Music History Final - Short Answer
12. What is the isorhythmic technique, how does it operate, and what effects does it have on works of music?
Isorhythm is a compositional technique (the term coined in the 20th c.) in which the tenor (chant line) is laid out in segments of equal rhythm and often melody that repeat in regular patterns. The rhythmic patterns are called 'talea' and the melodic patterns are called 'color.' Examples include de Vitry's motet #24 and Machaut's Kyrie #25. The effect of isorhythm is that it provides coherence to long compositions; it's an aid to composers; it helps performers memorize their parts more easily, and it gave the audience and understood structure.
4. How is it believed that the spread of music by oral transmission took place?
POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS REASONS a. Spread of missionaries took the liturgy to faraway places b. The desire to codify liturgy and chant under roman popes and Frankish kings (Charlemagne) for political unity. Singers from Rome were sent throughout the Frankish kingdom to teach the official chant. Local conditions allowed for variants. c. The legend of Gregorian chant gave it credibility as old, divinely inspired, and authentic; i.e. PROPAGANDA MEANS OF TRANSMISSION d. Singers learned by hearing others e. Medieval singers composed new songs by singing aloud, drawing on existing conventions and formulas, fixing the melodies in their mind through repetition f. Perhaps there were conventions for melodic contours, phrasings, beginnings and endings; variations occurred to fit the accent of text g. Some chants were sung weekly; frequency helped memory; some were sung only annually, and this would require more deliberate means of learning
3. What were the main debates about the use of music in the early church? (pros & cons)?
PRO: Chanting of prayers and scripture helped carry text through large meeting places Chanting became a form of prayer and meditation Used pleasures of music to discipline the soul Turn the mind to spiritual things Build the Christian community (Augustine) stimulates devout thoughts (Plato) Beautiful things (music) remind us of divine beauty Could open the mind to Christian teachings and holy thought (only vocal music) Type of music used set Christians apart from the rest of the world (St. Basil) Tranquillizes the soul, forms friendships, unites the divided, mediates between enemies, brings love CON: (Augustine) Gave too much pleasure; melody could be distracting Instrumental music was ineffective Elaborate singing, large choruses, instruments, and dancing were associated with pagan spectacles
11. What was the "Ars nova" notation and what were the arguments for and against its use?
PROS: • More flexibility; allowed for duple and triple divisions • Added a subdivision of the semibreve • Offered new meters • Offered more flexibility with rhythms, including hemiola effects and syncopation • Offered more variety in durational values; a larger ratio of of the speeds of notes in different voices • The notation was so precise that it could be reproduced without oral transmission; as precise as poetry. • Exs: #24-27 in Anthology CONS: • Made imperfect as important as perfect (diminishing the importance of the Trinity) • It welcomed also the 'imperfect consonances' of thirds and sixths • It replaces the old style, which many people still likes (ars antiqua) • It was (believed to be) associated with lasciviousness, excessive refinement, unclear text declamation, loss of the effect of consonances, and confusing measures.
25. What are the distinguishing features of French Tragédie lyrique?
Recitative: More metrical in the accompaniment with shifts between duple and triple to sound more natural and even arioso; patterned after French stage speech /// Aria: Called airs, they differed from Italian arias by lack of virtuosic displays, rhyming text, regular meter and phrasing, syllabic with tuneful melodies and little text repetition; little use of ornamentation: agréments /// A chorus /// Instrumental: French overture: slow, fast, slow; slow section marked by dotted rhythms /// Ballet/dance: Prominent /// Organization: Centerpiece of each act is a divertissement
