Motivation and Attitudes
Temperament
Innate disposition, our mood/activity level. Consistent throughout life
Eysenck's Theory
-Theory proposes that extraversion, neuroticism, and or superego traits are from biological basis
Attitude to behavior process model
A model of how attitudes guide behavior that emphasizes the influence of attitudes and stored knowledge of what is appropriate in a given situation on an individual's definition of the present situation. This definition, in turn, influences overt behavior. Event-->Attitude + Knowledge--> Behavior
psychoanalytic theory
A theory developed by Freud that attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior ID, EGO, SUPEREGO
incentive theory
A theory of motivation stating that behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli. Studies have shown that is a reward is given immediately, chance of it happening again is higher. Focuses on positive reinforcement, NOT negative reinforcement.
Optimal arousal theory
A theory of motivation stating that people are motivated to behave in ways that maintain what is, for them, an optimal level of arousal Ex: rollercoasters
Trait theory
A theory of personality that focuses on identifying, describing, and measuring individual differences in patterns of behavior.
Theory of planned behavior
A theory stating that the best predictor of a behavior is one's behavioral intention, which is influenced by one's attitude toward the specific behavior, the subjective norms regarding the behavior, and one's perceived control over the behavior. Implications + Intentions --> Behavior
affective component, behavior component, cognitive component
ABC model of attitude
affective component of attitude
ABC- A person's feelings or emotions about an object, person, or event.
Life drive (Eros)
According to Freud, we have a drive towards life- healthy, safety, sex, cooperation
Defense mechanisms
According to psychoanalytic theory, these are largely unconscious means of dealing with anxiety or stress, often through distorting or ignoring aspects of reality.
when a person has a strong ego that can successfully mediate between one's impulsive, pleasure-seeking id and the goals of the idealistic superego.
According to the psychoanalytic theory, when is personality change possible?
Central traits
According to trait theory, traits that form the basis of personality. (honesty, sociability, shyness_
Humanistic theory
An explanation of behavior that emphasizes the entirety of life rather than individual components of behavior and focuses on human dignity, individual choice, and self-worth. A person will grow towards self-actualization as long as there are no obstacles. Includes Maslow's theory of hierarchy of needs, and Carl Rogers Genuine + Acceptance= self-concept is achieved Who am I?
Prototype willingness model
Behavior is a function of: past behavior, attitudes, subjective norms, our intentions, our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior, and prototypes/models. Argues that a lot of our behavior is carried out from prototyping. Prototype: closely related to scheme, an original form of something that stands as a standard.
ABC-cognitive component of attitude
Beliefs or knowledge about a specific object of interest.
Defense mechanism: Regression
Defense mechanism where one returns to immature patterns of behavior. Turns to position of a child in a problematic situation.
Defense Mechanism: Displacement
Emotions are expressed toward someone or something other than the actual source of the emotion. Ex: a mother yelling at her child because she is angry at her husband
Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory
Emphasizes behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development Am I motivated to learn something? Attention, Memory, Imitation, and Motivation
Traditionalism
Following longtime practices and opposing many modern technologies and ideas Common among twins
4 theories: 1. Theory of planned behavior 2. Attitude to behavior process model 3. Prototype Willingness Model 4. Elaboration Likelihood Model for Persuasion.
How do attitudes influence behavior?
Secondary traits
In trait theory, preferences and attitudes. (not eating meat etc.)
cognitive dissonance As soon as our cognitions, attitudes, and behaviors don't align, we experience this.
Inner tension that a consumer experiences after recognizing an inconsistency between behavior and values or opinions 2 or more conflicting cognitions (ideas, beliefs, values, or emotional reactions. Example: smoker but also believes smoking leads to cancer.
Strong social pressure can weaken the attitude to behavior connections and can cause our attitudes to follow our behavior.
Is it possible for our behaviors to shape our attitudes.
learning/performance distinction
Learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things
5 factor model of personality
Openness Conscientiousness- careful vs careless, disciplined vs impulse Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism - tendency to experience negative effects OCEAN
Behaviorist theory of personality
Personality is constructed by a series of learning experiences that occur through interactions between the individual and their environment. Individuals have learning experiences through their lifetimes that lead to predictable behaviors (behaviors make up the personality). People are born as BLANK STATES, and environmental reinforcement/punishment determine the personality. KEY: Environment shapes personality Skinner (operant conditioning), and Pavlov (classical conditioning)
Bobo Doll Study
Psychologist: Bandura Description: Children watched (through a one way glass)a confederate play with the BoBo doll and then played with the BoBo doll in the same way as the confederate Significance: used to develop "observational learning"
death drive
Thanatos-According to Freud, people hold an unconscious desire to die, but that this wish is largely tempered by the life instincts. In Freuds view, self-destructive behavior is an expression of the energy created by the death instincts. When this energy is directed outward onto others, it is expressed as aggression and violence.
