Motivation

What effect did early sensory restriction have on dogs in the experiment by Thompson and Melzack?

- The isolated dogs were extremely active, exploratory and playful when they were let free. - Unable to learn how to avoid pain, unlike the normal dogs - The isolated dogs were unable to problem-solve like the normal dogs

What are the brain areas implemented in the regulation of aggression?

-hypothalamus - cortex -limbic system -lateral hypothalamus -ventromedial hypothalamus

Name and define the seven types of aggression (Moyer, 1971).

-predatory: aggression elicited by a natural object of prey. intermale aggression: aggression released by the presence of another male; attack is usually without provocation - fear-induced aggression: aggression that occurs when escape is bloacked - irritable aggression: aggression described as anger or rage -territorial aggression: in defense of a territory; usually against its own species - maternal aggression: aggression involving defense of the young. Usually females - instrumental aggression: aggressive behaviour that is a learned response and is performed when the response is reinforced.

Give examples of learning through observation (modeling).

-sports -child learns to walk -kid learns to cook from watching his mom -kid starts to curse after hearing parents cursing

In the theory of social facilitation and inhibition define and provide examples of: coaction effect, audience effect

1. coaction effect - the energizing of behaviour as a result of the presence of others. 2. audience effect - the energizing of behaviour also occurs if one is behaving in front of an audience.

Outline how cognitive dissonance theory explains: induced compliance, justification of effort

1. induced compliance - if one behaves in a way but cannot justify the conflict of the behaviour with one's attitudes, dissonance should occur, and attitude change should follow. (Stan driving the speed limit) 2. justification of effort- dissonance theory also predicts that the more effort we expend in order to reach a goal, the more we will value the object of our goal. (severe initiation in a frat would lead to liking the frat more)

How is the concept of motivation both an intervening variable and a performance variable?

: An intervening variable links a stimulus to a response and helps to relate the two. The concept of motivation serves to link the stimulus change (food deprivation) to the behaviour change (increased running speed) and provides an explanation for the relationship between the stimulus and response. Psychologists also describe the temporary nature of motivation by pointing out that motivation is a performance variable; when motivation is present, the behaviour is performed, but when motivation is too low the behaviour is absent (homework).

Define classical conditioning and its four main concepts of UCS, UCR, CS and CR.

A formerly neutral stimulus gains the ability to elicit a response from an organism because it has been associated with some other stimulus that reliably elicited that response in the past. UCS- a stimulus that's effect on behaviour is unlearned or automatic (meat powder) UCR- a response to a UCS that is unlearned (salivation) CS- previously a neutral stimulus but developed the ability to elicit a response (bell) CR- the learned response to a conditioned stimulus (salivation).

What is the gate control theory of pain and what role do endogenous opiates play?

A model of pain that emphasizes the role of higher brain processes in controlling the experience of pain and a modulating system within the spinal cord that influences how much pain information reaches the brain. The pain control gates are modulated by neurotransmitter changes involving the endogenous opiates.

Define what a conditional emotional response is and how the terms of classical conditioning can be applied to the training procedure used to induce it in rats.

A rat learns to press a lever, on a schedule, in order to receive food. Once behaviour is consistent with the schedule, a paring of tone and shock are applied. If the tone is applied without the shock the rat will stop pressing the lever for food. A conditioned fear is generated and that has the effect of stopping the lever pressing action.

What is SSS and what are its four subscales?

A reliable measure of the differences in the level of stimulation that people seek out. a. Thrill and adventure seeking b. experience seeking c. disinhibition d. boredom susceptibility

Give an example of how a token economy can alter behaviour.

A token economy was used to reduce a 10-year old's throat clearings. He cleared his throat sometimes 390 times in a 5-hour period. After 23 days of in which he received token for reduced throat clearings, the behaviour dropped to as few as 3 per 5-hour period.

What is Ajzen's theory of planned behaviour?

According to Aizen, a strong predictor of behaviour is one's intention to perform or not perform a given action, because intentions provide us with a measure of how much effort someone is willing to expend. There factors that determine intention: actual behavioural control (time and ability), perceived behavioural control (belief in one's ability to perform a behaviour) Subjective norms (attitude toward behaviour and ones perception of the way important others view the behaviour)

What is meant by Tolman's description of behaviour as molar and purposive?

According to tolman, behaviour is molar which means it is something to be studied as a whole and not reduced to its component parts. Tolman argued behaviour was purposive because an organism has some knowledge about the goals to which its behaviour is leading.

What are the neurotransmitters that promote arousal?

Acetylcholine- increases general arousal of the cortex. Norepinephrine- important for vigilance Serotonin- involved in maintaining ongoing activities and suppressing sensory information that might interrupt those activities. Histamine- histamine producing cells are active during waking and lower during sleep. Orexin- orexin-producing cells responded when rats were alert and engaged in external environment.

Name and define the different stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome.