17. Describe THREE main genres of secular song in 16th century Europe. How can we differentiate among them?
VILLANCICO • Spanish • About rustic or popular subjects • Composed by Spanish composers; considered more Spanish than canción by Franco-Flemish writers. • Short • Strophic • Homophonic • Syllabic • Parts include estribillo, copla, mudanza, and vuelta • Use of hemiola FROTTOLA • Italian light popular song style, but for aristocrats • 4- part strophic form • Syllabic • Homophonic • Melody in upper voice • Use of hemiola • Root position triads frequent CANZONETTO • Italian light style • Vivacious • Homophonic • Simple harmonies • Evenly phrased sections BALLETTO • Italian light style • Dance-like rhythms • Fa-la-la refrains • Vivacious • Homophonic • Simple harmonies • Evenly phrased sections VILLANELLA • Light • Strophic • 3-part • Homophonic • Use of parallel 5ths LIED • Written and performed by German Meistersingers; competition a strong tradition • Standard metric and rhyme schemes with an associated melody • Influenced by the madrigal via Lassus AIR DE COUR • French, after 1580 • Solo voice and accompaniment • Characterized by irregular rhythms CONSORT SONG • English • Voice and viol ensemble • Very popular, but replaced by the English madrigal over time LUTE SONG • English • Voice and lute accompaniment • Lute music appears in tablature CANZONET and BALLETT • English version of the Italian types MADRIGAL • 4-6 voice • Throughcomposed • Poetic lines of 7-11 syllables • Wordpainting • Usually unaccompanied • Equal voice treatment • Polyphonic texture, but can sometimes be homophonic • From 1530s on, musical settings of Italian poetry of various types from sonnets to free forms • No refrains or repeated lines • Petrarch, Ariosto, Tasso, Guarini were preferred poets (the other vocal forms did not have well known poets for their text) • Written for singers' enjoyment
28. What were the main accolades and criticisms of J.S Bach's works?
a. Accolades i. Although he was well known in his day in Protestant Germany for his virtuosic organ playing and for complex contrapuntal works, little of his music was published or even circulated in manuscript. ii. He embraced all the major styles, forms, and genres of his day except opera, and blended and developed them in new ways that the original works did not possess. iii. His music up to that time displayed an unprecedented richness; he is able to satisfy the demands of melody and harmony in a 'tense but satisfying equilibrium.' iv. Concentrated and distinctive themes v. Copious music invention vi. Balance between harmonic and contrapuntal forces vii. Strong rhythmic drive viii. Clarity of form ix. Grand proportions x. Imaginative use of pictorial and symbolic figures xi. Intensity of expression always controlled by a ruling architectural idea xii. Careful attention to every detail xiii. Very good pedagogical works (see last six lines of first paragraph on p. 454) xiv. Though his work went out of style after his death, some of the best musicians and connosieurs of fine music knew his work, I.e., Mozart and Haydn xv. His name and were resurrected in the mid-19th c and he had achieved one of the highest statuses in music history xvi. He was emulated by Mozart, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Brahms, Schoenberg, Ives, Bartók, Stravinsky, Villa-Lobos, and Webern. b. Criticisms i. Cluttered ii. Forced iii. Too much! iv. Too complex v. Turgid and confusing vi. Not natural; rather too artificial vii. Too difficult to play viii. No principal voice; all voices are of equal difficulty ix. Require 'onerous labor and uncommon effort' (conflicts with the natural) x. Ornamentation takes away from harmony and melody xi. Not tuneful enough xii. Old-fashioned at the time of Bach's death xiii. Many of his works are adaptations of his or others' works
29. How did Handel, a German composer trained in Italy come to be regarded as a "national institution" by the English?
a. All of his mature life was spent in England. b. He became a naturalized British citizen in 1727. c. He wrote all of his major works for British audiences. d. He was the most important figure in English music during his lifetime. e. The English public nourished his genius. f. The English public remained loyal to his memory after his death. g. He was buried with public honors in Westminster Abbey with a monument constructed to commemorate him. h. His music adapted to the styles and changing tastes of the public (never became out-of-date).
23. What 17th century developments in Italian vocal chamber music distinguished it from 16th century counterparts?
a. Concertato style (monody and multiple voices with instruments) i. Voice, usually 1-3 voices accompanied by basso continuo (in the thousands) ii. Concerted madrigal (concertato), canzonetta, strophic songs, strophic variations, arias, dialogues, and recitatives. iii. Some works include more than basso continuo; other instruments are called for, plus they contain instrumental introductions and ritornellos. iv. Stile concitato and stile recitative b. Ostinato basses i. Basso ostinato or ground bass 1. Triple or compound meter common 2. 2,4, or 8 measures long 3. Common in Spanish and Italian popular songs 4. Descending tetrachord ii. Chaconne,: usually a harmonic repeating pattern of I-V-vi-V iii. Passacaglia: Repeating bass line or harmonic progression c. Cantata: A secular composition with continuo, usually for solo voice, on a lyrical or dramatic text, consisting of several sections that included both recitatives and arias.