ABC-behavioral component of attitude
The influence that attitudes have on behavior. How we act or behave towards object/subject.
Evolutionary theory of Motivation
This theory states that motivation and emotion are inseparable and that our motives are largely based on instincts.
Cardinal traits
Traits that are characteristics that direct most of the person's activities (the person's dominant traits that influence all of our behaviors)
a public declaration of policies or intentions
We are more likely to follow through if we have told everyone.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs- Humanstic Theory of Motivation
We want to satisfy needs in a particular order. (level 1) Physiological Needs, (level 2) Safety and Security, (level 3) Relationships, Love and Affection, (level 4) Self Esteem, (level 5) Self Actualization
4 things: 1. We modify our cognitions- ex. smoker says they don't smoke that much. 2. Trivialize (making less important)- ex. evidence that smoking causes cancer is weak. 3. Add- adding more cognitions- ex. I exercise so it doesn't matter that I smoke. 4. Denying- denying that smoking and cancer are related.
What do we do when we have cognitive dissonance?
Role Playing Affects Attitudes
When we play a role, even if we know it is just pretending, we eventually tend to adopt the attitudes that go with the role, and become the role.
Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion
a model that predicts responses to persuasive messages by distinguishing between the central and the peripheral routes to persuasion Central: depend on quality of arguments by persuader Peripheral- superficial/non-verbal cues such as attractiveness/status of persuader. l
ID
a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification. Selfish, compels us to seek pleasure and avoid pain.
situational approach
behavior is determined largely by the situation or environment
Defense mechanism: sublimation
dealing with unacceptable feelings or impulses by unconsciously substituting acceptable forms of expression (taking up boxing as a way to channel anger).
Social potency
degree to which a person assumes mastery and leadership roles in social situations
Defense Mechanism: Projection
disguising one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others If the individual were employing projection, she would ascribe her feelings to someone else, such as to her supervisor (eg, "My supervisor is obviously attracted to me").
Neuroticism
emotional instability, is one of the "big five" personality traits. characterized by a tendency to experience or express negative emotions (anxiety, anger, fear, sadness). Individuals who score high on this personality factor tend to find common challenges (eg, getting a flat tire) hopelessly difficult and are more easily agitated by stressors.
Biological theory of personality
focus on biological contributions to certain traits because person's genome contributes to formation of personality -influenced by heredity -'baseline' temperament Studied with twin studies Nature vs Nurture
Gordon Allport
invented trait theory of personality; 3 levels of traits: cardinal, central, and secondary Came up with 4500 traits
Observational learning
learning by observing others; also called social learning
Defense mechanism: Rationalization
making excuses to oneself and to others for one's unacceptable thoughts and behaviors.
Superego
part of the personality that acts as a moral center. moralistic and idealistic, compelling us toward perfection.
Raymond Cattell
proposed that we all have 16 essential personality traits
Expectancy Theory of Motivation
proposes that individuals are motivated to act based on the expected outcomes of their behavior. According to this theory, motivation involves expectancy, instrumentality, and valence: Expectancy is the belief that one will be able to achieve the desired outcome. Asking participants to rate how successful they think they will be at losing weight is a measure of expectancy. Instrumentality is the belief that one has control over the desired outcome. Asking participants to rate how much control they believe they have over their success is a measure of instrumentality. Valence involves the value placed on the desired outcome. If the researchers also asked participants to rate how much they wanted to lose weight, this would be a measure of valence.
Defense mechanism: Repression
removing an unpleasant idea or memory from your mind
Defense mechanism: reaction formation
someone does or says something opposite of what they actually want. They outwardly express the opposite of how they actually feel when those thoughts or feelings are distressing.
drive reduction theory of motivation
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
EGO
the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, MEDIATES among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain. Long-term gratification Engages in defense mechanisms when it is overwhelmed or weaker than the ID.
fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request. Basic concept by how people are brainwashed. A theory for how behavior influences attitude.
attribution theory
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition
cognitive approach to motivation
theory suggesting that motivation is a result of people's thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and goals. Thought processes drive behavior.
Justification of effort
when people modify their attitudes to match their behaviors, specifically those involving effort
mature defense mechanisms
• Humor • Sublimation: redirecting energy from socially acceptable impulses to social acceptable activities • Suppression: consciously or semi-consciously avoiding thinking about disturbing problems, thoughts, or feelings