Alarm reaction- when an organism first recognizes the existence of a threat; arousal increases as the body musters its resources to combat the challenge Stage of resistance- in this stage, the processes that accelerated during alarm reaction drop down to normal levels. Also, the stage of resistance mobilizes only that part of the body that is under attack. the body cannot maintain the resistance stage for a long period of time. Stage of exhaustion- in this stage the reaction to the stressor becomes general again. If the stressor is not eliminated, the bodily defenses are exhausted and death occurs.

What are the different stages of the general adaptation syndrome?

Alarm reaction- when an organism first recognizes the existence of a threat; arousal increases as the body musters its resources to combat the challenge Stage of resistance- in this stage, the processes that accelerated during alarm reaction drop down to normal levels. Also, the stage of resistance mobilizes only that part of the body that is under attack. the body cannot maintain the resistance stage for a long period of time. Stage of exhaustion- in this stage the reaction to the stressor becomes general again. If the stressor is not eliminated, the bodily defenses are exhausted and death occurs.

Define the amount of reinforcement effect and the quality of reinforcement effect and give a brief description of the experiments that demonstrated them.

Amount of reinforcement effect is the positive correlation between the amount of reinforcement and performance. 1st group of rats were given bigger rewards than the second group. First group performed better Quality of reinforcement The quality of the reinforcement affects performance Elliot- Rats given wet bran perform better than rats given sunflower seeds.

Explain how arousal predicts the optimal performance using the inverted U function. What is this sometimes referred to as? Why does it suggest that high arousal causes deterioration in performance? Why does it suggest low arousal causes deterioration in performance?

An inverted U function indicates that increasing arousal improves performance only up to a point, after which continued arousal decreases performance. This arousal-performance relationship is commonly known as the Yerkes-Dodson Law. High arousal leads to stress which affects our ability to adapt to our environment and decreases performance. Low levels provide us with insufficient levels of energy and awareness.

Define anorexia nervosa and its symptoms.

Anorexia nervosa is a condition in which an individual severely restricts food intake, sometimes to the point of starvation. Most common in adolescence and young adult women. Main symptom is large reduction in weight. A second major symptom is the absence of menstruation. Also, a distorted attitude toward eating that can involve denial to eat, enjoyment of weight loss, and a desired body image of extreme thinness. Patients often insist they are fat even when severely underweight.

Define balance theory. What kind of theory is it and what is it used to predict/explain?

Balance theory is a tendency exists for relationships between people, objects, or both to be balanced. In balance theory relationships between people and objects may be positive or negative. The basic principles are often illustrated using three situations which involve two people and an object. (couple buying a house). It is a cognitive consistency theory It is useful in pointing out the motivating property of imbalanced relationships. Used to predict if relationships are balanced

There are four main characteristics of motivation: activation, persistence, vigour, and direction. Using one behaviour, distinguish all four characteristics

Behaviour - going to the refrigerator when hungry. Activation - when the motivation to eat is present, we go to the fridge. Persistence - Every time we are hungry, we go to the fridge. It is habitual. Vigour - if extremely hungry, we may drive fast home in order to go to the fridge. Direction - when we are hungry meat we look in the freezer but when we want milk we look in the fridge door.

According to Baum and Posluszny, what are three ways behaviour can influence health?

Behaviour can influence health in biological changes, behavioral risk, and illness behaviours. Biological changes- anger can lead to increased blood pressure which can lead to cardiovascular changes and increase chances of stroke or heart attack. Behavioural risk- the behaviours we engage in influence our chances of remaining healthy. Diet, and exercise. Illness behaviours- going to doctor

Define Bem's self-perception theory.

Bem's self-perception theory states that we observe our behaviour much like an outsider would, then make judgements based on these observations. Ex, I played a video game three days in a row, I must like it.

Define the opponent process theory.

Both pleasurable and aversive hedonic states are opposed by a central nervous system process that reduces their intensity. The process reduces these primary hedonic states by producing a hedonic state that is opposite in quality to that of the initial stimulus. The reoccurrence of a stimulus leads to a growth of the second state, which reduces the emotional quality of the first state. skydivers no longer scared

Explain how learned taste aversions play a role in cancer patients.

Cancer patients receive chemotherapy which makes them nauseous and vomit. Cancer patients also often suffer from loss of appetite. It was determined that the loss of appetite experienced by cancer patients was a learned aversion that developed as a result of associating the taste of food eaten before the nausea-inducing chemotherapy.

Give an explanation as to how immune responses can be conditioned (using the terms CS and UCS).

Changes in the immune system as a result of learning, can influence the body's reaction. Several studies have shown that the immune system can be altered via classical conditioning. If an animal is exposed to a CS, just before being injected with an immunosuppressive drug, the CS will act as an immunosuppressant. In studies were animals were exposed to antigens, the ones who were previously exposed to the CS had a reduced antibody response.

What are expectancy-value theories and what are the basic ideas underlying these theories?