30. Describe the musical characteristics of the "Classical period" that distinguish it from the Baroque.
a. Focus on melody b. Periodicity with incises (motives), phrases, and periods in regular groups of measures punctuated by cadences c. Slow harmonic movement d. Alberti bass which emphasizes harmonic structure with variety and lightness e. Recognizable beginnings, middle, and ends based on the functionality of antecedent-consequent phrases on a smaller scale; development of conventional large-scale forms such as sonata-allegro. f. Emotionally fluctuating (unlike Baroque music, which tended to emphasize one emotion in any given movement)
27. Name two influential composers of the first half of the 18th century (not Bach or Handel) and give reasons.
a. He was a Venetian composer of the early 18th c., writing over 500 concertos b. He was a virtuoso violinist and master teacher c. He also wrote operas, cantatas, and sacred music d. From 1703-1740 he was teacher, composer, conductor, and superintendent of musical instruments at the Pio Ospedale della Pietà e. He wrote quickly and was able to create new sounds in melody, rhythm, orchestral color, and texture by varying a few basic elements. f. He expanded on Torelli's use of the ritornello principle in his concerti to create his own pattern, now known, as B says, as ritornello form. g. His ritornello structures are almost infinitely varied in form and content h. Ritornello structures allowed him to create long movements with relatively short amounts of material. i. He not only worked for the Ospedale, he wrote on commission and earned money from his publications. The publications were very popular throughout Europe, especially in the North. j. Many of his published collections were given unusual titles, perhaps for marketing reasons. k. He was one of the first composers to consciously write program music. l. Although he could write in the conservative styles of Corelli and Scarlatti, he was also a trend-setter, creating in-vogue music. Proof of this is in his commissions from many cities and in many genres. m. His legacy: J. S. Bach made keyboard arrangements of at least 9 Vivaldi concertos n. His legacy: Solo concerto composers of the future used and developed his ideas of the dramatic roles of the soloist; about 350 of his concerti are for solo instrument and orchestra; this would be the direction of the concerto's future. Rameau: a. He wrote the definite book on the theory of tonal harmony. b. His treatise on harmony included a lot of figured bass. c. He discovered that the triad and seventh chord were the primal elements of music and were derived from the perfect fifth, major third, and minor third. d. He discovered the fundamental base of a chord and that it did not change through all of its inversions. e. The fundamental bass gives music coherence and direction and helps define the key. f. He discovered that music was driven by dissonance and came to rest in consonance. g. The seventh chord is dissonant; the triad consonant. h. He coined tonic, subdominant, dominant and noted their chords as the three pillars of tonal music. i. He recognized that keys can change through a process of modulation j. He studied Corelli's works to derive his theories. k. The king of France granted him an annual pension. l. Over twenty-five of his ballets and oepras were staged, more than any other French composer of the eighteenth century. m. He also wrote polemical and theoretical essays. Couperin: a. The Italianate style was perceived by composer, genre, Italian-style arias b. Couperin was the first and most important composer of trio sonatas c. He gave homage to Lully and Corelli by his suites for two violins and harpsichord, The Apotheosis of Corelli and The Apotheosis of Lully. d. His collection Les nations contains a sonata da chiesa (Italian) and a suite of dances. e. Combined French agréments withpassages based on sequences, walking basses, and circle of fifth harmonic progressions f. He wrote twelve suites called concerts. g. He published a collection called Les goûts-réünis.
22. How did Monteverdi contribute to the development of opera?
a. He was the first to show opera's full potential b. His Orfeo was more dramatically effective than Peri's Euridice. c. It drew on a wider range of styles and genres. M. used these contrasts to shape the music and the drama. i. Monody ii. Duets iii. Dances iv. Ensemble madrigals v. Ballettos d. Each act centers around a vocal piece sung by Orfeo and ends with a madrigal by the chorus commenting on the action e. Drew on the madrigal's drama and expressivity f. Scored for larger and more varied instrumental ensembles g. Ritornellos and choruses help to organize scenes h. Use of tonal area, timbre, formal organization to deepen the dramatic impact i. More skillful use of recitative j. Later, used the concitato genera or stile concitato effectively k. Continued to contribute to opera as it transitioned from private to commercial. l. Wrote operas from 1607 to 1643, a long span of time that embraces much change and was a critical nascent stage for opera's development. m. L'incoronazione di Poppea shows a more complex depiction of human character and passion n. He developed arioso and was a master at combining the styles of aria, arioso, and recitative.
