motor learning exam 3
define consistency
performance becomes increasingly more consistent - performance characteristics should become more similar
automaticity
performance of a skill (or it's parts) with little/no demand on attention - in kahnemans theory, related to evaluation of task demands - automaticity of yaks performance related to amount of practice
define improvement
performance of the skill improvement over a period of time - plateaus and regression
a performer characteristic that does not change across the stages of learning
practice specificity hypothesis - learning is specific to the source of sensory information available during practice - when visual feedback used during practice in the first stage of learning, it continues to be needed throughout the stages of learning - dependency on sensory feedback develops because it becomes a part of the memory representation of the skill - increases in amount of practice with visual feedback increases dependency on its availability
define linear
proportional increases over trials or time (irrelevant)
the "quiet eye"
refers to the final fixation just before movement imitation - it is directed to a critical location or object - it is a stable fixation of gaze - it's onset occurs just before first movement - it's duration is longer for elite performers - it has been demonstrated in numerous closed and open skills
define positively accelerated
slight or slow improvement early but substantial improvement later - skills that are very complex - a novice individual
define procedural
stores information about "how to do" specific activities, e.g. motor skills - learned through overt behavior (physical practice)
define semantic
stores our general knowledge about the world based upon experiences, e.g. concepts
define episodic
stores our knowledge about personally experienced events - allows us to "travel back in time" - consciously re-experiences past experiences
location and distance characteristics
- Movement end-point location remembered better than movement distance - arm movement end-location within the persons own body space remembered better than outside body space - implications for teaching motor skills (emphasize limb movement end-points or key spatial positions during movement)
define expertise
- an "expert"- a person who is located at the extreme right end of the learning stages continuum - experts in all skill performance areas have in common some distinct characteristics 1. amount and type of practice that resulted in expertise 2. knowledge structure 3. use of vision
define negative transfer
- considered rare and temporary in motor learning - occurs when new skill or context involves: *similar environment context features but requires a different movement response (spatial movement requirement, timing structure of movement) (example: switching to a faster keyboard) - negative effects can be overcome with practice - important for the practitioner to be aware that it could cause discouragement early in practice
name and define the types of bilateral transfer
- direction of bilateral transfer is important to consider 1. asymmetric transfer: greater transfer from one limb than from the other 2. symmetric transfer: similar transfer from one limb to the other, regardless of which was used first
Gentiles two stage model: later stage(s)
- fixation/ diversification - involved learner acquiring three characteristics: 1. adapting movement pattern to demands of any performance situation 2. increase consistency of action goal achievement 3. perform with an economy of effort
gentiles two stage model: unique features of Gentiles "later stages"
- learner specific goals depend on the type of skill being learned - closed skill: fixation of movement pattern (develop optimal movement pattern to allow consistent action goal achievement) - open skill: diversification of movement pattern (develop flexible movement pattern that can adapt to changing and novel enviornmental context condition
define memory
- our capacity to remember - the capacity that permits organism to benefit from past experience
working memory subsystem
- phonological loop - visuospatial sketchpad - central executive
long term memory subsystem
- procedural memory - semantic memory - episodic memory
performer and performance changes across the stages of learning
- stages of learning models describes distinct performer and performance characteristics at each learning stage - benefits of considering these characteristics 1. provides a closer look at the skill learning process 2. establishes why different instruction strategies are needed for people in different learning stages
Gentiles two-stage model: initial stage
-getting the idea of the movement - learner works to achieve two goals: 1. organize movement patterns to enable some degree of success achieving action goal 2. Discriminate between regulatory and non-regulatory conditions in environmental context
why does bilateral transfer occur
1. Cognitive explanation - Important cognitive information about "what to do" is acquired from practice with one limb available when other limb begins to perform 2. Motor control explanation - The generalized motor program (GMP) and dynamic pattern theories both provide a basis for bilateral transfer -Interhemispheric transfer: evidence from EMG activity in non-performing contra-lateral limb -Research supports both explanations
4 general trends in performance curves
1. Linear 2. Negatively accelerated 3. Positively accelerated 4. Ogive or S-shaped
Learning Assessment Techniques
1. Observing practice performance 2. Retention tests 3. Transfer tests 4. Coordination dynamics 5. Dual-task procedure
performer and performance changes