Cognitive approach to understand motivation. Basic ideas underlying these theories is that motivated behaviour result from the combination of individual needs and the value of goals available in the environment. They also stress the idea that the probability of behaviour depends not only on the value of the goal but also upon the expectancy of obtaining the goal. There is a high value of winning the lottery but few truly expect it to happen. Assumes motivation is best understand from a molar perspective.

What is cognitive dissonance and why does it occur? What three things can we do to reduce it?

Cognitive dissonance stresses the idea that we attempt to maintain consistency of our thoughts, beliefs, and opinions with our overt behaviour. It occurs when two cognitions represent an inconsistency (smoking and knowing that it is bad). First, we can change one of the cognitions Second we can alter behaviour in order to reduce inconsistency Third we can add consonant cognitions. (I smoke and its bad but it relaxes me)

Outline some of the reasons people conform.

Compliance- our behaviour change in response to a direct request. Obedience- Milgram. 65% went all the way to 450 volts.

Compare and contrast consummatory and appetitive behaviours.

Consummatory behaviour is innate and stereotypes whereas appetitive behaviour is flexible and adaptive to the environment. Consummatory behaviours include chewing and swallowing of food. Appetitive behaviour is subject to modification through learning.

What causes deprivation dwarfism and what is it?

Deprivation dwarfism is a reduction in bone maturation and growth to the point that the child's physical maturation is much less than normal for its age. Its caused by a lack of appropriate home conditions. This reduction in growth is the result of the social environment in which the children are forced to live in.

What is the concept of dualism, as defined by Descartes? What is monism and why do scientists adhere to this belief?

Dualism proposes that humans behaviour is partly the result of a free, rational soul and partly the result of automatic, non-rational processes of the body. According to Descartes, humans, being the only possessors of souls, are motivated by both soul (will) and the body (instinct). Animals, however, have no souls and are therefore essentially automatons (mechanical beings).

Describe the endocrine system and the hormones that they release that are involved in the stress response.

Endocrine system is a set of glands located throughout the body that secrete their substances directly into the bloodstream. Their substances are called hormones. The major gland in the endocrine system is the pituitary gland. Adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine. Also corticotropin releasing hormone which causes adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) to be secreted. Adrenocorticotropic hormone causes the secretion of cortisol. Together cortisol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine has the effect of mobilizing the body for action

Define the parental investment model.

Evolutionary theory says that women ought to be attracted to men who possess the resources to support them and any children they produce because women have a larger investment in their offspring than men do. This evolutionary approach to attraction has come to be called the parental investment model. Men are therefore motivated to engage in behaviours that display their resources (cars).

Name and define the four stages of the human sexual response.

Excitement- induced by physical stimuli. Penis gets hard and vagina lubricates and lengthens Plateau- sexual arousal intensifies during plateau, perhaps in preparation for climax Orgasm- a sexual climax during which the building sexual tension is reduced. Males only have one orgasm while females may have an orgasm once, several times or not at all. Resolution- refractory period. During this phase the body returns to its pre-aroused state in reverse order though the stages.

How did Tolman define the terms expectancies and cognitive map? How does it relate to studies looking at how mice learn new maze patterns?

Expectancies involve the expectancy that a particular set of behaviours will lead to a specific goals and the expectancy that specific goals can be found in particular location. Tolman emphasized the idea that organisms develop a cognitive map of their environment. This map indicates the places in which particular goals can be found. Place-learning mice learn faster than response-learning mice

Define learned helplessness and outline the classical experiment used to induce it in dogs.

Learned helplessness is a term specifying an organism learning to accept and endure unpleasant stimuli, and unwilling to avoid them, even when avoidable. Dogs were given inescapable shock and then placed in a shuttlebox were they could avoid the shock, but failed to learn the response. After a while, the dogs seem to give up and passively endure the shock.

Define Lewin's force field theory using the equation he proposed, make sure to define all the terms in the equation. What was he using this theory to explain?

Lewin pointed out that several forces may simultaneously exert influence on an organism; thus, the behaviour observed is the result of the total forces acting upon an individual. Lewin argued that human behaviour can similarly be understood to result from all the forces acting upon a individual at the time the behaviour occurs. Lewin therefore described behaviour (B) as the function (f) of two major components, the person (P) and the psychological environment (E) B = f ( P + E ) The psychological environment is comprised of all the psychological facts one is aware of. Locomotion is when some particular region of the psychological environment dissipates the tension. Valence: can be positive or negative. Determines which psychological facts are most attractive as a way of satisfying the need. Used to explain behaviour.

Compare and contrast local and central theories of motivation as they apply to hunger regulation.

Local theory assumes that stomach contractions are the basis of hunger signals and, as a result, of eating. It was known as local theory of motivation because it assumed that the signals that control motives such as hunger and thirst are produced in peripheral organs of the body (as opposed to the brain). Turned out to be inadequate. Central theories of motivation emphasized the idea that specialized cells in the brain detect changes in the body's state and trigger appropriate motivation. Central theories de-emphasized the role of periphery in the regulation of eating and drinking.

