repression with Egyptian government

Gulf War

prelude - Iran-Iraq War - Iraq accumulated massive debt and needed water access Kuwait - British satellite and oil fields USA and UN coalition - many Arabs join Operation Desert Storm/Shield - 42 days of air bombardment - UN - make Iraq withdraw and sanctions - USA ground operation only 100 hours uprisings in North and South against Iraqi gov UN Resolution 687 - destroy chemical and biological weapons pay Kuwait reparations and accept boundary consequences - defiant and uncertain Saddam (WMDs?) - 1996 Oil for Food - destroy Iraqi infrastructure - about 200,000 Iraqi deaths

Mohammad Mosaddeq

1882-1967 opposed Reza Khan patriotism and liberal views led National Front cornerstone - nationalization of Iranian oil 1953 Coup - Operation Ajax - by USA and British forces with Shah - Tudeh party grew then banned - Mosaddeq removed from power and imprisoned

United Arab Republic

1958-1971 sovereign state political union between Syria and Egypt 1958-1961 Egypt called UAR until 1971 led by Nasser first step toward larger pan-Arab state leading advocate - Baath Party

Algiers Agreement

1975 settled dispute between Iran and Iraq over Shatt al-Arab (river) Iran had been refusing to pay tolls and supporting Kurdish revolution Iraq made large concessions would contribute to Iran-Iraq War

Lebanese Civil War

1975-1990 class war spark - bus of Palestinian refugees attacked by Hezbollah (Christian guerrillas) economical and mortal devastation Maronites (Lebanese forces) vs PLO vs Sunni/secular sects (Lebanese National Movement) caused by distribution of power in Lebanese gov system ceasefire 1989 somewhat resolved Hezbollah still active Palestinian refugee problem

Iran-Iraq War

1980-1988 Iran wants to export revolution to Middle East but Saddam in the way prelude - Algiers Agreement June 1979 - Iran openly encourages Iraqis to rise up, supporting Kurds again tensions into heavy fighting in Aug 1980 about equal military forces Iraq - Saddam underestimated, confusing objectives, chemical weapons Iran - human shield, political influence, paramilitary groups economic targets (esp. oil) heavily ideological severe economic, political, and social consequences - worse for Iraq

Essay 2: What are some of the historical reasons behind anti-Westernism in Iran? What were some of the political, social, and economic reasons for the Iranian Revolution? What are the causes and consequences of Iran-Iraq war? What role did this war play in the consolidation of Iranian revolution?

Anti-Westernism in Iran - Mosaddeq's coup - US reaped oil benefits and increasing military presence Reasons for Iranian Revolution - White Revolution 1963 - economic growth then depression - sociopolitical repression Iran-Iraq War - export revolution - Algiers Agreement - Saddam invasion - limited debt - Khomeini dies and progressives take over

Intifada

Arabic for "shaking off" Dec 8, 1987 - Israeli military truck hit carload of Palestinian laborers (killed 4) riots - Gaza Strip, West Bank, Jerusalem 5 years youth involvement Jan 1988 - Unified National Leadership of the Uprising - speaking for all rebels, under PLO put Palestinian cause on international radar

Essay 1: 20th century Middle East witnessed rise of considerable number of "men of order"s (one-man rules). What are the overall reasons for the emergence of these types of personalities as the dominant political figures in the region? Compare and contrast at least two examples from different countries and discuss the particular conditions that led them to rise to, consolidate, and stay in power. A group of scholars argue that Middle Eastern culture and civilization have intrinsic values that are not compatible with democracy, and that is the reason according to them, why so many authoritarian rulers emerged in this region. Do you agree with that statement? Why or why not? What do you think are the reasons for the Middle Eastern countries "failure" or "unwillingness" to become democratic societies?

Egypt: Nasser, Sadat, Mubarak Iran: Mohammad Reza Shah and Ayatollah Khomeini COMPARE - both countries desire independence from Western powers and control over Middle East (UAR, exporting Revolution) - "democracy" or "socialism" but claim people aren't ready - squash opposition CONTRAST - Egypt - extreme secularism + Suez Canal - Iran - extreme religion + oil

Yitzhak Rabin

Israel's ambassador to USA - 1968-1973 - deepening USA and Israel ties PM of Israel in 1974, 1992 (Minister of Defense 1984-1990) signed Oslo Accords with PLO and letters of mutual recognition

Essay 3: United States involved in various conflicts in the Middle East. Discuss the milestones of this involvement. What do you think is the driving force for the U.S.' continued interest in the region? What are some of the major reasons for Anti-Americanism in the Middle East?

