Multi-level governance (AS Resit)

What did Tony Blair claim in 2006?

"Good local government makes a huge difference to our lives" through the "quality of our schools and the facilities in our local park".

How did Tony Blair alter local government?

In the year 2000, the Blair government held a referendum to form an all-London assembly with a directly elected mayor. Underneath a Greater London assembly, there were 32 London borough councils and the Corporation of the City of London. The issues of local government reform since 1945 has unequivocally been achieving a balance between all local authorities of their powers, and to promote efficiency and maintain a sense of community.

How did John Major attempt to alter local government funding?

John Major's review team came up with two alternatives, which he put into action of government together: the Uniform Business Rate - a rate like the old rating system where the tax is assessed and collected nationally - and the Council Tax - a hybrid taxation between tax on income, the property and the Poll Tax. The latter, the Council Tax, is rated according to value in eight bans then falls on the current occupant of the property and not the owner. Therefore, the Council Tax is progressive on the individual, and not solely on the owner. The weakest in society had rebates to pay their taxation. There was some resistance from Liberal Democrat supporters ("Axe the Tax" campaign of 2004 led by Scottish Socialist MP Tommy Sheridan).

Osborne's and Gaebler's "Reinventing Government" (1992) claims that that the role of local government is...

"steering rather than rowing".

In which year were the referendums for Scotland and Wales to have devolved institutions?

1997.

How many supranational and intergovernmental bodies are there in the EU?

3 supranational (governed by external influence) bodies and 2 intergovernmental (debate between nations) bodies.

In 2006, how did local government spend their money?

37% on Education; 18% on Social services; 12% on Housing benefit; 11% on Policing.

In 2006, where did local government get their money?

44% from Specific grant and 25% from Council Tax, which form the majority of the money collected.

How does the Qualified Majority System work?

55% majority of voters must ratify a bill, which represents at least 65% of the EU population.

Offer a few examples of primary legislation of the Scottish?

A few examples of primary legislation in Scotland are that student tuition fees were rejected/abolished, Clause 28 was abolished before the UK, foundation hospitals were not introduced when Westminster passed it, and elderly people have received entirely free care in nursing and residential homes, and fox hunting has been abolished (while the UK has abolished it in a contentious, unproductive, disorderly and ambiguous manner).

What is decentralisation?

A movement from a central, efficient and strong state.

In recent years, payment to local governments forms how much of all public spending?

A quarter.

What is a unitary state?

A unitary state is one that has a sovereign core. The core of the country may devolve power to several bodies to ensure more local representation of interest, but the sovereign core still has the power to vote in majority to abolish such powers. The UK is an example of a unitary state, as Westminster rules superior decision and authority over smaller authorities and European decisions, if they decide to leave by abolishing the European Communities Act. However, it proves difficult to avoid devolution to the nations following the overwhelming support to become independent from the Scottish in the referendum awarded to them at the end of 2014 and David Cameron's concessions to award devo-max (maximum devolution).

Yes - Councils are still responsible for running key services on behalf of the public, acting as enablers rather than providers.

All councils collectively receive 70bn per annum to spend on public services - NHS, education and social welfare.

How did Tony Blair support intergovernmentalism - the ideological preference for community support and international consensus?

Blair's support for intergovernmentalism is found within his ratification of the fifth enlargement in 2004, allowing countries of Malta, Hungary, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Czech Republic among others into decision-making of the EU, which is the biggest enlargement of the EU since its inception. Similarly, Tony Blair and George Bush formed a similar connection to that of Ronald Regan and Margaret Thatcher, as they were strong allies to combat global tragedies, such as the formation of the "coalition of the willing" to fight Al-Qaeda following the terrorist attacks upon the World Trade Center. This coalition worked to root subdivision within Iraq, and invaded it in 2004.

What did Bogdanor write in 1999?

Bogdanor (1999) coined the phrase "federal devolution" to describe the disjointed powers throughout England or our 'asymmetrical devolution'

Yes - relatively simple to collect.

Council tax collection rates remain at around 96.8% - the highest level of taxation in the UK ever and still forms 25% of all financing to public authorities.