33. What reforms to opera did Gluck introduce and why?
a. In order to produce a more moving dramatic line, he recommended that music serve the poetry and the drama. b. He wanted to minimize the focus on the singer and too much virtuosity. c. He created less of a distinction between recitative and aria d. He attempted to make the overture an more integral part of the opera, and to adapt the orchestra to the dramatic requirements. e. He sought melodies of 'beautiful simplicity.' f. He sought to intermingle aria, recitative, and chorus in unified scenes. g. He "amalgamated Italian melodic grace, German seriousness, and the stately magnificence of the French tragédie en musique." (499)
19. Explain the rise of abstract instrumental works during the Renaissance. Why was this a significant development? (Be sure to discuss the models for instrumental music)
a. It developed from habits of improvisation on polyphonic-capable instruments such as the keyboard and lute. b. It developed from imitative textures found in vocal music c. Instrumental ensembles were sometimes labeled 'canzonas' indicating that they borrowed from the chanson structure (G. Gabrieli did this). d. Polychoral ensembles included instrumental music. In St. Mark's church in Venice, one of the choir lofts was usually vocal giving respect to the religious activities, while the other loft was often instrumentalist, giving respect to the governing leaders of the city. e. These developments were significant because for the first time instrumental music in score was as interesting as vocal music. It set the stage for later instrumental music.
10. Why was the emergence of polyphony a major turning point in Western music?
a. It produced counterpoint, developing into rules for the coordination of multiple melodic lines or parts b. It produced harmony, with rules for the treatment of dissonance and consonance produced by vertical sonorities. c. The above components created a sense of direction in music, and movement towards a goal was intensified by the tension and resolution created by the treatment of dissonance and consonance. d. The importance of notation became the basis for all later Western music e. The vertical alignment of harmonies aided the advance of notation f. The development of various note shapes in polyphony to indicate rhythm was a huge step
26. How did the developments in instruments correlate to the development of instrumental music in the late 17th century?
a. Italy: The devolopment of the violin in Northern Italy (Cremona and Brescia) by legendary makers Amati, Stradivari, and Guarneri. i. Andrea Amati was the first maker, beginning in the 16th c. His son Nicolò later took over (1596-1684); some believe his shop produced the best violins ii. Antonio Stradivarius began about a century later; living from 1644-1737 iii. Giuseppe Guarneri was the latest, from 1698-1744 iv. The violin could rival the human voice, so prized in the 16th c., and in the concertato medium, the violin took the place of the voice to create equally important and interesting all-instrumental ensembles v. The violin and its family of instruments became the core of the instrumental ensembles of the late 17th c. b. Germany: The development of the organ i. The golden age of organ music occurred between 1650 and 1750, due in part to the great German organs built during this time. ii. Builders borrowed from French and Dutch models. 1. From the Dutch: dividing the pipes into a main group and subsidiary groups, each with its own keyboard and pipes having a particular fhacter and function. The largest ones contained areas known as the Hauptwerk (Great Organ), Rückpositiv, Burstwerk, and Oberwerk, all positioned above, in front of, behind, and beside the organist. 2. Smaller two-manual/keyboard organs could still produce a variety of principal, wind, and reed sounds. 3. The organ was central to Lutheran church worship and played a great role in preludes, postludes and as accompaniment in other parts of the service.