1. changes in rate of performance improvement 2. changes in movement coordination (freezing degrees of freedom, freeing degree of freedom, coordinative structure exploits passive forces) 3. alternations in old or preferred coordination patterns 4. changes in muscles used to perform the skill (ex:EMG) 5. changes in energy cost (less energy use at the same task) 6. changes in visual selective attention (viewing the opponent's movements) 7. changes in conscious attention demands 8. changes in error detection and correction capability 9. changes in brain activity: plasticity
fitts and posey proposed motor skill learning involves three stages:
1. cognitive stage: beginner focuses on solving cognitively-oriented problems 2. Associative stage: person has learned to associate environmental information with required movements. works to refine performance to be more consistent 3. Autonomous stage: final stage. performance of the skill is "automatic" (in terms of attention demanded)
Kahneman's Attention Theory: 3 rules people Used to allocate attention resources when performing multiple task
1. ensure completion of at least one task 2. enduring dispositions: involuntary allocation (event is novel for the situation, meaningfulness of the event) 3. momentary intentions (allocate attention according to instructions)
attention theories
1. filter theories (aka bottleneck theories) - difficulty doing multiple tasks simultaneously because of inability to serially process multiple stimuli -not accepted anymore 2. resources capacity theories - difficulty doing multiple tasks simultaneously because of limited availability of resources needed to carry out tasks - simultaneous successful performance of multiple tasks can occur when resource capacity limits not exceeded 3. central resource capacity theories - propose one central source of attention resources for which all activities compete
6 characteristics of general performance characteristics of skill learning
1. improvement 2. consistency 3. stability 4. persistence 5. adaptability 6. reduced attention demands
strategies that enhance memory performance
1. increasing a movement's meaningfulness - visual metaphoric imagery (person thinks of producing a metaphoric image related to the movement. example: alligator hands when kids are catching a ground ball) - verbal label (attach a specific label to the movement) 2. the intention to remember - intentional and incidental memory 3. subjective organization - organizing sequence of movements
why does negative transfer occurs
1. memory representation - established perception-action coupling elicits an inappropriate action in a familiar context 2. cognitive confusion - example: unattended acceleration of a car 3. learning intrinsic dynamic compete with the required task dynamics
practice performance may misrepresent learning. 2 reasons:
1. practice may involve a performance variable that artificially inflates or depresses performance 2. practice may involve performance plateaus
three types of memory systems in Long term memory
1. procedural 2. semantic 3. episodic
transfer principle has practical and theoretical significance for:
1. sequencing skill to be learned - gentiles taxonomy provides helpful guidelines - part practice, simplification, and the use of simulators are also examples of skill progression 2. assessing the effectiveness of practice conditions - transfer test performance provides best assessment
why does positive transfer occur
1. similarity of skill and context components - various ideas on what constitutes a component - roots in Thorndike's "identical elements" theory 2. similarity of cognitive procession requirements - transfer-appriopriate precession view - transfer task requires a person to engage in: problem solving activity, rapid decision making, application of rules, attention control
memory functions
1. storage of information 2. retrieval of information 3. system specific functions
Dual task procedures to investigate attention limits
Determines attention demands of the simultaneous performance at two different task - Primary task is a task of interest - secondary tasks performance is the basis to make inferences about the attention demands of the primary task
practice test context effects
encoding specificity principle - refers to the relationship between memory encoding and retrieval process - the more the test context resembles the practice context, the better the retention performance
attention switching
The changing of attentional focus - task switching (moving for internal, external to broad, narrow quickly)
define learning
a change in the capability to perform a skill that must be inferred from a relatively permanent improvement in performance as a result of practice or experience - not directly observable - must be inferred from observable behavior
action effect hypothesis vs constrained action hypothesis
action effect hypothesis GOOD -proposed benefit of external focus during performance * actions are planned with reference to their effect *use an "effect" focus when learning/performing constrained action hypothesis BAD - focusing on body (internal focus) interferes with automatic processing - increase conscious or controlled processing
Multiple resource theory
alternative to one central resource theories - Propose that we have several resources for attention (Each source has a limited capacity) -The multiple sources based on specific information processing need * sensory input (Visual, proprioceptive) * response output (verbal, motor) * type of memory code (spatial, verbal)
kahnemans attention theory
an example of a central resource capacity theory: - equates attention with "cognitive effort" - proposed flexible attention capacity limits - The amount of tension capacity available is determined by the persons arousal level: Maximum amount available when arousal level is optional for the situation - evaluation of attention requirements of multiple task
transfer tests
assess the adaptability of what was learned during practice - tests can involve: performing the practiced skill in a context or situation different from practices, e.g.: availability of augmented feedback, physical environment, personal characteristics - performing a skill that is a novel variation of the practiced skill