No - fraught with danger.

Conservatives during Blair's government claimed that devolution to Scotland and Wales would cause an unnecessary disintegration of the UK. Such claims have been credible with the culmination in 2014 of calls for Scottish independence. The Scottish National Party has always had the main aim of breaking from the strictures of UK rule. Alex Salmond believed that Scottish primary responsibilities over legislation were undermined due to the existence of the UK in their political life by proclaiming that the Scottish Executive "takes its policy and its motivation from London" through the increased use of Sewel motions - a power to defer motions from the Scottish Parliament to Westminster.

How are councillors paid?

Councillors are not paid for their work, but 2004 regulations allow the council to award basic, childcare and dependants' carers' allowances which are decided by local determination. However, the lack of payment discourages political representation and dogma, and encourages the more enthusiastic for council work to come forward into the position - those that have the money to afford it.

What did Coxall and Robine write in (2003)?

Coxall and Robins (2003) wrote that the "English core (is) becoming more decentralised as regional and urban entities find political expression".

What has the Welsh Assembly done over its own legislation?

Despite their lack of powers, the Welsh assembly has taken stances over the abolition of SATS for 7-year-olds and prescription charges. Moreover, the disliked quangrocacy in Wales was tackled at the establishment of the Welsh assembly where 9 were abolished.

Distinguish the objectives of district councils, county councils and joint boards?

Districts have the functions of being responsible for leisure, environmental health, housing, refuse collection and local roads. Counties are responsible for education, fire and ambulances, libraries, main roads, social services and transport. Unitary authorities exercise all of these functions. Also, sometimes joint boards are created where local authorities are deemed too weak to run them alone, or that there is a disparity between district and county councils.

Yes - It assumes a two-person household but caters for single people. The disadvantaged pay less than the affluent.

During the premiership of Blair, those whose house was worth more than 40,000 would pass the least tax, while B and C payed less than the "full tax". Band D (68,000 to 88,000) payed the full tax. Those with more than 88,000 would be expected to pay more than the full council tax.

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It plays a very important party in the lives of ordinary people. Evidence?

Expenditure of the councils remains 6 times the level it was in 1900 (70bn per annum), and the number of council houses is still around 3.5 million. HOWEVER, the recent Conservative pledge to convert all schools to academies in a 2016 Spending Review undermines local authority control over schools, such as following a curriculum and making judgements on specific failing schools. Academisation attempts to free schools from the constraints of local government control. The debate of whether local government should have control over schools is contentious, as there are credible arguments to either side, such as if efficiency is a ramification of freedom or regulation.

Yes - Effective and fast-acting.

Federal states tend to be sluggish and inefficient in passing their legislation. For example, George Washington's attempt to enforce civil legislation through all legislative houses of the 1960s.

How can authorities persuade the electorate to pay more attention to local politics?

Firstly, democracy and representation would be enhanced if authorities were split into even smaller authorities. The Local Government Act 2000 outlines the possibility for local governments to delegate their powers to smaller authorities, thus achieving this. Secondly, use a proportional voting system, such as the list systems or the Single Transferable Vote. Thirdly, devolve more powers to local governments such as more powers over taxation, tuition, public expenditure, and social policy. However, increasing these powers too excessively may cause a disparity of powers between different authorities or nations - an example of the West Lothian Question.

No - Lack of popularity or interest.

Given that local governments form smaller authorities covering smaller areas than the entire legislature, it becomes difficult for popular and mainstream newspapers to report on all local authorities or councils in their newspapers. Similarly, the election causes less interest as there appears to be a single party system, with Labour dominating council elections ever since 1945 where Doncaster, Manchester, Sheffield and Stoke are safe Labour councils.

Question: Is a unitary state more efficient than a federal state?

Go.

Nugent also define supranationalism how?

He claimed that "supranationalism take inter-state relations beyond cooperation into integration, and involves some loss of national sovereignty", meaning that supranationalism is where governments delegate some power to an external higher authority.

How did Professor of Politics, Neill Nugent, define intergovernmentalism in his paper "The Government and Politics of the European Union" (2003)

He declared it was where "nation states, in situations and conditions they can control, cooperate with one another on matters of common interest"

What is a confederal state?