What is Rotter's locus of control scale? Explain how he thinks people at different ends of the scale perceive rewards and punishments differently.

Locus of control scale is a 29-item, forced-choice test that assesses a person's internality-externality. Internal individuals perceive rewards and punishments resulting from their own behaviour; that is they believe themselves to be in control of their own behaviour. External individuals perceive rewards and punishments they receive as being beyond their control. Both good and bad events are attributed to luck, fate, powerful others, or conditions over which they have no power.

What is the difference between mastery goals and performance goals?

Mastery goals seek to master a task for the sake of increasing personal competence. Performance goals focus on how ones competence compares to others.

Differentiate mitosis from meiosis.

Mitosis is a process in which a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells. This type of reproduction is asexual; the same genetic material is contained in each of the new cells. Many bacteria reproduce in this manner. Meiosis is a process in which two specialized cells (each with half the number of chromosomes of a normal cell) are produced by a female and male and are combined to form a new cell that includes genetic material from each of the two individual cells.

What did Harlow's experiments with infant rhesus monkeys demonstrate? What can be concluded from these results about the "needs" of infants?

Monkeys raised with their mothers but not peer interact do not develop normally, nor do monkeys with peer interaction but no mothers. Experience with both mother and peer is necessary for normal development. Harlow argued that the attachment of child to mother is based on the fact that the mother is closely associated with the reduction of needs (hunger, thirst, warmth).

What is a reaction chain? Give an example of one.

Most behaviours are more complex than a single FAP released by a single key stimulus. Behaviours often involve a sequence of responses in which each response is released by its appropriate key stimulus. For example, a person is going to take a bus from home to work. This involves going to the bus stop, waiting for the bus to stop and open the door, entering the bus, paying with exact change, finding a seat, sitting down and waiting for your stop, getting up when the bus stops, walking to the door and exiting.

Compare and contrast natural and sexual selection.

Natural section deals with the genes that allow an organism to survive. Sexual selection deals with the genes that allow for a species a greater chance of successful mating.

What are two theories that try to explain the functionality of dreams?

Neurocognitive theory of dreams- dreams are a meaningful product of our cognitive capacities, which shape what we dream about. This theory includes a continuity principle which states a person's concerns during the day appear in one's dreams. And repetition principle where the same character, settings, and social interactions show up again and again in a person's dreams. Threat Simulation Theory- proposes that dreaming functions to simulate threating events and allows one to rehearse behaviours associated with perceiving threats and avoiding them.

There are four main categories of analysis for motivation. Define each dimension and explain the differences between the two extremes that define the dimension: a. Nomothetic versus Idiographic b. Innate versus Acquired c. Internal versus External d. Mechanistic versus Cognitive

Nomothetic approach involves research that looks the similarities in a group. For example, identifying brain structures such as the hypothalamus that are involved in motivation is nomothetic because research has shown that the hypothalamus is involved in motivation not just in a single rat but all rats in general and people too. The idiographic approach suggests that we can understand behaviour by looking at how people differ from each other; by examining what makes us unique. Innate motives are also instincts. Acquired analysis involves what we have learned. Acquired tendencies focus on the learnt aspect of behaviour. Internal sources, usually in the form of needs are a source of motivation. Needs direct and activate behaviour in order to alleviate some state of deprivation usually. For example, the need for water. An internal need for water causes us to go to the water fountain in order to alleviate that need. External sources of motivation are provided by goals. This type of motivation is generally examined by the motivating effects of either goal objects or social relationships. According to this point of view, motivation can be activated by changes in the external environment. mechanistic is genetic, not done with intent or consciousness. Theorists argue that motives such as hunger, thirst, and sex ae triggered automatically by changes in factors such as blood sugar level, fluid balance, and hormonal concentrations. This mechanistic approach assumes that changes in specific factors activate circuits that in turn motivated the organism to engage in behaviour. In contrast, some theorists say motivational processes are cognitive in nature. The cognitive approach assumes that the manner in which information is interpreted influences motive states (cognitive is the opposite. You are conscious awareness and use thought process).

What is the doctrine of specific nerve energies?

Once sensory and motor fibers were shown to exist, it was only a short intellectual step to the realization that different fibers must carry different kinds of information. This idea became known as the doctrine of specific nerve energies.

How does the opponent-process theory explain social attachment? Opponent-process theory has been applied to social attachment. For example

Opponent-process theory has been applied to social attachment. For example, ducklings were imprinted on a model female mallard duck. It is assumed that imprinting triggers a positive state A because young birds are highly motivated to approach and follow an imprinting stimulus. Removal of an imprinted stimulus leads to distress calling which is used as a measure of the negative state B.

How does the opponent-process theory explain thrill seeking behaviour?