24. How did France become a leader in the arts in the second half of the 17th century?
a. King Louis XIV ruled from 1643-1715 and used his taste for the arts for propaganda and social control. i. The French arts were marked by elegance and restraint. ii. Its complexities and extravangance, Baroque ideals, were balanced by classical proportions and styles. iii. It reflected the opulence and self-centeredness of the King of France. iv. In addition to the wealth of France, his grandmother was Marie de' Medici, his mother was Anna of Austria, and his wife was Maria Teresa of Spain. He had ties to the wealthiest families in Europe. The Medici's love of the arts surely influenced his family, the Bourbons. One of the Medici's became pope, and he was one who was very interested in opera. b. Features of this art: i. Elegant, opulent, often gilded with gold, yet balanced by classical proportions, pillars, architecture, etc. ii. Attention to minute detail iii. All expressions of art in this period reflected the absolute rule of the Sun King iv. Every artistic expression, even the dots following musical notes, plants on the grounds of Versailles, or the mirrors in the Hall of Mirrors are placed intentionally and with precision. v. Dance was among the principal arts; it was developed as the ballet de cour, a precursor of opera in France. It had songs, choruses and instrumental pieces that corresponded to the characters portrayed in the dances. vi. The refinement and precision of this art held control over the social hierarchy; all nobility were expected to participate in this art, unlike the individual virtuosity of Italian music during this period. c. Musicians were even organized hierarchically 1. Music of the Royal Chapel: singers, organists, instrumentalists for religious services 2. Music of the Chamber: music for indoor entertainment: flutes, strings, lute, and harpsichord players 3. Music of the Great Stable: music for outdoor and military entertainment; wind, brass, and timpani players. 4. Vingt-quatre Violons du Roi: the first large ensemble of strings ever. This became the basis of the modern orchestra. Lully, who became director of this ensemble for his operas, introduced uniform bowing and use of ornaments. His practices reinforced the absolute power of the King and became the foundation of modern orchestra practices. 5. Petits Violons: a smaller ensemble of 18 strings for Louis's personal use. d. Features of the music i. Genres: ballet de cour, comédies-ballets, tragédie en musique, tragédie lyrique, divertissements, French overture
9. Describe the various arguments for the important role played by oral tradition even in the evidence of written polyphony.
a. Many scholars believe that polyphony began as a manner of performance, experimentally; then developed into a practice long before it was ever written down. b. Evidence of this is found in treatises that teach how to sing polyphony, indicating that it was already an established practice. (Ex. Elias Salomo, Jacques de Liège give instructions for singing in parallel 4th and 5ths). c. Some treatises teach how to improvise and give instruction on melodic formulas (Ex. Anonymous IV, calling these formulas "colores.") d. Early notated polyphony is sparse, hard for us to interpret, but indicates that those who performed it just needed a little aid to the memory, for it was already something they had learned through the oral tradition. (Ex. Winchester Troper) e. Records indicate that the Notre Dame polyphony, a highly developed style, had been sung for decades before the manuscripts appeared. f. Records from Notre Dame also indicate that neither chant nor polyphony were performed from notation. g. Of the several Magnus liber organi that still exist, there are variations among them, indicating a fluid repertory passed on by an oral tradition. h. The rhythmic modes indicated in the Magnus liber organi also reveal a long practice of memory-aiding devices that aided the oral transmission. i. All of this indicates that long before, and even after, written notation of polyphony, music was composed and learned orally
18. What evidence do we have that tells us that instrumental music became increasingly important in the Renaissance period?
a. More new instruments were cultivated b. There were new roles for instrumental music c. There were new genres for instrumental music d. There were new styles of instrumental music e. More music for instruments only appeared in score f. There were more published collections for instruments g. Cheaper printing allowed for the rise of amateur instrumental performers h. Printing also increased the amount of music available for professional instrumentalists
5. Describe the development of notation, with the pros & cons of each stage of developement.
a. Neumes (symbols for pitches) were placed above words to indicate the melodic gesture for each syllable, including the number of notes. PROS: More precise; CONS: the shape of the melodic line was not there; could only be read by someone who already knew the melody. Still needed the oral transmission. b. Heighted or Diastematic neumes placed the neumes at varying heights from the text to indicate the range of the melody in relation to a baseline indicating either F or C. PROS: gave an overall melodi contour. A base line added to indicate a particular pitch as a reference point. CONS: Sacrifices the nuances of plain neumatic notation. c. Guidonian Notation: a staff of 4 lines and clefs developed, making the pitches more precise. Lines were arranged to indicate notes a third apart. PROS: More accurate pitch notation. Less requirement to have prior knowledge of the music. CON: More burden to read music. Singer became a step removed from learning the music from another live singer.