In confederal states, central control is loosened and weakened and the majority of power has been devolved to smaller states. An example is the dominance of Switzerland's cantons (26 as of 2008) over the Berne government.

What is a federal state?

In federal states, functions and powers are split between different tiers of government as a consequence of a constitution. An example is the separation of powers advocated by the US Constitution, or the Bill of Rights, which ensures that no one body acts outside the parameters of the Constitution.

No - States are useful for closer democracy.

Like the intentions of local governments of the UK, a closer state may represent the interests of local members more efficiently than a distant power. The decision of these states may combat unnecessary and unwanted legislation from Parliament.

What is the turnout at local elections typically?

Local elections have turnouts at an average of 35% or less, with 1999 having an average of 29%. The turnouts at these elections have steadily decreased since.

The Heath government is principally responsible for a tiered government system. How did Margaret Thatcher and John Major alter this?

Margaret Thatcher was solely responsible for the modification of this structure by abolishing five metropolitan counties and the GLC in the mid-80s. However, the tier system remained until 1992 throughout the rest of England until 1992 were John Banham's Local Government Review was created which examined local government reorganisation in England, dealing with changes to devolution on a case-by-case basis. The Government review did, however, retain 34 counties and 238 district councils. For example, Staffordshire, despite having a county council, had a number of district councils, such as Lichfield DC. However, a few became unitary authorities, such as Bristol, Milton Keynes and Reading - areas where an overwhelming public wanted a single local government. Also, there were a few unitary authorities still exiting from 1974, including Birmingham and Coventry.

How did Tony Blair describe the relationship between the EU and the US and Britain?

Moreover, Tony Blair commented that Britain can act as a "bridge" between the US and Europe in a speech made in 2003.

No - Excessive concentration of power at the centre.

No legal restraints of destroying acts of Parliament. A tyrannical use of power is always possible with a sovereign Parliament; this is suggested through the limitations of the House of Lord's choice to act as a constitutional stop were limited in the Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949. Moreover, the unlimited powers for a government to leave organisations such as the EU and the ECHR, and to abolish local government authorities through their legislation, may urge a debate as to whether a leader can become too dictatorial over the nation, despite their best vested interests. On the other hand, the federal state of the US has a Supreme Court which acts to defend civil liberties, outlined in the Bill of Rights - civil liberties which have been difficult to alter, such as the right to bear arms (the fourth amendment).

Why might one argue that local government is redundant in recent years?

One might suggest that the introduction of external and independent quangos to deal with government policy or admin has made the elections to local government redundant. As Tony Blair said in 1998, "There are all sorts of players on the local pitch, jostling for position where previously the local council was the main game in town".

How else was the power of local governments undermined by Thatcher?

Other movements from the Thatcher government included the removal of local authority powers to polytechnics, their management devolving to school governors, and the sale of some 2.2m council houses.

What are reserved powers?

Powers which Parliament retain are defines as "reserved powers", such as those concerning the UK constitution, foreign policy, defence, employment and national security.

Question: Argue the case that local government is effective.

Ready.

Question: Is Scottish Devolution successful?

Ready.

Question: Is the council tax a good thing?

Ready.

Question: Is local government alive?

Ready?

What were Labour policies over local government powers?

The 1997 manifesto of the Labour party forecasted the rising powers to local government to produce efficiency through policies such as introducing a new assembly and an elected Mayor of London, allowing councils to consult the people about how they would operate in the future, replacing Compulsory Competitive Tendering with Best Value in 1998 (retaining principles of competition but allowing contracts to be awarded on the basis of other facts as well as price).

How did Margaret Thatcher attempt to change the ratings system?

The Conservatives, under new neo-liberal rule, promised reform on this ratings system for the ideological reason that it hindered growth as the rich and successfully were taxed wrongfully. Margaret Thatcher believed that the Community Charge, or the Poll Tax (a flat rate tax for each household), was more fair toward people who owned their own successful lodging and property. Moreover, it was fair that all would contribute to the local council which governs them, instead of only a few. Similarly, the local government has burdening political pressures at the reminder of the cost of local government upon the poorest in society: a pressure causing efficiency.