Opponent-process theory suggests that one reason people engage in behaviours that are thrilling is the strong state B that occurs after the initial fear-producing state A. A beginner skydiver appears anxious. During the freefall signs of terror are present. Clearly an aversive state A occurs. Upon landing safely, thy are often stunned then begin to interact socially and in quite animated ways. This highly positive state B is the opposite in emotional quality to the fear-producing state A.

Compare and contrast osmometric thirst and volumetric thirst.

Osmometric thirst- specialized cells detect a change in their own volume as a result of cellular water loss due to osmosis. These osmoreceptors could trigger drinking behaviour when cell volume decreased so that cell fluid balance could be returned to normal. Volumetric thirst- a reduction in the fluid balance of the extracellular space results in hypovolemia, a condition that activates compensatory mechanisms to restore proper fluid balance.

Describe Asch's experiment on conformity. What are the two major reasons for conforming in his experiment?

Participants asked to make perceptual judgements on the length of lines. Each was provided with a standard line and 3 comparison lines, from which participants were asked to pick the one of equal length. Asch had actors working to call out their answer before the participant. They all agreed on the first few and then the purposely answered the wrong answer. Participants felt very uncomfortable when put in a position of going against the group decision, even when it was obviously wrong. Distortion of judgement- assumed their judgement was incorrect Distortion of action- not appearing different from the group was more important than getting it wrong

Describe Sherif's experiment on conformity.

Participants first asked to judge the movement of a point of light in a dark room. Individually, their answers differed widely. When put into a group the changed their judgments in order to agree with each other.

What are the symptoms of learned helplessness?

Passivity (motivational deficit) Associative retardation (learning deficit) Somatic effects (much less aggressive) Reduction of helplessness over time

How did Pavlov use a discrimination experiment to generate "neurosis" in dogs?

Pavlov conditioned a dog to salivate when shown a circle. Then introduced an eclipse which was never paired with food and the dog learned to discriminate against the eclipse. Eventually the eclipse was shaped more and more like a circle making discrimination more difficult. After time, the dog's behaviour began to worsen and the conditioned response disappeared altogether. The experimental neurosis generated by Pavlov's discrimination experiment was apparently the result of the increasingly difficult discrimination. The task became very aversive for the dog.

Define bulimia nervosa and outline one theory that tries to provide an explanation for it.

People suffering from bulimia nervosa binge-eat large quantities of food in a very short amount of time. After a binge they feel a great sense of loss of control and then purge- induce vomiting, or severely restrict eating to regain a sense of control. The sociocultural approach to explain bulimia suggests that changing societal norms have put an increasing emphasis on thinness for women.

Define each of the four levels of analysis of motivation a) Physiological b) Individual c) Social d) Philosophical

Physiological analysis of motivation is most prevalent in animals. Typically, this level of analysis is most concerned with the brain's control of motivated states. For example, researchers are interested in the various brain structures involved in the triggering of motivation, the way in which motivationally important information is processed by groups of cells, and the neurotransmitters within the brain that are involved in the alteration of motivational states. Motivation at the level of the individual involves research aimed at understanding motivational changes that occur to a person as a result of internal and external conditions. Social analysis examines behaviours and how the situational and factors and presence of others affects our behaviour. We act different and behaviour different with our grandma and we would with our friends at a party. Philosophical: some theorists see motivation in a negative way; that is, they see the presence of motivation as an aversive state that behaviour seeks to overcome. According to Freud, motivational states create a condition of tension that the individual then seeks to reduce. In contrast, some theorists see motivation as a positive state, pushing the individual to become all that he or she can become. These ideas are philosophical because the theories are difficult to test experimentally.

Define and give examples of the three main categories of interspecific aggression.

Predatory attack is basically food getting behaviour and is characterized be a lack of emotionality (lion attacking gazelle). Mobbing behaviour occurs when the prey turns the tables and attack the predator as a group. humpback whales are known to mob killer whales when the latter are attacking other species. Critical reaction involves intense aggressive behaviour motivated by fear and instigated by an inability to escape. Lion tamers use critical reaction to get lions to perform. They get within the critical distance and the lion approaches as if to attack. When the tamer withdraws the lion stops or retreats.

What's the difference between prepared behaviours and contraprepared behaviours?

Prepared behaviours are either instinctive or very easily and quickly learned. contraprepared behaviours are contrary to an animal's natural tendencies, and so are learned with great difficulty, if at all.

What is the glucostatic theory of hunger and why is it considered short-term regulation?

Receptors in the hypothalamus are sensitive to changes in blood glucose. A decrease in blood glucose was thought to trigger eating, while an increase in blood glucose was thought to inhibit further food intake. The short term system would control energy intake in view of energy we spend. A central short-term theory (which has import ants flaws) is the glucostatic theory. It would affect when we eat and how much we eat at a meal.

Describe, in detail, the possible functions of sleep.