21. What were the models of the early opera and how did they inform this new genre?
a. PASTORAL DRAMA: i. Simple subjects ii. Bucolic landscapes iii. Rustic youths, pastoral maids iv. Mythological characters v. Song and dance vi. Ex: Angelo Poliziano, Favola d'Orfeo (Fable of Orfeo), 1471 vii. Ex: Giovanni Guarini, Il pastor fido (The Faithful Shepherd), 1590 b. MADRIGAL: i. Embraces drama in miniature ii. Voice exchange suggests dialogue iii. Emotional expression iv. Text dramatization v. Madrigal comedies and cycles are series representing simple plots or succession of scenes vi. Ex: Orazio Vecchi, L'amfiparnaso (The Slopes of Parnassus), 1594 vii. Solo madrigal exhibits expressive, virtuosic solo singing viii. Ex: Giulio Caccini, Vedro 'l mio sol (I'll See My Sun), ca. 1590 c. INTERMEDIO: i. Combined dialogue with chorus, solo, and instrumental music, dancers, costumes, scenery, and stage effects ii. Contained almost all of the ingredients of opera except for a plot and the new style of dramatic singing (as in Caccini's Le nuove musiche) iii. Ex: Giacopo Peri, Dunque fra torbid 'onde (Thus Over Troubled Waters), 1589 d. GREEK TRAGEDY: i. Ethical and emotional effects of music ii. Emphasis on the rhythm of the spoken word iii. Chorus was sung, and commented on the action iv. Some believe that the entire tragedy was sung v. Ex: Sophocles, Oedipus Rex with chorus set musically by Andrea Gabrieli, 1585
8. What characteristics did secular monophonic song throughout Europe during the middle ages share in common?
a. Set to poetry, usually already existing. b. A recurring theme was courtly love. c. Strophic, often with refrain; strophes often set in bar form d. Of course, monophonic, but with indications through illustrations and writings that they were often accompanied on a variety of instruments e. Learned orally; written down later f. Performed by traveling musicians; sponsored by upper class g. Sung in the vernacular, with the exception of Latin songs h. Diatonic; often based on one of the known church modes i. Mostly syllabic j. Melody usually moved fairly stepwise with an arched shape in the phrases, leading to a cadence k. Short, generally equal phrases that followed the text l. Most show a clear pitch center m. Usually stays within the range of an octave ¬+ n. All are notated with unclear rhythms o. In most traditions, evidence that the poet/composer was becoming well known.
32. How was the mid-eighteenth century aria different from the Baroque da capo aria?
a. Sometimes the opening ritornello was omitted, with a dal segno marking instead of da capo. b. Sometimes a shortened return was written out. c. Some lacked the B section and only had two a sections framed by ritornellos. d. The arias explored more emotions and more rapid alternation of emotions. e. Several keys were often used in the A section, with a return to a restatement of opening material in the tonic by the end of the second A section. f. The orchestra offers more simple harmonic support rather than a contrasting contrapuntal texture.
31. What extramusical factors in Europe contributed to the formation of the "classical style?"
a. Strong centrally-powered governments dominated Europe at the beginning of the century, providing the dissemination of a willful or involuntary uniformity of style. b. The agricultural revolution supported a growing population. c. The growing population allowed for the industrial revolution and the growth of cities, providing centralized venues for the arts in the secular sector. d. An urban middle class became dominant in increasing numbers; their tastes and amateur abilities became factors in shaping the style. e. The overall style became international because there were frequent intermarriages among the European rulers. f. Additionally, Intellectuals and artists frequently traveled; among these were the most influential thinkers and writers in the Enlightenment period. g. The Enlightenment brought an emphasis on reason vs. emotion, naturalness vs. artificiality, and balance vs. excess. These ideals were fairly easily expressed in music. h. The Enlightenment ideas of social reform included education, which in turn included music education, fostering an appreciation of the arts among the rising middle class, and not just the elite. i. The Enlightenment encouraged learning through reading and writing (the printing press had finally produced an increasingly literate populations, so that it became known as a 'print culture.'); writings about music, music history, and music theory began to appear. It became fashionable to think and talk about music as well as perform it and listen to it. j. Because of the freedom to travel, and the welcoming of new ideas throughout Europe, music was welcomed throughout urban centers, and probably for the only time in history, there was a distinct European style that blended features of music from different nations. k. New social venues, such as public concerts, civic orchestras, and amateur choirs made music more accessible to the public, allowing public taste to shape music's direction. l. This is why the Classical style is a very crystallized one; easy to identify and somewhat homogeneous in its characteristics. m. This is also why the Classical era is the shortest one of the six that we cover.