What are the powers of the Court of Justice?

The Court of Justice acts an adjudicator of justice, and holds countries to account which break European precedence. The Court of Justice takes cases to set precedence for member states. An example includes the Factortame case and the case of Marshall v Southampton health authority.

Yes- Newer parties are g gaining seats as main ones have lost backing.

The Green party and UKIP have begun winning more seats in local councils. An example of where the Green party received around 5% of the vote in local elections through the 1980s; the Green party had their first Green councillor when GP Jon Orrell claimed victory in the Dorset council's Weymouth East ward with 55.3% of the vote in the 2015 election.

Which act of Parliament has devolved vague and ambiguous powers to local government? And how may councillors petition for certain powers?

The Local Government Act 2000 states the general aim to "promote economic, social and environmental well-being" in their areas. Moreover, a council may begin a private bill through Parliament to attain special powers and privileges, besides to raise their funding. The Secretary of State has legitimacy to close down the powers of the council if they intend to disobey higher order. Instead, it is generally accepted that local governments are enablers and not providers.

Highlight the past of devolution and powers to Northern Ireland.

The Northern Ireland Act 1920 set out the terms of government between Catholics, who preferred to be considered Irish, and the Protestants, who preferred to be English. A Parliament was awarded to Stormont, but was dominated by the interests of the Protestants. The Catholics became dissatisfied with their misrepresentation and the discrimination impinged upon them, and expressed their general disinterest in the Stormont Parliament. The government abandoned it in 1969. Until, the Northern Ireland assembly was first coined in April 1998 in the Good Friday Agreement which outlined the creation of a devolved assembly with law-making powers in the province, elected on the basis of proportional representation, and an executive of 10 ministers who would operate on the basis of power-sharing between the leaders of the two communities. Following the agreements, there was conflict over decommissioning weapons of the IRA and the Executive was disbanded on four separate occasions.

How are central government and Scottish government intertwined?

The Office still exists with the head being the Secretary of State, whose role remains to promote partnership between the UK government and the Scottish executive, to continue to represent the Scottish to the UK, retaining certain limited executive functions and to make orders (secondary legislation) under the Scotland Act 1998. Moreover, the JMC (Joint Ministerial Committee) was set up which acts as a forum for the UK government and other administrations to meet and discuss issues of devolution and resolve disputes between devolved administrations.

Which acts defined the infrastructure to the political bodies?

The Scotland Act and the Wales Act define the infrastructure of their individual political bodies.

How much was given to the Scottish Executive in the term of 2007-2008.

The Scottish Executive in their Parliament was awarded over 30bn pounds in the term of 2007-2008 to govern Scotland.

Which areas of policy do the Scottish have control over?

The Scottish Parliament has powers to set their own primary legislation, ranging from their own criminal legislation, rules to education, policing and local government.

Yes - Legitimacy

The Scottish Parliament is appointed by the Additional Member System, which is a hybrid system attempting to make the body more representative of public opinion. An example of this success is found in 1999 Scottish elections where the Labour-Lib Dem coalition received 53% of the electorate's support, unlike the Westminster Parliament which has received no majority vote in the post-war period.

What are the formations of devolution in Wales?

The Wales Act 1998 formed a National Welsh Assembly, where members are elected under the AMS electoral system. Although they weren't given powers of primary legislation, they had powers over secondary legislation in 18 different areas, including social care, health and food, education and culture, local government, social justice and regeneration, economic development, planning and environment, agriculture and rural affairs. Although the majority of the powers were transferred from the Welsh Office to the Assembly, a Secretary of State still exists to represent Wales in the Cabinet and watching over the assembly.

No - constitutional anomaly.

The West Lothian Question is the debate about the disparity between powers of the Scottish Parliament over Westminster and the Westminster powers over the Scottish. People who are critical of devolution may point to evidence where the Scottish have voted on issues in Westminster but have declined this legislation in their own jurisdiction, such as the policy of increasing tuition fees where the influence of 70 Scottish Labour MPs led to the Higher Education Bill passing with a majority vote of 5 votes.