Restorative function- stage 3 and 4 are restorative in nature. REM sleep may serve a restorative function in regard to attention and emotion. REM sleep may help us cope with stress. Organization of the brain- sleep, primarily rem sleep may be involved in the organization of the brain. Young mammals show much more REM than adults. Therefore REM sleep could somehow "set up" the young brain correctly. This means REM sleep for adults could be no longer useful. Programming device- new information is being incorporated into the existing organization of the brain during REM sleep. Consolidation of memories- says that dreaming enables material to be transferred from short-term memory to long-term memory. The storage process may be based on emotionality which is why emotionality occurs during dreaming.

Define REST as proposed by Suedfeld and explain how it is used as a therapy.

Restricted environmental stimulation technique- an isolation technique where participants are taken to a darkened and quiet room for 24 hours. Often they may hear antismoking or weight-control messages. Participants have shown improvements in controlling habits like smoking and over-eating stress-related problems.

In general, what has research on sensory restriction shown us about its effects on development?

Sensory restriction indicates that adequate stimulation is necessary for normal development. Much of the effects of sensory restriction results from physiological and perceptual changes. Also motivational and emotional changes occur. New sensations to a deprived animal lead to fear and withdrawal. Hyperexcitability, emotional, unable to direct their behaviour in an adaptive way

Define sensory specific satiety. What role does it play in determining how much we eat?

Sensory specific satiety proposes the idea that eating a particular food until one is satisfied reduces the value (or pleasantness) of that food compared to others. Thus an animal or human exposed to an unchanging diet will eat less than if they have access to a varied diet because the constant diet is less rewarding.

What is the serotonin hypothesis of anorexia?

Serotonin hypothesis suggests that increased levels of serotonin may be associated with the lack of eating. It is possible that anorexics restrict food because it lowers serotonin and thus lowers negative feelings that are associated with serotonin levels.

What is sexual dimorphism and why does it occur in humans?

Sexual dimorphism is the systematic difference in form between individuals of different sex in the same species. Sexual dimorphism is the result of the action of a gene found on the Y (male) chromosome. A gene on the Y chromosome called the SRY gene produces a protein that causes the gonads to develop into testes. If the SRY gene is not present, the gonads develop into ovaries. Once the testes or ovaries are developed they begin to secrete hormones that differentiate the sex organs of males and females and the organization of brain circuitry into either a male or female brain.

How are female sexual strategies different than male sexual strategies? Why are they different? Provide an example of each to support your point.

Sexual selection is a pressure exerted on the genes of males. This is because the female has a rather limited number of genetic packets. The second concern the female encounters in trying to ensure the survival of her genetic information is the developmental period during which the offspring must be maintained before they are capable of maintaining themselves. These two concerns make mate choice a bigger concern for females. Males produce millions of genetic packets so therefore their optimal sexual strategy is to mate as much as possible. Because females don't have as many genetic packets, their optimal sexual strategy is to mate with the best male possible.

Define Rotter's social learning theory. What is the equation he used to model his theory (define all the terms)?

Social learning theory attempts to explain the internal and external social factors that influence the acquisition and regulation of behaviour. Rotter suggested that behaviour depends on the multiplication of expectancy and value B = E x V Behaviour occurs as the result of our expectations of achieving goals and the value those goals have for us.

What is social loafing and how does the CEM try to explain why it occurs? Using the CEM, what strategy could you use to reduce social loafing?

Social loafing says that working collectively provides members an opportunity to slack off based on the expectancy that the rest of the group will work hard enough to accomplish the task. CEM- collective effort model- predicts that individuals will be motivated to perform well in tasks if they expect that their effort will lead to obtaining a valued goal. Loafing can be reduced if participants a) expect their individual contributions are identifiable b) expect their contributions are unique and necessary for group success c) value the task they are performing as being meaningful. People also loaf less in smaller groups and on simpler tasks.

Define the placebo effect.

Sometimes a person can have a response to a placebo. The response can be positive or negative. For instance, the person's symptoms may improve. Or the person may have what appears to be side effects from the treatment. These responses are known as the "placebo effect." If a person expects a pill to do something, then it's possible that the body's own chemistry can cause effects similar to what a medication might have caused.

Define, in detail, the four stages of sleep.

Stage one- fast, irregular waves of low amptitude occurs in stage 1. EEG shows theta wave activity. Stage two- EEG pattern shows sleep spindles and K-compexes. Stage three- characterized by delta wave patterns. These large slow waves occur between during 20 to 50% of the sleep stage Stage four- slow, high amplitude waves become dominant. Occurs after 30 to 45 minutes after initially falling asleep. REM- rapid eye movement, eeg shows theta, beta, and alpha waves. Most dreaming occurs. Muscle tone is low

What is the RAS and what is its role in arousal according to past research?

The RAS is a group of neurons which are located in the brain stem's central core. Stimulation of the RAS led to changes in the electrical activity of the cortex that were indistinguishable from changes seen when external stimulus were attended. Stimulation of the RAS led to beta wave (associated with alert, attentive, and aroused individuals) activity just as environmental stimuli do.