6. Why is it important to study Gregorian chant?
a. The church was the dominant institution of the Middle Ages. Thus it permeated all society. b. Notation and polyphony first developed in the church c. Schools were part of the church d. G. chant is best preserved today from that period. e. G. chant is one of the great treasures of Western civ. f. It was part of the musical world of Europeans for over 1000 years and influenced the sense of how melodies should be shaped and how music should go. All later music in the Western tradition wears its imprint. g. The notation of G. chant made it the basis for polyphonic music from the 9th through the 16th c. h. It has been used almost continuously since its development until the Second Vatican Council of 1962-5. i. It was revived as 'popular music' with best-selling CDs Chant: Music for Paradise from 2008 and Chant from 1993; now appears in video games such as Halo, 'period music' in films such as Henry V.
34. Why was comic opera so influential in developing the "classical style?"
a. The goals of depicting direct and natural expressions of feeling in opera buffa were prized by the Enlightenment ideals. b. Opera buffa experimented with new styles more easily than did the more established opera seria. c. Beauty of melody remained a high goal of opera, especially the bel canto singing of Italian opera, and this was a Classical ideal. d. Complex, changing, often rapidly, emotions was a goal in opera of this time, and a goal of the Classical ideal. e. Comic opera appealed to a broader audience through direct and natural expressions. f. Comic opera offered the opportunity of social commentary and hinted at the need of reforms in favor of the common people, also an ideal. g. The plots were set with ordinary characters, in the present day, and was attended by the middle class. The plots often made fun of the aristocracy. h. The arias are usually in galant style , organized into periods, and have simple harmonies and accompaniment. i. "The periodic phrasing, tuneful melodies, simple harmonies, spare accompaniment, direct expression, emotional fluidity, strong stylistic contrasts, and amusing mixtures of elements that characterized Italian comic opera became central elements of the international idiom of the later eighteenth century." (489) j. In comic opera, as well as vernacular song, "the urge to entertain and to reach a diverse audience led to a simplification of means and a striving for more effective and 'naturalistic' expression." (505) k. "Seeking to serve the growing taste for a clear and universally appealing music, composers developed a spare, logically organized flow of musical ideas that could be grasped on first hearing." (505) l. This led to a new approach in instrumental music's melody and form in particular.
7. In a period (Medieval) with a strong monophonic oral tradition, why do we have a substantial repertoire of notated secular song?
a. The repertoire that was notated was done through the conscious efforts of a religious, economic, and educated elite. They could read, they had wealth, and they had the means to write down the music and reproduce it musically. b. Especially around Paris, starting with Charlemagne, an emphasis on scholarship and the arts grew, so that eventually the arts were seen as a worthy and educated pursuit. c. After 1200 schools for laymen arose, so that more of the population could learn to read and write, which would include musical notation. d. The music of troubadours and travelling minstrels/jongleurs was supported by rich courts and aristocrats; because it was so well liked, attempts were made to preserve the repertoire e. Some began to collect works of particular poet/composers, such as Adam de la Halle, Comtessa de Dia, and Bernart de Ventadorn. f. The notation system that developed in the Church was found to be useful in recording secular song also.
20. How did the Baroque aesthetic manifest itself in MUSIC in the 17th century? (hint: discuss prima/second prattica and Doctrine of Affections)
a. The term Baroque connotes bizarre, unnatural, strained, exaggerated. It was first applied pejoratively. Positively it embraces a style in the arts prevalent from 1600-1750 that focuses on dramatic or emotional expressivity. It is complex, often with deep and hidden meanings, and is usually created at a very high level of skill or virtuosity. It aims to move the emotions. b. During the 17th c. (before Bach and Handel) there were five main areas of its manifestation in which it is easy to see the Baroque aesthetic. i. In sculpture: Bernini's statue of David and of The Ecstasy of St. Theresa ii. In music: Monteverdi's 'second prattica' employed in his madrigals, and his participation in the development of opera iii. In theatre: Shakespeare's Henry V, or any of his plays, shows a focus on the dramatic. iv. In architecture: Versailles, built by Louis XIV, is the epitome of the Baroque Aesthetic, covering all areas of artistic creativity and exploited it for political and self gain. v. In painting: in Le Brun's classification of the affections in his "Method for Learning How to Draw the Passions." This is a response to the Doctrine of the Affections: The belief in the Baroque period that the principal aim of music is to arouse the passions or affections (love, hate, joy, anger, feat, etc., perceived as objective, stable states).