What was the White Paper, "Better government for Wales", of 2005?

The White Paper, Better government for Wales, of 2005 advocated a more powerful Welsh assembly. The provisions of the proposals were to make the executive separate from the National Assembly, adopting John Locke's doctrine of separation of powers to encourage pragmatism and discourage tyranny, to forbid people standing as both a constituency candidate and on a regional list and to allow the Assembly to petition for powers to Westminster - a mechanism called Orders in Council.

What is the case for a local government?

The case for a local government includes the argument that people should have their public services delivered by members closest to them. The reason for this is that centrally imposed solutions may prove inappropriate in different areas of the UK. It is also very interesting that the local councils, with the role to protect the interests of public services, have been Labour dominated. Despite the 2015 election outcome of a majority Conservative government, the Labour party retained 58 councils in the 2016 local elections while the Conservative party only retained 38 - the Labour party priding itself on its policies of protecting public services or common ownership and utilising fiscal measures, such as borrowing and more taxation, to fulfil this role. Overall, local government allows for 'diversity' and 'flexibility', as the immediate councils are more accountable to their voting public. Moreover, local government seeks to encourage political activism and enthusiasm.

Why has nationalism grown since 1970?

The discovery of oil in the North Sea in 1970 compounded to the call of independence. Moreover, Scottish people were increasingly nationalist as their country once had the power to govern itself, prior to the Act of Union. This has been the case more prominently in Scotland than in Wales, with the domination of the SNP in Westminster during the 2015 general election (all but two of Scottish seats).

Why is there a disparity of powers between the Scottish and the Welsh assemblies?

The disparity between Welsh powers to govern themselves and Scottish powers is principally a consequence of their traditional backgrounds and their electoral popularity. While the Scottish had for a long time pressed the government to retain their powers as an independent country, the Welsh had less elaborate and less popular demonstrations to claim power to legislate for themselves. The referendum results in 1979 and 1997 seemed to convey the lack of enthusiasm of the Welsh (79.7% rejected, on a turnout of 58% in 1979; 50.3% approved, on a turnout of 50.1%.).

Yes - Clear ranking of authority.

The doctrine of collective responsibility and a unitary state means that, although the government is held authoritative and sovereign, there are pressures from the opposition and the public upon the government as an entire body. An example where a government has been held accountable due to their cabinet is the raise in tuition fees of 2011. Despite the government decision to treble tuition fees in the Education Act 2011 at the review of Lord Browne, the Liberal Democrats were held accountable by the public equally to the Conservatives, breaking a promise made prior to the general election, despite the policy unequivocally being favoured by the Conservatives. Conversely, a federal state's powers are merged and little can be passed through the entrenched and inexorable restraints of the constitution.

What are the powers of the European Commission and how is comprised?

The first body is the European Commission, fulfilling roles as an Executive to the EU. The European Commission drafts some legislation. Each country nominates a single commissioner, who represents the country to draft legislation. However, the Commissioner is expected to retain a collective European conscience instead of influences of their nation or party. The Commission's membership is a member from each state; thus, it is entirely dependent on the number of member states of the EU (28 as of 2013).

Describe the development of European treaties prior to the European Communities Act 1972.

The first move of Jean Monnet, one of the founding fathers of Europe, to unite all European countries was the Schuman Declaration (1950), which was a plan for a supranational body to manage all coal and steel production from Germany and France. This grew into the ECSC (European Coal and Steel Community). France, Germany, Italy and the Benelux countries were members of this, who together agreed to sign the Treaty of Rome in 1957 which established the European Economic Community (EEC) [also known as the Common Market]. The co-existing ECSC, Euratom and the EEC were amalgamated in 1967 into the European Community (EC). In 1972, the UK passed the European Communities Act; thus, the UK became infatuated with European affairs over the community.

Yes - Democratic.

The hybrid system of the Additional Member System is more representative than the First Past the Post System in England, as evidenced by the rise of the SNP (once considered a 'wasted' vote). Moreover, the views of Scots, or of their MSPs, would be undermined by the fact that they can't solely win a majority in Westminster. Therefore, not only does this devolution adapt with the notion of the 21st century of a purer democracy by allowing smaller parties to springboard into mainstream politics but it enriches democracy by having common local interest represented.