Milestones - Operation Ajax/Mosaddeq coup - Israel - Gulf War - 1973 Oil Crisis Reasons for US Involvement - oil - War on Terror - protection of Israel Reasons for Anti-Americanism - propaganda tool - anti-imperialism and colonialism - hatred of Israel - desire for independence

Camp David Accords

September 1978 USA Carter, Egypt Sadat, Israel Begin framework for historic peace treaty between Israel and Egypt in March 1979

Oslo Accords

agreement of mutual recognition between Israel and PLO Oslo 1 - calls for Israel to withdraw from Gaza and Jericho and give power to "Palestinian Authority: Oslo 2 - outlined powers and duties of Palestinian Authority - divided up West Bank into areas of varying Israeli, PA, and shared control

Osama bin Laden

angered by what he perceived as anti-Islamic US foreign policy and un-Islamic policies of ruling elite in most Islamic countries radical terrorist and leader of al-Qaeda planned 9/11

Anwar Sadat

came to power after Nasser's sudden death challenged/overturned nearly all of Nasser's policies Islamization of Egypt - make religious again (like Israel) - attacked leftist students at Cairo U sit in open door economic policy - prosperity and capitalism to get in USA political influence sphere - wealth only for rich bread riots by poor

Yasser Arafat

chairman of PLO and founding member of Fatah Fatah - founded late 1950s - nationalist message - goal of establishing independent, democratic state of Palestine solution moves away from armed struggle to two-state solution

Tudeh Party

communist party of Iran supported by Soviets supported Islamic Revolution by organizing regional committees role during Mosaddeq's campaign to national Anglo-Persian oil company heavily persecuted and banned in 1949 - went underground

Aytollah Khomeini

leader of Islamic Revolution clerical conservatism and radial populism Imam of Muslim World - no political office exiled but returned to Iran in 1979 - new constitution and Commander of Revolution wanted to export Islamic Revolution across Middle East

Post-Modern Coup (February 28, 1997 - Turkey)

military intervenes to force resignation of PM Erbakan he was out in 18 months because he put strict limits on people's everyday lives headscarf ban at universities

White Revolution (Iran)

modernize Iran from top-down land reforms profit sharing literacy and health corps women's suffrage nationalization of forests paved way for Golden Age of Iran (next decade after 1963)

Alawites

offshoot of Shiism prevalent in Syria consider themselves separate ethnoreligious group attended French military academy - section of population heavily armed with military experience

Anglo-Iranian Oil Company

opposed nationalization Mosaddeq nationalized Iranian oil Western powers (British, USA, etc) boycotted Iranian oil - Iran couldn't sell its oil even when they had control over it

Baath Party

pan-Arabism, socialist, secular formation of single Are socialist region/nation state non-alignment position to imperialism and colonialism transcend class divisions but also authoritarian inspiration from Islam - brotherhood, charity, dignity, respect - but no religious law

Positive Neutrality

policy of Egypt's non-engagement with any world powers (East or West) under Nasser wanted to be independent (British past) keep Egypt out of trouble

Revolutionary Guards

poor/working class men police force that enforced morality of regime and ad-hoc justice against opponents of Revolution became formal part of military after Revolution

Gamal Abd al-Nasser

removed King Faruk after bloodless coup independence, neutrality, social justice middle between secularization and Islam Nasserism - pan-Arabism, United Arab Republic, positive neutrality, Arab socialism nationalized Suez Canal great politician but not great soldier - struggled against Israel government controlled everything restrict land ownership, free education

1973 Oil Crisis

result of 1973 War October 17, 1973 - Arab members of OPEC to reduce oil production by 5% until Israel withdrew from occupied Arab territories Oct 19 - Saudi Arabia suspended all oil to USA International crisis - oil prices soar reason for USA to seek peaceful settlement of Arab-Israeli conflict because of dependency on foreign oil

SAVAK

secret police of Iran under Shah censor media, screen gov job applicants, torture and hunt down Shah's opponents domestic intelligence agency/Shah's mafia why Iranians grew weary of Shah's regime

1982 Hama Massacre

suppressed with unprecedented brutality - 10K killed, many tortured and wounded Hama destroyed as city Syrian army and defense companies under Asad besieged Hama for 27 days in order to quell Muslim Brotherhood's uprising against Asad's government