Outline the difference between intensity and persistence using an example of the behaviour that demonstrates both.

The concept of motivation can be explained through the intensity of a behaviour. The more intense a behaviour is, the more motivation there likely is. Also, persistence can indicate levels of motivation. A highly motivated person may be persistent in a certain behaviour, even if intensity is low. For example, a monkey being rewarded with banana by pressing a lever on a variable interval scale will be persistent but not very intense in his behaviour.

Define the concept of the localization of function.

The idea that different parts of the brain do different things is called localization of function. This idea comes from phrenology.

Define, in detail, what is meant by the learning-performance distinction.

The learning-performance distinction is a concept in behaviorism that stresses the difference between the learning of a behavior and actual performance of the behavior. The learning of a behavior or skill doesn't necessarily require the performance or practice of the behavior.

Provide a complete definition of what fixed action patterns are. Give an example of one.

The response that a key stimulus releases is called a fixed action pattern. Fixed action patterns are species-specific motor patterns that are rigid, not flexible, and "blind". Not influenced by learning. Fixed action patterns are basically actions that any species is "programmed" to do. They aren't really taught to do it, but they just do it anyways. Some moths instantly fold their wings and drop to the ground if they encounter ultrasonic signals such as those produced by bats.

Explain what is meant by the nominal fallacy and give a specific (made up) example of it.

The trend to explain all behaviours as instinctive led to what has been called nominal fallacy. Simply labelling the behaviour does not explain it. We must understand the conditions led to the behaviour and what consequences resulted from it. Example, if you say someone is sad to explain why they are crying.

What are the brainstem regions that promote NREM sleep?

The ventrolateral preoptic area (VLPO), locus coeruleus (LC), and raphe nuclei.

What is the TAT and what is it used to measure?

Thematic Apperception Test. Used to determine a person's motives. Shown pictures and asked to describe a story

Describe Bandura's Bobo doll study.

There were 5 groups of nursery school children. Group one saw adult models behave aggressively against a bobo doll. Group 2 saw a filmed version of the same behaviour. Group 3 saw a model in a cat suit perform the same aggressive behaviour on tv. Group 4 was a control group who didn't see any aggressive behaviour and group 5 was also a control group who saw an adult male act non-aggressively toward the doll. The children were then put in a room containing the same toys they saw used by the aggressive models. Also, distinct verbiage by the aggressive models was used to more easily determine when the children were modelling the aggressive behaviour. The 3 non control groups imitative behaviour was initiated. The children used the same aggressive behaviours they saw and same verbiage. The two control groups displayed none of this behaviour. Greatest degree of modelling occurred in the live model, but the study showed that the filmed model was just as effective in producing aggressive behaviour.

Define the modeling processes

a. Attention- we must first attend to and observe the model's behaviour. Our relationship with the model influences our attention processes b. Retention- we must incorporate the behaviour into our memory in some form. c. Reproduction- we must string together the correct pattern of responses. First try is usually very rough. We then improve as a result of information feedback we receive. Teacher demonstrates how to serve in tennis. Player attempts, then alters their next attempt based on the results of the first attempt.

1. In Young's theory of the hedonic continuum define: sign, intensity, duration

a. Sign: whether an affective situation is approached (+) or avoided (-) by the organism b. Intensity: researchers usually employ a preference test to observe intensity. In a two-choice situation, the chosen preference is considered to be more hedonically more intense. c. Duration: some hedonic processes only last as long as the sensory information last, while others outlast the stimulation.

What is the lipostatic theory of hunger and why is it considered long-term regulation?

lipostatic theory of hunger assumes we all have a normal weight or set point. Long term regulation theories assume that a receptor system acts to monitor body fats and then regulate food intake to keep body fats fairly constant.

Define each of these conflict behaviours: successive ambivalent behaviour redirected behaviour simultaneous ambivalent behaviour ethological displacement

successive ambivalent behaviour- involves the alternation of incomplete responses for the two motivational states. For example, a male stickleback may alternate between attack and escape responses when it meets an intruding male stickleback at the border of its territory. redirected behaviour- the appropriate responses occur but not directed to the proper object. Older brother beats you up so you get angry and eat up little brother. simultaneous ambivalent behaviour- occurs in conflict situations where both motivational states can be expressed in behaviour at the same time. The arched back of a cat is the result of a simultaneous expression of the motives to attack (rear feet forward) and to flee (front feet drawn backward). ethological displacement- occurs when two equally strong motives are present and are inhibiting each other.

Give two examples of innate behaviours we see in humans that are consistent across cultures.

Facial expressions such as an eyebrow flick- brief lift when meeting someone Shyness Staring- rude and an innate threat gesture. Primates use it

What are the criticisms of the need-achievement theory?