What was the intention of the formation of the Scottish Parliament?

The intention of the Scottish Parliament was to offer representation to the Scottish people on a fair and representative basis. This aim was unequivocally met in 2007 where Alex Salmond, head of the SNP, became First Minister, in coalition with the Green party. The rise of the SNP and the Green party effected Westminster politics as more pressure was placed on Westminster to appease the Scottish in their legislation. Moreover, the sight of success of the SNP in the Scottish Parliament may have led their success in the 2015 election where they dominated in their Scottish available seats, principally contested Labour.

What was the issue of the Conservative reign of government and their influences on local government?

The issue here is that there is disparity between different councils, as some more closely knit groups have more funding than separated authorities. Unitary authorities are said to have advantages of discouraging voting apathy, reducing administrative costs and having more freedom to improve the quality of public local services.

What is another alternative to the council tax?

The local sales tax, which has the advantage of the being hidden in the over price of products, like VAT. It is a regressive tax, but is proportional to the amount that is paid by the individual. Yet, this may not reflect their income and may burden the more disadvantaged in society.

Fiona Mackay, Amy Jones and Alice Brown wrote a study in July 1999 called 'The "representativeness" of councillors' presented by the Joseph Rowntree Trust. What were its observations?

The main conclusions were that representative councils would not occur without specific equality guarantees to improve recruitment of a more diverse council, and that an enthusiastic and holistic approach is required to notice the facts that inhibit people from standing as local councillors. Moreover, they suggested that political enthusiasm and activism must be sparked at all levels in order to cause accountability and representation. Yet, other observations include that the individual supply (no apply) and demand (decision of available candidates) factors should be tackled together. Others include that the majority of councillors are still white, male and middle-aged and that creating socially representative councils is seen to enhance local democracy.

What are the main roles of a councillor?

The main roles of a councillor are to respond to correspondence, represent their ward, following the strictures of government, protecting the interests of common public ownership and services, scrutinising other councillor decisions, engaging with the community and performing regulatory duties. It may also be within the interests for the councillor to follow the guidance from the party they support, if they do. They may also the responsibility of instructing officers to perform tasks on behalf of the council.

What are the powers of central government over local authorities?

The powers of government over the existence of local authorities are simple and unlimited, but a few examples may include determining the structure of local government, creating or abolishing authorities, laying down compulsory features in their internal workings, controlling the terms at which councillors hold office, calling the dates of elections, approving or overruling by-laws made by them and forbidding councils from taking activities (e.g. commercial trading).

How are local governments hindered by central government?

The powers of local government have developed in such a way as to not have their own autonomy, but to accept the restraints by Westminster. Ministers have the powers to secure uniformed ideology, so there is no disparity between local governments and Westminster. Where a local government acts out of its legal boundaries, they may be held accountable in a court of law on ultra vires - a Latin legal doctrine defining where a legislature acts out of its jurisdiction.

Why has devolution come onto the political agenda for Scotland?

The question of devolution to Scotland was principally founded as a consequence of the Act of Union 1707, where Scotland sacrificed its independence to become part of the United Kingdom. Devolution has been on the political agenda also since the formation of the Scottish Office in 1939 in Edinburgh, where there was a Scottish Secretary of State. These two decisions to amend representation of Scotland in English politics has accentuated calls for devolution, as people were angered that Scottish hadn't their own political independence to make their own laws. They wanted legislative devolution instead of administrative devolution.

What are the powers of the EU Parliament, and how is it comprised?

The second body is the European Parliament, which is directly elected by the population of each member state in a proportional voting list system. However, several nations are represented by different MEPs. The Parliament's legislative role was initially only advisory, but since the powers have increased to have the right to veto legislation under the co-decision procedure (article 186b Maastricht Treaty) (where both the Council of Ministers and Parliament must agree). The body also has powers to dismiss the entire Commission: an example in 1999 which bought about the resignation of the Santer-led Commission over allegations of fraud and impropriety. The UK has 73 MEPs. The Parliament is now also required to vote on any enlargements of the EC under the passage of the Single European Act.