1. What evidence do we have that Western music has its roots in antiquity?
• Aesthetics, ethics, and philosophy of music • Music theory • Music education • Wind, percussion, string, horn , even keyboard instruments • Music competitions • Fame of performers • Virtuosic playing • Instrumental music alone • Music pervading all areas of life • Music for special functions • Notation; notes, intervals, scales, diatonic scales • Systems of tuning • Genres of music
14. Who is Josquin des Prez and why was he so well known both in his own day and today? (look also at the bonus question for this chapter)
• Attentive text-setting • Imitative and homophonic textures • Rules of counterpoint and voice-leading • Emotional expressivity; history of music from his time to early 20th c. is all about musical expressivity. • Vivid imagery • A high degree of praise for the individual composer/artist • The cult of the music performer began here.
13. What are the main characteristics and activities of music in the Renaissance period?
• CHARACTERISTICS • Controlled use of consonance and dissonance • Strict rules of counterpoint • Imitative counterpoint giving equal weight to all vocal lines • Voices fill in full range of sound, from high to low • Increased introduction of homophony • More careful attention to word-music relationships • Sacred music includes both Catholic and Protestant music • Development of an international style • ACTIVITIES • Music printing began 1501, taking the business of music into entirely new areas • Demand for music for amateurs arose as a new middle class emerged, allowing for • Amateur music making • Increase in music literacy • Increased demand for secular popular vocal music in the vernacular and for instrumental music • Areas for specialized musical training emerged in the Netherlands, the area of present-day Belgium (Flanders, or Flemish areas) and in Italy • The rise of court chapels gave new employment opportunities to performers, scribes, composers, and educators in both secular and sacred music • Composers traveled more and were influenced by styles from various areas • Composers changed their place of work more frequently • An especially important exchange took place between the Flemish and Italian composers.
15. What was the Palestrina style and how and why did it serve as a model for future generations?
• His style refers to unaccompanied polyphonic style for usually 4-6 voices. • Achieves a high degree of text declamation without breaking any rules of counterpoint. • Text retains its natural accent and is easily understood by listeners. • He employs polyphonic style for the chants with few words; homophonic style for chants with many words • He varies the texture by using different combinations of voices, reserving the full choir for cadences or important points. • He varies the rhythm so rarely do two consecutive measures have the same rhythm. • He uses suspensions and syncopation to keep continuity of passages. • His melodies are elegantly arched; leaps are balanced by stepwise movement in the opposite direction. • Melodies are often long and singable with rhythmic variety • Dissonance is used very carefully, limiting it to suspensions, passing tones, neighbor tones, and cambiatas
16. How did Italy become the leader in music during the Renaissance?
• It was the madrigal and its popularity. • The French chanson, German Lieder, and English madrigals followed the Italian madrigal • Europeans were attracted to the text and dramatic expression • Text and dramatic expression led directly into opera • The madrigal introduced the idea of music as a dramatic art, exploring the word's accent, images, and emotions. • Music printing began in Italy and quickly drew a large market for amateur performers and spread Italian music at home and abroad. • The importance and popularity of the vernacular led to national styles, and the rise of the prominence of distinctly Italian music. • Music that directly communicates feelings was recaptured in the Italian madrigal from the Greeks.
2. What types of evidence do we have to help us learn about ancient music and why do we need each type?
• Physical remains; actual instruments and other artifacts. They showed us the materials, size, and construction of instruments • Visual remains. These are pictorial representations of music in performance or of instruments. It shows performance practices, how music functioned in society, how instruments were performed, the effects of music on people • Writings about music. These tell us in detail what were the theories and ideas that mostly philosophers had about music. It shows us the place and value of music in Greek society. • The music itself. We have some examples of music in notation that can be somewhat reconstructed.