Failure to replicate some important findings such as persons with high motive to succeed (Ms) prefer takes of intermediate difficulty. Perhaps the most serious criticism is that achievement motivation is multidimensional and is thus more complicated than need-theory suggests. Need for achievement (N-Ach) refers to an individual's desire for significant accomplishment, mastering of skills, control, or high standards.

What are the four ways, according to McDougall, that an instinct can be altered?

First, an instinct can be activated not only by some specific external object but also by the idea of that object or by other external objects or ideas. Example, milk might activate food seeking but when he's older other foods would also activate this instinct. Second, the movements through which an instinctive behaviour occurs can be modified. Exploring environment as a child then reading science fiction books (instinct of curiosity). Third, several instincts may be triggered simultaneously, and resulting behaviour will be a blend of the excited instincts. Example, sexual behaviour in teens might be a blend of curiosity and mating instincts, and the petting behaviour is a blend of both those instincts. Fourth, instinctive behaviours may become organized around particular objects or ideas and thus become less responsive in other situations. Example, being assertive at work but submissive at home. Behaviour only occurs in certain situations.

Define and give an example of the FITD and the DITF effects. What are the reasons they work?

Foot-in-the-door technique- increases compliance. Ask for a small favor before asking for a big favor. Sign a petition, then ask for help to get signatures from the petition. Trial subscription to websites. Door-in-the-face technique- as a big favor and then ask a smaller favor. Increases compliance for the smaller favor. Reciprocal concessions- the person has given in a bit by asking a smaller favor so you give in a bit by complying. Contrast effect- people compare the smaller favor to the bigger one and deem it acceptable in comparison the the bigger one.

Define one explanation (theory) for obesity that tries to understand how something as maladaptive as obesity has such a high prevalence rate in our society.

Genetic predisposition- evidence exists that some people are genetically programmed to carry more fat than others. A study found that severely obese individuals had more than twice as many fat cells as normal-weight individuals and that fat cells the fat cells were larger than those of a normal-weight individual.

Identify hormones that help regulate hunger (ghrelin, obestatin, leptin, CCK).

Ghrelin- produces an increase in appetite and also an increase in thoughts about food. Obestatin- an appetite suppressant Leptin- released into the bloodstream in direct proportion to the amount of energy available in fat cells. CCK- signal the brain to stop eating

Provide a definition of stress.

Hard to define because there can be many situations which can trigger stress. Stress is a response of the body to any demand made upon it. Demand can be positive or negative.

What is the hardiness concept of stress and what are some of its criticisms?

Hardiness is conceived as a combination of three personality characteristics. -Commitment, control and challenge- that serve to buffer the effects of stress. Hardy individuals believe they can control what happens to them and that change is natural. A major criticism of hardiness is that the measures of hardiness are similar to the measures of neuroticism. The measure of hardiness is also a measure of a lack of neuroticism.

How did Harlow show in his monkey experiment that sensory stimulation (and not just homeostatic drives) could be reinforcing in animals?

Harlow gave monkeys a puzzle. One group was given no food reward, while another group was. Delivery of food actually tended to disrupt performance on the puzzles, and the food-rewarded group lost interest in the puzzle sooner than the non-rewarded group. For the non-rewarded group, behaviour was maintained by a motive to manipulate or explore the puzzle, which is sensory in nature rather than homeostatic.

1Explain two main criticisms of early instinct theories

Kuo said there is no agreement on what types of or how many instincts exist. He said the lists were arbitrary and depend upon each writer's interests. Tolman said the arbitrary designation of behaviours as instinctive robs the concept of any explanatory value. Instincts like curiosity and playfulness are just descriptive labels that do not explain the causes of such behaviour (nominal fallacy).

Define imprinting and the three key characteristics of it as defined by Lorenz.

Imprinting is a socialization process in which a young organism forms an attachment to its parents. The process involves both instinctive and learned components. The object of the attachment is learned because it can be anything (baby birds). But the process of becoming attached is innate. 1. The attachment process only occurs during a limited, critical time period in the organism's life. 2. The imprinting process is permanent and irreversible. 3. It is independent from reward. The process occurs automatically.

What is the Ringelmann effect? Describe the experiment (and results) that he conducted to demonstrate this effect.

Individual performance within a group decreases as group size increases. Tug of war- individual pull mean was 83kg but in a group of seven, individual force was only 65kg.

Define interoceptive conditioning and the three types of it that have been demonstrated.

Interoceptive conditioning is classical conditioning in which either the CS, UCS, or both are applied directly to the internal organs or the mucosa. Intero-exteroceptive conditioning involves the CS applied internally while the UCS is applied externally. Intero-interoceptive conditioning occurs when both the CS and UCS are applied internally. Extero-interoceptive conditioning involves an external CS paired with an internal UCS.

Compare and contrast interspecific and intraspecific aggression.

Interspecific and intraspecific are both major types of aggression. What differentiates them is that interspecific aggression occurs between members of different species. Intraspecific aggression occurs between members of the same species.