How did Margaret Thatcher view the supranationalism of Europe?

The tendencies of the EU to impose their legislation onto other countries angered Margaret Thatcher's ideas of freedom and sovereignty of a nation. She believed rather in a looser and freer Community than the EU, and she outwardly expressed her resentment to the precedence set by MEPs. Moreover, she remained as a firm Atlanticist, favouring the special relationship between President Ronald Regan and Britain. Margaret Thatcher's speech to Bruges explores her resent when she proclaimed that a successful and stronger European Community would only occur after "willing and active co-operation between independent sovereign states", alluding to a unanimous agreement of policy and the elision of legal precedence to undermine sovereignty.

Why was it a necessary to form the EU in 1945?

The tragic second world war led to an unstable Europe, where many French, German and Italians were without work and starving and homeless. Europe decided to unite to bring about economic recovery and provide a decent standard of living for all Europeans. Consequently, supranationalist (supporters of higher authority) leaders drafted plans to form a "US of Europe" after the end of the war in 1945.

What were the issues with the ratings system of the 1970s to subsidise local government?

The use of the Revenue Support Grant grew throughout the 20th century with 30% of public expenditure going to the Revenue Support Grant for local authorities in the late 1930s. This had increased to 65% in the late 1970s. Moreover, the increasing number of home owners after the war meant that more people were paying high taxes for their owned land; some would describe the taxes as regressive for their inadaptability to the growth of home owners.

No - The progressive element of taxation is lined to property values rather than income.

Therefore, those earning the most in society may live in an ordinarily sized house as someone who earns less so. Moreover, there are unfortunate circumstances where a wealthy house is inherited at the death of family member. In this regard, there is little difference to the regression of the Poll Tax and the Council Tax. This was a voice of the Lib Dem campaign in 2004.

The principle of a local democracy is important. Evidence?

The whole idea of a local government is to appease the local interests of the public. The local government should seek to retain the standards of public services, or expect social pressures from the angered electorate. Another reason why local government is important is because members of Westminster may not understand the full ramifications of their actions upon smaller and less privileged areas. The separation of powers amongst a legislature is not uncommon in a constitution, as is the way in America with the separation of the President from Congress, the Senate and the Supreme Court - a doctrine first coined by John Locke's "Two Treatise of Government". Arguably, local governments may form constitutional stop to any tyranny in Westminster over the public interest. Moreover, local government provides many jobs with some 2.1 million people at the wake of the coalition government working for all local governments, according to the Local Government Association.

Describe the development of European treaties after the European Communities Act 1972.

Then, in 1986, now including the UK, all member states signed the Single European Act (1986) which removed trade barriers and customs duties, increased powers to the European parliament, Qualified Majority Voting was used in EC decision-making. The European Union was formed in 1992 at the agreement of the Maastricht Treaty. Since the Maastricht Treaty, the Qualified Majority Voting system has been enhanced, the European Parliament has accepted more roles over policy areas such as justice and home affairs and has introduced more transparent decision-making procedures under the Treaties of Amsterdam (1997) and Nice (1998).

The financing of local government is highlighted by the Local Government Finance Act 1992, which outlines the four ways in which councils may attain money for their numerous public activities. What are these four methods?

These four methods of financing are the Council Tax, income from fees and charges for parking metres and use of swimming pools, grants from central government (principally the Revenue Support Grant (a main block grant to local authorities)) and income redistributed on the means of the Uniform Business Rate (a levied tax on business and non-domestic properties in a given area).

The Lyons inquiry in March 2007 concluded what about Liberal Democrat suggestions to transfer the council tax to a general income tax?

They concluded that local income tax should be deferred by gradually improving the Council Tax's regressive nature by making it progressive and introducing more generous benefits. The Lyons in enquiry further alluded the negatives of this system, such as the implication that they may be required to pay more. The proposals of the local income tax were also insufficient to pay for public services, the Lyons inquiry concluded. On average, an additional 7.7 pence in the pound would have to paid to raise the same amount as the Council Tax.