define ogive or s- shaped
combination of linear, negatively accelerated, and positively accelerated - applies to most skills
attention refers to characteristics associated with
consciousness, awareness, cognitive effort
define declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge
declarative knowledge: the knowledge that can be verbalized (i.e., "what to do" to perform a skill) procedural knowledge: the knowledge that enables one to actually perform a skill (i.e., know"how to do" a skill) - typically not verbalizable or difficult to verbalize
performance curves for kinematic measures
difficult to present in performance curves (assessed over time within a trial) - to assess improvement and consistency, one graph presented per trial or blocks of trials
working memory ... define duration and capacity
duration: maintains information for 20-30 sec before losing parts of information (trace decay) capacity: can store, 7 items (+/-2). a person can increase capacity. "chunking"
define negatively accelerated
early improvement but slows later (most common) - skill you're learning is easy, not complex - individual could already be experienced with something similar to the new skill - individual has a high motor ability
function of working memory
enables people to respond to the demands of a "right now" situation (PAC) - critical role in decision making, problem solving, movement planning and execution - interacts with long term memory - serves as an interactive workspace
remembering and forgetting terminology
encoding: process of transforming to be remembered information into a form that can be stored in memory storage: process of placing information in long term memory rehearsal: process that enables a person to transfer information from working to long-term memory retrieval: process of searching through LTM for information needed for present use
define Performance
execution of a skill at a specific time and in a specific location
two kinds of memory tests
explicit memory test: consciously call something to mind - recall test - recognition test implicit memory tests: assess info in memory that is difficult or impossible to verbalize (i.e., info that would not be accessed on an explicit memory test)
research support for asymmetric transfer:
greater amount of transfer occurs from preferred to non-preferred limb
define transfer learning and the influences that it can result in
influence of previous experience on: - learning a new skill - performing a skill in a new content - positive transfer - negative transfer - neutral (zero)
working memory processing of information
information processed to allow person to achieve action goal or goal of problem at hand - remember instructions about how to perform a skill
observing practice performance: performance curve
line graph that plots performance measures across practice trials or periods of time - provides evidence of: improvement and consistency
define working memory
memory system associated with sensory, perceptual, attentional, and short term memory process - involved in all situations requiring temporary use and storage of information
define reduced attention demands
more easily perform another activity simultaneously - demonstrated using dual-task procedures
meaningfulness of the movement
movement becomes meaningful if it can be related to something person knows
retention tests
tests of a practiced skill that a learner performs following an interval of time after practice has ceased (length of no-practice interval is arbitrary) - purpose: assess permanence of the performance level achieved during practice
visual selective attention
the detection and selection of performance-related information in the performance environment - Visual search is a process of directing visual attention to locate relevant information (i.e., cues) in the environment -eye movement recordings (commonly used technique visual selective attention. what a person is visually attending to inferred from "point of gaze")
attentional focus
the directing of attention to specific aspects of our performance or performance environment - width of focus (Focus can be a broad or narrow) - Direction of focus (Focus can be external or internal)
define persistence
the improved performance capability is marked by an increase in persistence - as the person progresses in learning the skill, the improved performance capability lasts over increasing periods of time - example: you riding a bike as a young kid for so long that if you take a 10 year break from a bike, you can pick it up from where you left off
define adaptability
the improved performance is adaptable to a variety of performance context characteristics - generalizability or how generalizable the performance of the skill is example: going from grass to turf for soccer
define stability
the influence on skill performance which are internal or external conditions that can disrupt performance - i.e. stress, environmental conditions - influences decrease over time
learning how to learn is an example of
transfer
define bilateral transfer
transfer of learning that occurs between two limbs - also known as inter-manual transfer, cross transfer or cross education
memory structure comprised of two functional system
working memory and long term memory
learning how to learn:
•Antithesis of the specificity of learning principle •Learners extract general principles when they practice multiple tasks •The principles transfer to the learning of many new skills •E.g. learners become good problem solvers by solving many different types of problems
Bernstein's ideas
•Bernstein best remembered for his ideas about freezing & freeing degrees of freedom •Thought that learning a skill was similar to solving a problem •Likened skill acquisition to staging a play, with many phases •Described appropriate practice as a form of repetition without repetition (learner should experience many modifications of the task)