Under Blair, there were 8 Regional Development Agenies (now abolished). How did this look promising for devolution to different regions?

They were given the opportunity to set up regional assemblies in their regions in 2003 at a referendum. The North East voted overwhelmingly against the assembly. Moreover, this is increasingly called for due to the rise of British nationalism with the UK's asymmetrical devolution with the elision of any British committees or a Secretary of State of England or an English Office in Parliament and Whitehall. This is further supported by the unequal devolution of the Scottish Parliament and the Welsh Assembly.

How has Margaret Thatcher's removal of local authority power of polytechnics been reflected into the policy of today?

This has been reflected into the 21st century, where George Osborne attempted to make all schools become academies by 2020 at the wake of 2016 in George Osborne's Spring Budget.

Why was a referendum held in 1975 regarding Britain's membership of the EU?

Throughout the 1960s, British politicians began to question Parliament's aloofness from international politics. It seemed that the voice of Britain was undermined through the European Union, despite being part of one of the largest three political unions of the time (The Commonwealth, the EU and the US). It is for this reason that there was a referendum in 1975 to continue Britain's membership of the EU, where 2/3 of the public agreed to stay.

How were the powers of local governments diminished by Thatcher?

Throughout the Conservative era, over 100 separate Acts of Parliament affected the outcome of local government provisions, such as those concerning the financing of local authorities (how local governments raised or received and spent their money), the activities of local governments (the introduction of certain "compulsory competitive tendering (CCT) regulations", councils were required to put certain services out to public tender), and the framework/structuring of local governments (the abolition of the six existing Metropolitan councils and the Greater London Council in 1986 - a similar model reinstated in 1992 after John Banham's Local Government Review).

How does the Blair administration define that there are problems with retaining public support while following EU interest?

Tony Blair was subject to pressures from the EU on tax harmonisation, the euro and security affairs (unpopular with public), and faced a political backlash from the Union over the issue of Iraq (unpopular with EU).

How is the Scottish Parliament structures and how does it work?

Under the Scotland Act 1998, Scotland has a political body which can set its own primary laws of 129 members, which are elected under the additional member system (a hybrid system attempting to retain advantages of FPTP and proportional systems).

Why has devolution come onto the political agenda for Wales?

Unlike Scotland, Wales never had sovereignty from the British, but was awarded a Welsh Office in 1964. Again, the Welsh were only awarded administrative devolution.

How was local government paid for up until 1980s?

Until the 1980s, the sole contributor to local government was from taxation paid by property owners and based on the value of their residence. Shortfalls were subsidised by the Revenue Support Grant.

How have recent Conservatives reacted to the democratic devolution?

William Hague claimed that the "English are under-represented in parliament... (and) second, the English do not have an exclusive say over English laws". The Conservative manifesto of 2015 also pledged to alter devolution as to have "English votes for English laws".

No - The formation of bands means that bands can become redundant and outdated as the property values rise with inflation.

With economic growth and inflation, house prices are unequivocally and undoubtedly rising to match the current economic climate.

No - Turnouts are low; accountability is undermined.

With turnouts as low as 29% in 1999 and slowly faltering since, local councils are generally less accountable to the public. Moreover, the unpopularity of these contests for power may demonstrate how unimportant politics is to the average working man, who wouldn't have the time or the resources to research local government candidates where the media lacks interest.

What were the issues with the poll tax?

Yet, the regressive Poll Tax of 1990 was met with overwhelming public unrest because it was a regressive tax; Margaret Thatcher and several of her ministers resigned, as a consequence. Before being ousted from government, Margaret Thatcher had implemented the Poll Tax leading to some 17 million people paying tax who had never prior. The Community Charge was abolished by John Major during the first fear year of his premiership in 1992 under the Local Government Finance Act.

A local government forms the least powerful body of the legislature, as their tasks...

are to fulfil roles of passing planning permissions, spending public money and to build roads.

There are three types of states, which are...

unitary, federal and confederal.

In 2004, evidence was taken which found that around x of councillors are men. Moreover, over 45s dominate councils constituting over y of them collectively.

x= 70% y = 80%